G u i l l e r m o C a s t r o He r r e r a Ma g a l y C a b r o l i é V a r g a s JOHANNA VON GRAFENSTEIN
Nuestra América: crítica de los signos ocultos de la modernidad
UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL AUTÓNOMA DE MÉXICO
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Nuestra América: crítica de los signos ocultos de la modernidad
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GUILLERMO GUILLERMO CASTRO CASTRO HERRER HER RERA A MAGALY CABROLIÉ VARGAS VAR GAS JOHANNA JOHANN A VON GRAFENSTEI GRAFENSTEIN N
NUES NUESTRA TRA AMERICA AMERICA:: CRÍTICA DE LOS SIGNOS OCULTOS DE LA MODERNIDAD
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Primera edición: 1994 D.R. © Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México CONACYT PFPN/97/92
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Presentación
Pensar Pensa r nuestra nues tra América es es por lo general general una un a aventura polémica. polémica. Y no podía ser de otra manera, en un continente con una densidad histórica y cultural de suyo problemática. Y así sucedió con los trabajos trabajo s aquí aqu í reunidos, los los cuales cuales fueron presentado pres entadoss y discutidos discutidos por sus autores en el curso del Primer Coloquio Coloquio de Estudios Estudios Latinoamericanos “Nuestra “N uestra América: América: crítica de los sign signos os ocultos ocultos de la modermode rnidad”, que se llevó a cabo los días 7 y 8 de diciembre de 1993. La recomendación de su publicación fue propuesta por los profesores del posgrado en estudios latinoamericanos que participaron participa ron en dicho evento: Horacio Cerutti Guldberg, Mario Miranda Pacheco, Javier Torres Parés y Liliana Liliana Weinberg. Los Los tres trabajos que presentamos en esta oportunidad oportun idad se insertaron desde distintos ángulos ángulos en la la temática general del evento. Replan Rep lan tear te ar la historia historia ambiental, am biental, la pobreza y la memoria histórica sobre el primer paradigma anticolonial (Haití), coadyuva a develar críticamente men te los sign signos os ocultos ocultos de la modernidad mode rnidad en América Latina. Los Los textos textos que aparecen apare cen compilados en este volumen, volumen, no obstante obsta nte guard gu ardar ar cada uno un o en particu pa rticular lar visib visible le unidad temática y rigor crítico, crítico,
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8 Presentación
Latina: el pensamiento pensam iento de Leonardo Leo nardo B o ff" ff ", sitúa sitúa sus reflexiones reflexiones sobre un tópico que alude a la la quemante queman te realidad continental, pasando por p or la mediación del pensamiento de uno de los principales exponentes de la Teología de la Liberación, Liberación, el brasileño Leonardo Leon ardo Boff. Boff. La autor au toraa marcha, como ella misma misma lo dice dice,, a contra co ntracorrie corriente nte de las temáticas hegemónicas, propias de las modas intelectuales posmodemas. Sin embargo, la agenda a genda política más reciente reci ente en México México y otros países ha repolitizado repolitizad o el debate de bate acerca de d e la pobreza po breza y sus sus diversas diversas incidencias. incidencias. Johanna von Grafenstein, en “El impacto económico, político y social de la revolución haitiana en la región circuncaribe”, ubica en la rebelión rebe lión de d e esclavos esclavos de 1791 y la creación de la primera prim era república independien indep endiente te en América Latina La tina (180 (1804) 4),, las clav claves es para rediscutir la historia colonial, como la historia de d e la plantació plan taciónn y de la esclavitud desde un mirador m irador no occidental occidental.. Pero, en realidad, Von Grafenstein Grafenste in prefiere particularizar las conflic conflictuada tuadass irradiaciones de este proceso haitiano en el entorno caribeño. Para ello, rastrea tres ámbitos: el económico, el político (los movimientos movimientos independenti indepen dentistas stas y las políticas coloniales), y el de las representaciones (la percepción de los observadores). En próximas entregas, esperamos poner al alcance de la comunidad académica interesada interesad a en lo loss tópicos tópicos latinoamericanos los avances avances más signif significa icativo tivoss de nuestros alumnos del posgrado. posgrado . Dr Dr. Ricar Ricardo do Melgar Melgar Bao
Asesor Asesor del del Departamen Dep artamento to de Estudios Latinoamericanos Latinoamericanos
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Naturaleza, sociedad y cultura en la histor historia ia de Améric Américaa Latina1 G uillerm uillermo o Castro Herrera Herrera
Cuando se estudia un acto histórico, o un acto individual,. dua l,... .. se ve ve que la interversión human hu mana a en la naturaleza aceler acelera, a, cambia cambia o detiene la obra de ésta, ésta, y que q ue toda tod a la historia es solamente la narración del trabajo de ajuste, y los combates, combates, entre entre la la Natural Na turaleza eza extrahuma extrahu mana nay la NatuNa turaleza humana... José Mart Martí, í, de "Ser "Serie ie de artí artícul culos ospara La América" Wheni Wheni t was was first firs t said said that t hat the th e su n stood stilla stilla n d th th e worid tumed tum ed round, round, the common sense sense o f mankind ma nkind decl declar ared ed the doctrine doctrine false; but bu t the old old saying saying o f V V ox populi, vox Dei as ever everyyphilosoph philo sopher er knows, knows, cannot can not be trusted in scienc science. e. Charles Darwin, The Origin of Species Histo History ry is alwa always ys easie easierr to underst understand and than it is to change change or escape. escape. Rivers of o f Empire Donald Dona ld Wor Worster ster , Rivers
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Gu illermo Castro Herrer Herrera a 10 Guillermo
destrucción a que se ven sometidos los recursos humanos y naturales de los los que tendrá que depen de pender der la región región para encontrar enco ntrar salida a sus sus problemas. Esa situación, situación, po porr otra parte, p arte, no es del todo novedo novedosa: sa: por po r el contrarío, contrar ío, hoy va siendo común reconocer reconoc er que qu e sus manifestaciones manifestaciones han estado presentes en la región “desde mucho antes de la crisis, tanto en las acciones humanas como en los fenómenos naturales”, aunque aun que haya sido sido en fecha reciente que se iniciara un cambio en “la “ la percepción percep ción y calificaci calificación” ón” de esos “impact “ impactos os negativos negativos del deterioro dete rioro ambiental”.3 En el debate asociado a ese cambio de percepción figura de manera maner a destacada, por po r ejemplo, ejemplo, el problema planteado por la coincicoincidencia del incremento inc remento en la pobreza pob reza social social y el empobrecimiento empobrecimie nto de la naturaleza natura leza en América Latina. Latina. En E n el primer caso caso,, se ha señalado s eñalado que “estamos “estamos registrando registrando un importante aumento en la incidencia incidencia de la pobreza pob reza”, ”, como sucedió sucedió en el período períod o 19 1980 8019 1990 90.. En la actualidad, “hay un deter d eterioro ioro de la distribución del ingreso” ingreso” en todos to dos los países de la región, que se expresa expresa en el hecho hecho de d e que qu e el 44% de la población latinoamericana vive en situación de “pobreza extrema” y 20% más, en situación s ituación de “extrema “ extrema pobreza o indigencia”, todo lo cual implica implica quee “casi 200 qu 200 millones de personas per sonas sólo pueden pued en acced a cceder er a los mínimos mínimos necesarios, mientras 94 millones de latinoamericanos sólo cuentan con recursos económicos económicos para pa ra comer lo m mínimo ínimo indispensable”.4Por indispensable” .4Por lo que toca al mundo natural, a su vez, uno de los ejemplos más dramáticos dramáticos de este empobrecimiento puede ser el de la deforestación deforestación de América Latina, que en los últimos 30 años afectó unos 2 millones de km2 —equivalentes equivale ntes a la totali to talidad dad del territo terr itorio rio mexicano— mexi cano—,, y contin con tinúa úa a una u na tasa cercana cerc ana a los 50 50 mil mil km2 km2po porr año.3Combinada Combi nada con 1953, publicado originalmente en Francia, en 1910. El autor, a su vez, desarrolló el tropikalRaubwirtschaft ft” por geógra concepto conc epto a partir partir de su previa formulación como “ tropikalRaubwirtscha
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Natur Natural aleza eza,, soci sociedad edad y cul cultu tura ra en la hist histor oria ia de América Latina 11
técnicas inadecuadas de utilización y conservación de suelos, esa deforestación ha contribuido co ntribuido además a que, a principios principios de la década de 19 1980 80,, un unos os 2.08 millones de d e km2de terri te rrito torio rio —equiva equ ivalen lentes tes al 10 por ciento de la superficie total de la región—se encontraran “en proceso modera m oderado do o grave de desertificación”. desertificación”.66 La respuesta respu esta más fácil fácil a las preguntas pregun tas que q ue resultan de d e la relación que pueda existir entre esos procesos simultáneos consiste, como todos sabemos, en afirmar que la pobreza social es un importante factor en el empobrecimiento empobrecimiento del mundo natural. En esta perspectiva, perspectiva, la reducción reducc ión de la pobreza pobrez a —especialmen especi almente te a través del crecimiento económico, económico, como se lo entiend ent iendee en las políticas políticas de “ajuste “ ajuste estructuestruc turar* promovidas por las instituciones financieras internacionales y ejecutadas con singular singular entusiasmo entusiasmo por p or la mayoría mayoría de los los gobiernos de la región—, debería bastar para preservar a la naturaleza de un deterioro dete rioro aún aú n mayor. mayor. Existen, po porr supuesto, otras opiniones, más complejas en su modo de pla p lant ntea earr las cosa cosas; s; más complicadas en sus implicaciones implicaciones políticas, políticas, económicas económ icas y culturales para para nuestras nuestras sociedades, socied ades, y bastante menos populares popu lares entre ent re nuestros gobiernos gobiernos.. Científi Científicos cos social sociales es de trayectotrayec torias académicas y enfoques enfo ques ideológicos muy muy distintos —como Fem Fe m a ndo Tudela, en Méxi México, co, y Juan Jované, en Panamá, por p or ejemplo —, coinciden coinciden en que tanto el empobrecimiento socia sociall como el del mundo natura nat urall son el el resultado de d e un mismo mismo conjunto de causas estructurales que han h an venido operando opera ndo a lo largo de períodos muy muy prolongados en la región.7 Lo que esto quiere decir es que los problemas de que hablamos son el resultado de las formas en que nuestras sociedades han sido organizadas organizadas para par a cumplir determinadas funciones funciones dentro d entro del sistema sistema mundial realmente existente, existente, en parti p articul cular ar a lo largo de los últimos últimos
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12 Guillermo Castro Herrera
150 años.8 años.8 Con ello, ello, parece pare ce evidente que un u n mayor crecimiento crecimiento económico económico —de ocurrir en el marco marco de esas esas formas formas de orga or gani niza zació ción n no constituye constituye por po r sí mism mismoo garantía alguna en la solución del problema planteado plante ado y, y, por el contrario, bien podría pod ría contribuir a agravarlo agravarlo aún más. En este sentido, cuando cuan do observamos que en e n 1991 los diez produc prod uc tos más importantes de exportación exportación de América Latina eran e ran esencialmente me nte los mismos mismos que en e n 1891 —en cantidade can tidadess mucho mayores, por po r supuesto, y con precios unitarios mucho menores9—, este enfoque hace resaltar aún más el contraste entre el optimismo oficial y los reiterados fracasos fracasos de nuestras tecnoburocracias te cnoburocracias en sus intentos para p ara dar respuesta a los crecientes problemas ambientales de nuestra región. La presencia simultánea de aquellas continuidades y estas ineficiencias, además, sugería la necesidad de intentar el desarrollo de una perspectiva de análisis en el estudio de nuestra historia que nos facilitara ente en tend nder er mejor, en su origen y sus tendencias, tendenc ias, el severo proceso de deterioro deter ioro ambiental que viene viene afectando a nuestra región al menos meno s desde de sde la década déca da de 19 1950 50.1 .10 8 Se utiliza aquí la noción de sistema mundial a partir de su elaboración por Inmanuel Wallerstein Wallerstein en textos como El moderno sistema mundial. México, Siglo xxi, 1989,5a. 1989,5a. ed., 2 t., t., y Geopolitics and Geoculture Geoculture. Cambridge University Press, 1992, y de la discusión del d el primero primero de esos e sos textos por Fernand Braudel Braudel en el libro La dinámica
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Natur Natural aleza eza,, soci sociedad edady cultu cultura ra en la hist histor oria ia de América Latina 13
De este manera, cuando la Facultad de Filosofía y Letras de la Doctorad o en Estudios LatinoUNAM me aceptó en su programa de Doctorado americanos —y sin saber nada aún del trabajo de autores como Donald Worster, Richard White y Alfred Crosby—, me propuse trabajar en la creación de un modelo teórico que me facilitara el estudio en perspectiva histórica de los problemas ambientales de nuestra nue stra región. Para ello, ello, acudí a dos fuentes fuente s principales. principales. Por un lado, a algunos algunos aportes latinoamericanos latinoamerica nos tempranos, que esperaban esper aban quizás porr una lectura po lectu ra de conjunto;11por conjunto;11por otro, a nuestra tradición académica, con su énfasis en las nociones de estructura y proceso, y su concepción de los fenómenos a estudia es tudiarr como expresión expresión de las relaciones que subyacen tras ellos.12 En esta tradición, como sabemos, sabemos, ser “objetivo” “ob jetivo” signific significa, a, en lo más esencial, ser lógicamente leal al “objeto de estudio” que ha sido definido como una “constelación de relaciones” que, por razones culturales, result r esultan an especialmente significa significativa tivass para pa ra el investigador. investigador. Esa “constelación”, a su vez, sólo expresa su verdadera riqueza de significado en cuanto se hace explícita su relación con el conjunto de la “galaxia” de conocimiento pertinen perti nente te al campo de estudio en el que se trabaja, de lo que a su vez vez resulta resulta una un a tensión característica característica entre la necesidad de construir conceptos muy específicos para el estudio, estudio, y la de producir pr oducir resultados abiertos, que puedan pu edan ser incorporados isiones isiones de la realidad reali dad tan ta n integrales ible.
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14 Guillermo Castro Herrera
p o r su relación rela ción con c on lo social, social, lo económico, lo político y lo cultural. cultu ral.113 Esto, a su vez, me llevó a definir tres problemas básicos para la creación del modelo teórico en que deseaba dese aba trabajar. trabajar . Esos problemas problemas fueron: a) La definición del campo de relaciones que resultara de la interacción entre ent re las las sociedades sociedades latinoamericanas y el medio natural na tural en el qu quee se desenvuelve desenvuelve su existenc existencia, ia, hecha en términos qu quee facilifacilitaran la identificación de un conjunto de categorías con las cuales interrogar a un amplio amplio número de fuentes acerca del origen históri histórico co de los problemas ambientales am bientales contemporán contem poráneos eos en la región. b) La L a construcción, con la ayuda de las categorías así identificadas, identificadas , de un conjunto articulado de preguntas a plantear al campo de relaciones previamente definido, cuya cuyass respuestas permitieran permiti eran caraccara cterizarlo en sus distintas etapas de d e desarrollo, y, y, finalmente, c) La creación de un esquema de periodización que facilitara la organización de esas respuestas, respuestas, tanto tan to en e n lo relativo a la caracterizacaracteriz ación de los rasgos básicos de cada etapa en el desarrollo del campo, como en la identificación de las relaciones de cambio y continuidad
entre en tre esas etapas a lo largo del tiempo tiempo.. Para la definición inicial del campo de estudio, me resultó de extraordinaria utilidad utilidad el concepto de “medio ambiente” elaborado por Osvaldo Sunkel en 1980: “el ámbito biofísico natural y sus sucesivas transformaciones, así como el despliegue espacial de las mis-
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Natur Natural aleza eza,, soci sociedad edady cultu cultura ra en la hist histori oria a de América Latina 15
transformación transform ación artificial de “medio biofísic biofísicoo natur na tural” al” y sus sus expresiones en el espacio, espacio, que resultaban resultab an de estilos estilos de desarrollo desarro llo sucesi sucesivo voss en una región dada. A parti pa rtirr de allí, se hacía necesario indagar en la identificación de medios y vías vías adecuados adec uados para el diálogo diálogo entre entr e una un a historia ambiental ambie ntal así concebida y otras disciplinas del campo de las ciencias humanas. Esto me llevó llevó a distinguir en la “constelación” a la que había llamado “medio ambien am biente” te” tres campos campos de relación —los los del mundo natural, n atural, la sociedad soci edad y la producción —, que en su interacció inter acciónn gener ge neraba abann además un cuarto cu arto campo, el de la cultura, entendi ente ndida da —con Antonio Anto nio Gramsci—como Grams ci—como una visió visiónn del mundo mundo dotada d otada de una ética acorde a su estructura, estructur a, enfatizand en fatizandoo lo estrecho de d e los los víncu vínculos los entre ent re la acción, acción, el pensamiento y las creencias. Esto, a su vez, llevó a formular el modelo que presento en la siguiente página, en el que el objeto de estudio resulta result a de la interacción de esos campos a lo largo de un u n eje de tiempo. La historia ambiental emergió de esa interacción como parte pa rte de la cultura, dentro de la cual se constituye como un espacio de diálogo entre las ciencias que integran los campos de lo “humano” y lo “natu “n atural ral”, ”, según la vieja divi divisió siónn que todavía pervive pervive de algún modo entre en tre nosotros. Esa interacción entre en tre lo natural, natura l, lo social social y lo produc pro duc tivo, tiv o, por otra parte, es diferente en sociedades sociedades diferentes, diferentes, tanto t anto a lo largo del tiempo común que todas comparten en la evolución de la
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16 Guillermo Guillerm o Castro Herr Herrera era
HISTORIA AMBIENTAL AMBIENTAL Esquema Esquem a básico básico para un modelo teórico
1. Naturaleza 2. Sociedad 3. Producción 4. Cultura (ciencia, leyes, arte, historia, folklore) Inter Interacc accio iones nes
A. Cultura, naturaleza, producción: producción/economía
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Natura Naturale leza, za, socie sociedad dad y cult cultur ura a en en la la histo histori ria a de América Latina La tina 17
a) Los rasgos característicos del medio biofísico natural en su relación rela ción con las modalidades modalidade s de artiflcialización artiflcialización de que qu e es objeto a lo largo de etapas etap as sucesi sucesivas vas.. b) Las formas de organización orga nización social social y del espacio correspo corre spondie ndienntes a los estilos de desarrollo subyacentes tras esas modalidades de artificialización del medio natural, y sus correspondientes expresiones en paisajes característicos. c) La racionalidad histórica histórica de esos esos estil estilos, os, definida a part p artir ir de los los propósitos propós itos que q ue los animan, y de los conflictos conflictos internos intern os y externos y las las modalidades de ejercicio del poder po der que sus sus formas formas características de organización organización social social han debido enfrent enf rentar ar y resolver en su desarrollo. d) Las circunstancias circunstancias que originan y orienta orie ntann las transiciones entre en tre esos estilos, incluyendo tanto las relativas a la creación de premisas sociop sociopolít olítica icass para el paso de uno a otro, como las las que determinan determ inan la posibilidad de rearticulación de elementos de cada uno en los subsiguientes, y
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18 Guillermo Guillermo
Castro Herr Herrera era
Fase II: El desarrollo articulado a la economíamundo europea y el mercado mercado m undial und ial (siglo XVI/ siglo XX d.c.) Subfase Subfas e 3: 3: El desarrollo en la periferia de la economíamundo economíamundo euro
pea (siglo xvi/ circa 1870). Subfase 4: El El desarrollo articulado al mercado mundial contempor cont emporááneo (circa 1870/1990).
Es evidente que este esquema señala apenas momentos en el desarrollo de estructuras estruct uras de larga duración. duración. Aun así, así, cada una de d e las las fases y subfases indicadas se caracteriza por modalidades diferentes de organización social social —asociadas por un u n lado l ado a los propósitos que q ue guían la relación con la naturaleza y, por otra, o tra, a cambios cambios demográficos, cos, económicos y tecnológi tecnológicos, cos, que dan lugar lu gar a una u na presión pr esión creciente sobre los recursos naturales naturales— —, que se expresan como grandes tend te nden en cias cias generales generale s en el desarrollo desarrol lo histórico, en los siguientes términos:
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,
Naturale Naturaleza za sociedady cultura cultura en la histori historia a de América Latina La tina 19
desarrollos desarrollo s socioculturales de esas civil civiliza izacio ciones nes aún está pendi pe ndient entee de verdad verd adera era evaluación.1 evaluac ión.155 c) El paso al desarrollo articulado en la economíamundo economíamundo europea eur opea a partir pa rtir del sigl sigloo xv i alteró sustanc sustancialment ialmentee tanto aquella aquella base ecológica lógi ca como como las modalidades modalidades de relación con el mundo m undo natur n atural al asociadas a la misma, inaugurando una situación que combinaba la producción producción diversifi diversificad cadaa para el auto au to y el mercado interior in terior en e n amplias amplias extensiones, extensiones, con la producción especializada para pa ra el mercado exterior en enclave enclavess bien delimitados, delimitados, que pasaron p asaron a ser objeto ob jeto de las formas formas más primit primitivas ivas de economía de d e rapiña r apiña que ha conocido conocido la región. región. d) Esa combinación de producción “tradicional” para el propio consumo y producción produc ción especializada es pecializada en enclaves para pa ra el mercado merc ado exterior teri or se prolonga como rasgo rasgo de la relación sociedadmundo sociedadmundo natural natu ral hasta la década de 1880 cuando, mediante el ingreso masivo de capitales y tecnología tecnología provenientes del mundo m undo noratlántico propiciado por el triunfo de la Reforma Reform a Liberal, Liberal, crea las premisas que harán
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Guillermo o Castro Castro Herr Herrera era 20 Guillerm
2. Algunos Algunos hallazgos hallazgos Al llegar a esta etap et apaa de mi trabajo, descubrí para pa ra mi alivio alivio —a través del número núme ro de d e marzo de 19 19990 del Journal Journal o f American Histo History ry,, y de la Ecological Imperiali Imperialism, sm, de Alfred lectura del libro Ecological Alfr ed Crosby1 Crosby 16—que —q ue ya existía existía un unaa historia ambiental ambie ntal que disponía de una un a formulación básica básica de su teoría y sus métodos, con lo que mi propio trabajo empezó a moverse en una dirección ligeramente ligeram ente distinta. En efecto, esos historiadores norteamericanos norteameric anos y británicos —Donald Worster, en partipar ticular1 cular 17— me ofrecieron ofreci eron acceso a un campo en desarrollo desde d esde la década de 1970, en el seno de sociedades donde el interés por lo ambiental venía desplegándose desde fines del siglo XVIII, y donde el ambientalism ambi entalismoo como movimiento social social y cultural cultu ral había h abía iniciado ini ciado su gestación a parti pa rtirr de la década déca da de 1860. Tal como es practicada en el mundo noratlántico, la historia ambiental propone, en e n lo más esenci esencial, al, que se incorpore a la naturanatu ra-
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Natur Natural aleza eza,, soci sociedad edady cultu cultura ra en la hist histor oria ia de América Latina 21
con todos ellas ellas,, de un u n modo que no n o dejó de recordarme r ecordarme el modo en que nuestro José Martí M artí entendía entendía que Cuando se estudia un acto histórico, o un acto individual,... se ve que la intervención humana en la naturaleza acelera, cambia o detiene la obra de ésta, y que toda la historia es solamente la narración narración del traba trabajo jo de ajuste, y los combates, entre la la Naturaleza Naturaleza extrahumana extrahumana y la Naturaleza Naturaleza humana...18 humana...18
Autores como Worster, en efecto, conciben a la historia como el resultado de los vínculos que la evolución de la especie humana establece entre en tre la naturaleza; el uso de la misma misma po porr los los seres humanos a través de estructuras económicas, sociales y políticas, y la cultura, entendida ente ndida como como un sistem sistemaa de valores valores y formas formas de percepción con importantes implicaciones éticas para la conducta social con respecto ai mundo natural. Cada una de estas dimensiones tiene su
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22
Guillerm Guillermo o Castro Castro Herrera Herrera
regional que actúan como instancias instancias de articulación articulación central, semipe riférica y periférica en un sistema mundial. Es en este sentido, por ejemplo, en el que antes afirmamos que las diferencias que resultan res ultan de lo loss modos distintos distintos en que qu e la naturaleza, la economía y la cultura cultur a interactúan interac túan a lo largo largo del tiempo en sociedades que, siendo distintas, distintas, comparten una misma era en la historia, pueden ser explicadas haciendo referencia refer encia a “tiempos” “ tiempos” regionales que, en su coexistencia coexistencia,, dan lugar a otro tiempo, “planetario”, que sostiene a la historia que reclama Worster.
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Natura Naturalez leza, a, sociedad sociedad y cult cultur ura a en ¡a hist histori oria a de América Latina Latina 23
venido migrando lentamente a la cuenca del Canal, deforestándola para pa ra crear crea r campos campos de ganade g anadería ría extensiva extensiva y producción producción agrícola agrícola de pequ pe queñ eñaa escala y métodos muy destruct destructivos ivos de uso del suelo, lo que a su vez vez ha propiciado un incremento increm ento de la erosión que ya merma la capacidad de almacenamiento de agua del lago Gatún. Tanto los campesinos campesinos como el Canal necesitan el mismo mismo espacio espacio para pa ra propósip ropósitos no sólo distintos, sino, y sobre todo, mutuamente excluyentes en el orden de cosas vigente en el país, porque ambos representan diferentes tipos de desarrollo capitalist capitalista: a: mercantil en peque peq ueña ña esca-
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24 Guillermo Castro Herrera
capitalista de d e la agricultura paname pan ameña, ña, y las expresiones de ese hecho en los problemas asociados a la expansión del monocultivo, estaban esta ban claramente establecidos tanto en calidad de hechos como en la de tendencias dominantes do minantes cuyo cuyo desarrollo posterior fue esencialmente cuantitativo.20 Los paisajes, las actividades productivas, la organización social y económica, y la cultura regional asociada as ociada con ese tipo ti po de de desarrollo capitalista fueron todos definidos definidos en lo esencial esencial hace más de 65 año años. s. Mucho ha pasado pasad o desde entonces, por p or supuesto, pero ha consistido sobre todo en el despliegue de los resultados acumulados
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Natur Naturale aleza, za, sociedad sociedad y cultur cultura a en la histo histori ria a de América Latina 25
de los conceptos conceptos elaborados por p or los historiadores historiadores de lo ambiental en el mundo noratlántico noratlán tico a la definición definición de la historia ambiental como un nuevo campo de estudio en América Latina. Esa tarea no tiene nada nad a de sencill sencillo, o, toda tod a vez vez que implica implica contra con trastar star experiencias derivadas de realidades muy distintas. Y, sin embargo, aun así parece posible en cuanto cuan to ambas regiones regiones hacen parte p arte de un mi mism smoo sistema sistema capitalista mundial dentro del cual esas mismas diferencias resultan en buena bue na medida de la interacci interacción ón entre ent re ambas. ambas. Por Po r ejemplo, ejemplo, el modo en que Donald Worster W orster se refiere al capita-
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26
Guillermo Gu illermo Castro Herre Herrera ra
lo que se refería Brunhes era e ra al saqueo de d e todos los recursos recursos de valor para las economías industrializadas en lo que hoy llamaríamos las regiones periféricas del mercado mundial. Y yo agregaría que esa Raubwirt Raubwirtsch schaft aft ha sido, sido, y sigue siendo siendo hasta ha sta nuestros nuestr os días, día s, uno de los los ejes fundamentales en el desarrollo del capitalismo capitalismo en América Latina, lo que viene a definir la primer primera a de las especificidades que yo intento inten to identificar identificar.. La segunda, a su vez, tiene que ver con el hecho de que la Raubwirt Raubwirtsch schaf aft t se desarrolló entre nosotros como una modalidad característica de relación con el mundo natural bajo la
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Natura Naturale leza, za, sociedad sociedad y cult cultura ura en la hist histori oria a de América Latina 27
La historia de las ideas ecológic ecológicas as en el mundo noratlántico no ratlántico entre en tre los siglos x v i i i y XX que nos ofrece Donald Worster en su libro especialmente útil útil para entend en tender er lo ant Nature's Economy resulta especialmente
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Guillermo Castro Herrer Herrera a 28 Guillermo
sociedades en su libro Facundo. Civilización y barbarie (1845),23un documento impresci imprescindi ndible ble para comprender lo que estaba ocurriendo en la región en el período, y el modo en que lo hacía. Allí,
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,
Natura Naturalez leza a sociedad y cultur cultura a en la historia historia de América Am érica Latina L atina 29
representa repre sentantes ntes regionales regionales de la civi civiliz lizac ació iónn de una manera man era tan ta n pecupe culiar como selectiva. selectiva. La forma en que Worster describe a la civiliz civilizac ación ión
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Gu illermo Castro Herrer Herrera a 30 Guillermo
tentad ten tador or decir que exis existe te una séptima especificidad latinoamericana, latinoamerica na, definida por po r el papel pap el desempeña desem peñado do por la política —y su instrumento instrume nto más ext o, la violencia—en violencia— en la creación de las premisas que h
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Natur Natural aleza eza,, soci sociedad edad y cult cultura ura en la hist histor oria ia de América Latina 31
situación debe ser explicada en sus vínculos con la ausencia en América Améric a Latina —en particu p articular lar durante dura nte el último cuarto del siglo siglo
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72 Johanna Johan na von Grafenstein Grafenstein Gareis Gareis
Los esclav esclavos os en Jamaica, por otra otr a parte, se enterar ent eraron on inmediatainmed iatamente men te de d e la gran rebelión reb elión en la colonia colonia vecina vecina en 1791; compraron compra ron armas y ppólvora, ólvora, planearon planea ron rebeliones, pero la unidad unid ad y la fuerza de la clase propietaria impidió que prosperaran.33 En Puerto Rico, en repetidas repetid as ocasiones ocasiones se denunciaba denunciab a la presunta pres unta infiltración infiltración de agentes haitianos que q ue iban a sublevar a los los esclav esclavos os,, pero per o no fue sino hasta la década de 1820 cuando se dieron las primeras conspiraciones que también tamb ién se relacionaban relacio naban con instigadores haitianos.34 haitianos.34 Incluso se proyectaba un desembarco en las costas de Veracruz Veracru z po porr revolucionarios haitianos, encabezados por un médico francés, de nombre nom bre Mateo M ateo Corte. La expedición expedición debía salir del Cabo Francés en 1794. Con la ayuda ayud a de los “negros “negro s de la isla isla de Santo S anto Domingo” Do mingo”,, de “algunos ingenieros” y “misionarios de las nuevas doctrinas”, la expedición debería debe ría dirigirse a algún lugar cerca de d e la Antigua. De D e allí debería emp e mprend render er la liberac liberación ión de los habitantes de la Nueva Nueva España “extremad “ex tremadamen amente te oprimidos por el gobierno español es pañol y los los ministro ministross de la religión católica” y “dispuestos “dispu estos a sacudir este doble d oble yugo.” Sin embargo, embargo, el proyecto no se realizó realizó,, fue denunciado d enunciado por po r el gobernador goberna dor de La Haban H abanaa y Mateo Corte tuvo que “limitarse “limitarse a enviar por correo las hojas de un ejemplar de los discursos de Voltaire, deshojados y distribuidos en una veinten v eintenaa de d e cartas” ca rtas”..35 E n ninguno ningu no de los casos referidos, los estallidos sociales tuvieron tuvier on éxito. éxito. H erbert erb ert Klein apunta que la revolución revolución haitiana “demo “ demostraba straba ser un evento único en la historia historia afroamericana, uno que nunca se repitió”.36 A pesar de que el ejemplo haitiano no logró repetirse como tampoco se repitieron las condiciones en las que se desarrolló la revolución haitiana: el impacto de la Revolución francesa en la colonia a través de los plantador planta dores es y gente gen te de d e color, la divis división ión del campo camp o de los amos entre entr e republicanos y realistas, realistas, entre ent re “grandes” “ grandes” y “pequ “pe queeños” blancos; la extrema concentración de la mano de obra esclava, el desarrollo de d e importantes impor tantes figuras dirigentes, la fuerza cohesionante cohesio nante del vodú, vodú, constituyeron constituyeron una un a fuente de d e inspiración inspiración para par a un sinnúmero c it., pp. 224-225. 33 David Geggus, op. cit.,
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El E l impacto impacto de la Revolución Revolución haitiana haitiana 73
de conspiraciones y revueltas. Su filiación filiación no era er a siempre ob obvia via,, pero pe ro a parti par tirr de la Revolución exitosa exitosa de los esclavos esclavos de SaintDomingue se creó un impulso impulso hacía hacía la libertad que qu e no se logrará ya detener dete ner,, a pesar de que los levantamientos fueron ahogados en sangre por las élites dominantes. dominantes. Éstas habían aprendido del ejemplo ejemplo haitiano cuan importante era mantener mante ner la unidad para pa ra seguir seguir ejerciendo ejerciendo el control control sobre sobr e las masas esclav esclavas. as.
3. El impacto de la Revolución haitiana en la política colonial de las metrópolis europeas con intereses en la región El impacto de la Revolución haitiana en la política colonial no sólo de Francia, Francia , sino de las demás potencias po tencias colonialistas colonialistas y esclavistas esclavistas de la zona, fue extraordinariamente complejo. Abarcó niveles diversos que van desde aspectos de defensa de las posesiones a medidas tomadas tomad as con miras a políticas imperiales.37Las imperiales.37Las primeras prim eras reacciones ante el estallido de esclavos en SaintDomingue comprenden acciones precipitadas de defensa, como en Jamaica, donde se aume au menta nta el número núme ro de tropas tr opas y se arma a la milici milicia. a. Los Los gobiernos gobiernos metropolitanos metropoli tanos mandan mand an órdenes órd enes de prohibir prohib ir la entrada entra da a sus colon colonias ias de esclavo esclavoss y libres de color provenientes de Santo Domingo. Domingo. En la correspondencia oficial novohispana, por otra parte, no detectamos muestras de exces excesiv ivaa alerta ale rta a causa de lo loss acontecimientos de la colonia francesa del Caribe. Con relativa calma se observan desde México los acontecimientos de Santo Domingo; encontramos en la correspondencia consideraciones acerca de la seguridad de tránsito en el Golfo más que expresiones de preocupación sobre el levantamiento en sí. En este sentido, el intendente de La Habana, Juan Pablo Valiente, en carta de 26 de julio de 1793, da cuenta al virrey de los acontecimientos ocurridos ocurri dos en la colonia francesa, de la grande revolución en el Guaricó en la cual c ual dominó el partido partido de diez y seis seis mil Negros Negros y no pudiendo ya ya la asamblea municipal municipal de tenerse por mas tiempo huyó a las colonias del Norte de América
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74 Johanna Johan na von von Grafenstein Gareis Gareis
en los Buques Buques de guerra que allí estaban dejando clavados algunos de los" lo s" y dado dado fuego a las casas, casas, cuyo cuyo incendio parece parece siguió en los días suce su cesi sivo voss con ruina ruina general general de la Ciud Ciudad ad
pero su relato está en función de que se esperaba que el navio San Telmo llegado a La Habana Hab ana desde Cádiz Cádiz lograse lograse regresar pront pr ontoo con caudales “por “ por la distracción en que q ue se hallaban los buques buqu es franceses del Gu G u aricó ar icó con la última decisiva sublevación de los Negros” .36 A través de copias de las actas actas levantadas en las Juntas Jun tas celebradas en La Haban H abana, a, el virre virreyy queda al tanto de los acontecimientos acontecimientos en el Caribe Cari be a raíz de la guerra con Francia y de la sublevación de esclavos esclavos de Santo S anto Domingo, de sus consecuencias consecuencias para par a la navegación y seguridad en el GolfoCaribe. Informantes importantes sobre el desarrollo de las hostilidad hostilidades es en el Caribe y Golfo, por otra parte, eran los capitanes de barcos que llegaban a costas mexicanas mexicanas y cuy cuyos os informes informes fueron fu eron recogidos por po r las autoridades autorid ades del d el puerto puer to de Veracruz V eracruz y enviados enviados a la ciudad de Méxi co.39En ellos encontramos enco ntramos noticias sobre sobr e el movimiento de d e la escuaes cuadra de Barlovento, sobre la huida de los franceses franceses blancos blancos del Santo Domingo francés francés a Estados Estado s Unidos y a la isla isla de Trinidad a raíz de “la prepond prep onderan erancia cia de los de color” sobre el aprisionamiento de d e 1,062 ,062 franceses y su conducción a Puerto Pu erto Rico. Rico. Pero, si bien bie n prevaleció en la administración administración virreinal el frío cálculo cálculo estatista y militar frente fren te al estallido de la revuelta revue lta esclava en SaintDoming S aintDomingue ue y no hay muestras muest ras de gran inquietud, se tomaron todas las precauciones precauciones para par a la defensa de la propia pr opia colonia en la isla isla de Santo Domingo y para su oportuno oportun o aprovisionamiento. Otro aspecto importante es la colaboración de la que fueron capaces las diferentes administraciones coloniales, dejando del lado sus encontra enco ntrados dos intereses in tereses y rivalidades. rivalidades. La Revolución haitiana haitia na apaap arecía como como una amenaza común que sólo se podía combatir com batir uniendo las fuerzas.40El fuerzas.40El interés in terés po porr evitar una un a catástro catá strofe fe tal como la conoció 38 Juan Pablo Vali V alient entee a Revillagig Re villagigedo edo,, 26 de julio de d e 1793, México, Mé xico, AG AGN, Historia, vol. 45, foja 60. 39 Miguel del Corral al conde de Revillagigedo, 18 de mayo de 1793, México, AGN
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El E l impacto impacto de ¡a Revolució Revolución n haitia haitiana na 75
la isla más rica y productiva en la región, llevó a convenios de colaboración colaborac ión y ayuda en repetid re petidas as ocasiones. ocasiones. Así, en 1797, la Nueva España auxilia a través de Cuba a las autoridades coloniales del Cabo Francés en Santo Domingo. El préstamo autorizado por el Virrey Branciforte asciende a 100,000 pesos y es entregado entrega do al agente francés Rondine Ro ndineau au en La L a Haban H abana.4 a.411 Significativo es también el apoyo a la expedición de Leclerc que manifestaron los los gobiernos gobiernos de España, Estados Unidos y Gran Gra n BreBr etaña. A instancias de Madrid, las autoridades cubanas accedieron a apoyar apo yar la expedición expedición con dinero dine ro y bienes. A mediados de 1804 habían ingresado a las arcas reales de España 728,000 pesos como pago de dichos adelantos.42 El virrey de Nueva Granada, por otra parte, ofreció 400,0 400,000 00 pesos al general genera l Leclerc, de los que el capitán Plassant trajo 18,000 pesos de Cartagena, mientras que de Caracas llegó una part pa rtee empleada em pleada en bestias.43 bestias.43 La correspondencia correspond encia de los los ministro ministross plenipotenciarios de Francia Fr ancia ante an te los gobiernos de los Estados Unidos y de Gran Gra n Bretaña, Pichon Pichon y Otto, con el m ini inistr stroo francés Talleyrand m uestran, por otra p arte, que tanto tan to el presidente Jefferson como el ministerio ministerio inglé ingléss aprobar apr obaron on los planes de Napoleón Bonaparte de retomar el control sobre la colonia de SaintDomingue SaintDomingue:: a la pregunta preg unta de d e Pichon, de si, “en el caso de que qu e Francia estuviera en posición posición de actuar, era er a posible lograr lograr un arreglo con los Estados Unidos con el fin de llevar a cabo más rápida ráp idame mente nte la conquista de d e la colonia”,4 colo nia”,444Jefferso Jeff ersonn responde res ponde:: Sin problema; pero para que este arreglo pueda ser completo y efectivo ustedes deben (primero) establecer la paz con Inglaterra; después después nada sería más más fácil que proporcionar proporcionar todo a su ejército y flota y dejar morir de hambre a Toussaint.45
Y, previendo la participación inglesa inglesa en un posible posible acuerdo acue rdo añade: aña de: 41 AGN, México, Correspondencia de Virreyes, vol. 188, folio 198 y 199, el virrey Branciforte al Príncipe de la Paz, 3 de julio de d e 1797. 1797. 42 Jaques A. Barbier, “Anglo-American Investors and payments on Spanish imperial treasures, 1795-1808*’, en Jacques A. Barbier y Allan J. Kuethe, The North Americ Am erican an role role in the Spanish Spanish imperial economy, economy, 1760-1819. Manchester University Press, 1984, p. 140. Docum entos para par a la historia historia de d e H aití en el 43 Arango en José Luciano Franco, Documentos
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Grafenstein ein Garei Gareiss 76 Johanna von Grafenst
Ella [Gran Bretaña] sin duda participaría en un acuerdo para reprimir esta rebelión e independientemente de sus temores por sus propia propiass colonias, estoy seguro de que, como nosotros, ella está observando cómo Sto. Domingo se convierte en otro Argel en las aguas de de América.4 América.466
En efecto, el ministro inglés, Addington, le asegura al representante senta nte de d e Francia ante an te la corte británi británica: ca: El interés de d e los dos gobiernos es absolutamente absolutamente el mismo, mismo, es decir, decir, la destrucción del Jacobinismo [en general] y del de los negros en particular.47
Talleyrand, por su parte, concluye de los informes que le son enviados: la empresa hoy en preparación [la expedición a cargo de Victor Emmanuel Leclerc] no puede ser demasiado rápida, demasiado completa o demasiado favorable a todos los estados que poseen coloniasy coloniasy comercio comercio [... [. ..]] Los españoles, los ingleses y los americanos miran la república negra con el mismo temor.48
Las citas anteriores hacen necesaria una breve mención del pro yecto napoleónico de reconquistar reconqu istar SaintDoming SaintDomingue, ue, ya bajo control de Toussaint Louverture, y de establecer un imperio colonial que comprendería además a la Luisiana, Martinica y Guadalupe. Los años noventa habían h abían signific significad adoo para par a Francia la desintegración de su imperio colonial en el Caribe: Martinica y Guadalupe, ocupadas por p or los ingl inglese eses, s, así como SaintDomingue habían qued q uedad adoo fuera de su control. Buscando una alternativa para sus colonias productora produ ctorass de frutos tropicales y subtropicales del Caribe, Napoleón dirigió dirigió su mirada hacia Egipto Egi pto donde, sin embargo, no logró realizar sus ambic ambiciones iones imperial imperiales. es. La paz de d e Amiens, Amiens, que qu e restablece restab lece a FranFr ancia todas sus posesiones coloniales, coloniales, en cambio, abre ab re la posibilidad de de pone po nerr en práctica su nueva política colonial: colonial: las islas islas produc pro ductora torass de azúcar y café serían aprovisionadas por po r la Luisiana en mader ma dera, a, trigo, carne y otros productores que normalmente suministraban los los Estados Unidos. De esta manera se consolidaría un imperio colonial
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El impacto impacto de la Revoluci Revolución ón hait haitian iana a 77
autosuficiente, autosuficiente, sobre todo si España cediera la Florida con sus sus puerpue rtos de Panzacola Panz acola y Móbila.4 Móbila .49 Nuevamente los planes de fortalecer la presencia colonial de Francia en el Caribe se frustraron: después de algunas victorias iniciales en SaintDomingue, el ejército invasor, comandado por Victor Emmanuel Leclerc, sufre una derrota tras otra; la fiebre amarilla amarilla arrasa arras a con las las tropas, sucumbiendo el propio Leclerc; Leclerc; ante la hostilidad de Estados Unidos que se acerca a Gran Bretaña, Napoleón Napole ón se ve además en la necesidad de abandona aban donarr a la Luisiana, Luisiana, comprada en e n abril de 1803 por Estados Unidos por p or tres mill millones ones de dólares. La negación de España de ceder la Florida, la venta de la Luisiana y finalmente finalmen te la derro de rrota ta definitiva de las fuerzas francesas en SaintDomingue marcaron marc aron el punto pu nto final de los sueños imperiales de Napoleón Napole ón en e n el Caribe.50 Caribe.50 En cuanto a la actitud actitud del gobierno gobierno norteamericano con respecto a los planes de Napoleón N apoleón en la región habría habrí a que subrayar lo siguie siguiente: nte: en un primer momento, los Estados Unidos apoyaron a Toussaint Louverture en su administración cuasiindependiente, temiendo la presencia francesa en la región del Mississipi, pero una vez que Napoleón ini inició ció la la venta de la Luisia Luisiana, na, el gobierno norteamericano norteame ricano le aseguró todo el apoyo apoyo para recob r ecobrar rar el control sobre sobre SaintDomingue. El temor ante una haitianización del territorio recientemente adquirido adqu irido fue fu e el principal móvil móvil para pa ra esta política cambiante.
4. Difusión y percepción de la Revolución haitiana por observadores contemporáneos Iniciaremos este apa a parta rtado do con el análisis análisis de la imagen que se forjó la
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78 Johanna von Grafenstein Grafenstein Gareis
Encontramos los testimon testimonios ios de varios varios representan repres entantes tes o defensod efensores del poder pode r colonia coloniall en la Nueva España, que demuest de muestran ran el rechazo y la angustia que provocaba la revolución de los esclavos de Santo Domingo entre los peninsulares residentes en la Nueva España. Mencionemos en primer lugar el editor y periodista Juan López Cancelada, Cance lada, quien qu ien sucedió en 1805 a Valdés en la edición de la Gazeta de México, y quien, en 1806, publicó un libelo sobre Jean Jacques Dessalines. En la introducción a la traducción del libro, un texto racista y difamatorio atribuido al francés Dubroca, Cancelada insiste en la importancia de la unión entre lo loss habitantes blancos blancos en una u na colonia donde dond e viven viven “negr “ negros os y otras castas”. ¡Dichosa Nueva España, España, exclama exclama Cancelada, dichosa mil veces veces por el sosiego y tranquilidad que la caracteriza!... No han tenido ni tienen aquí entrada las extravagantes ideas que han perturbado la paz de otras regiones. Tienen siempre presente que padecerá deso des o lación qualquier Reyno dividido entre sí. sí ... y acabar acabarán án de confirmar confirmar
lo con lo acaecido en S anto D omingo.51 omingo.51
Para Cancelada, Cancelada, feroz feroz defensor del orden establecido, establecido, la revolución de los esclavos esclavos de Santo Domingo constituye una lección important ta ntee para par a la élite española espa ñola y criolla de la Nueva España: No hay política política mas errad erradaa que la de mantenerse indiferente indiferente sobre el bien ó el mal que acaece en las demás Naciones porque no nos toca personalmente. Se engaña mucho un Estado quando cree cree que no le interesa lo que ha pasado á dos mil leguas de su continente: es el Mundo político político como el físico: el primer primer móvil móvil da impulso á la masa masa general, extendiendo extendiendo su fuerza motriz motriz de uno á otro extremo. El conocimi conocimiento ento de estas estas verdades verdades hará mas mas apreciable la lectura de este compendio de los horrorosos sucesos de la isla de Santo
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El E l impacto impacto de la la Revoluci Revolución ón haiti haitiana ana 79
los mismos que ellos los habían sublevado y tuvieron que sufrir igual suerte que los primeros, y al cavo los Negros Negros y las Castas Castas que daron dueños de la Ysla. Teman los americanos aquí en todas las demás partes partes en donde hay estas mezclas, funestos funestos resultados como ya se se nota en su obrár que lo mismo destrozan las posesione posesi oness de los los Europeos que las de sus propios paisanos, pero los criollos no escarmientan para seguir en su sistema.53
Ot ro defensor del orden Otro ord en colonial, colonial, que comparte comp arte la visió visiónn apocalíptica de las dos figuras anteriores, tenemos en el obispo electo de Michoacán. Michoacán. En varios escritos, escritos, Abad y Queipo hace h ace referencia refere ncia a los los sucesos sucesos de Santo Domingo como resultado result ado “natu “ natural” ral” en e n caso de una revolución si si prevalece la heterogen hete rogeneidad eidad de clases, clases, la “oposición y contrariedad de intereses y pasiones”. “La destrucción recíproca de unos y otros, otros, la ruina r uina y devastación devastación del país, como sucedió en Santo S anto Domingo en iguales circunstanc circunstancias, ias, porque por que las mismas mismas causas produ pro du cen siempre los mismos efectos.”54 En su edicto dado el 30 de septiembre de 1810, Abad y Queipo evoca el espectro de la destrucción y violencia como fu turo inexorabl inexorablee para la Nueva Nueva España, en caso que prosiga prosiga la anarquía desatada desata da por po r el cura Hidalgo entre en tre indios y castas: castas: Y he aquí la explosión de la mina mina que se está preparando lentamen te. Tal Tal debe ser el principio de vuestra vuestra ruina ruina y devastación de todo el Reyno. Todo lo que ha de seguir será espantoso y tremendo: cesarán todas las las leyes leyes divinas y huma humanas, nas, y solo solo reyna reynará rá el furor de la ira y la venganza, venganza, destruyéndolo todo por el fuego fuego y por el fierro, fierro, y en poco tiempo nuestras ciudades, villas y lugares, nuestra flore ciente agricultura, despobladas y sin cultivo, se convertirán en bosques y zarzales, como se convirtió en nuestros días por la mism mismaa causa, la parte francesa de la Isla de Santo Domingo. Nadie puede prever hasta donde llegarán las atrocidades y desgracias de esta
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80 Johanna Johann a von Grafenstein Grafenstein Gareis Gareis
Nuevamente en 1813, después de tres años de guerra, Abad y Queipo Queip o alerta del peligro de “anarquía “ anarquía como la de Santo Santo Domingo” que podría producir el pueblo de Nueva España “compuesto de quatro clases tan diferentes, que tienen entre sí prevenciones odiosas”... componiendo “las dos últimas las ocho partes de diez” y estando estan do “sin “ sin costumbres, sin moral, las las mas sin dom domicilio, icilio, ignorantes ignorante s en lo absoluto de las obligaciones obligaciones sociales sociales qu quee constituyen la libertad libe rtad y la indep ind epende endencia ncia.....65" Las citas precedentes muestran la asimilación de la revolución haitiana como paradigma de violencia y destrucción del poder colonial en el discurso político de la élite española. Los autores auto res citados ven en las “horribles escenas” del Santo Domingo francés francés una amenaza posible para la Nueva España. Pero mientras que Cancelada, todavía optimista optimist a en 18 18006, considera la unidad entre en tre los blancos de la colonia como medio efica eficazz para evitar la destrucción destrucción de su dominación, los los demás observadores citados, quienes quiene s conocieron los prime pri me ros movimientos insurreccionales, ven con desesperación que esta unión era quimérica quimérica al mismo tiempo que presencian la fuerza destructiva de las “castas” que les evoca evoca irremediablemente la comparación con los “trágicos sucesos” de la colonia francesa de Saint Domingue, víctima, víctima, según ellos, ellos, de la desunión de los blancos y del “furor” “fur or” de las “castas”. La visi visión ón que tienen dos protagonistas de la independencia indepe ndencia meximexicana, Melchor Talamantes y Fray Fray Servando Servando Teresa Tere sa de d e Mier, acerca de la revolución revolución haitiana contrasta contra sta con la expuesta en lo anterior. Represen senta taci ción ón nacional de las coloni colonias as. Discur Discurso so En su escrito Repre filosófico filosófico , Talamantes defiende el derecho de las colonias de crear cuerpos de representación repres entación nacional nacional y de separarse se pararse de sus metrópolis en casos precis precisos. os. Menciona Mencio na diez razones que qu e legitiman la separación,
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El E l impacto impacto de la Revolució Revolución n haiti haitiana ana 81
tes como una empresa justa y ejemplar, comparable a la separación de las las Trece Colonias de Norteamérica de su metrópoli y su su constitución como Estado independiente o la separación de Holanda de España Esp aña bajo Felipe II. II. Otra voz favorable a la causa de los esclavos liberados de Santo Domingo y las llamadas castas se encuentra en los escritos de Fray Constitución ución, escrita Servando Teresa Ter esa de Mier. En su obra obr a Idea de la Constit en 1820 en prisión, Fray Servando discute la exclusió exclusiónn de los los habitan habi tan tes de América de d e ascendencia africana de los derechos del ciudadaciuda dano, decretada por los diputados españoles ante las Cortes de Cádiz en 1812: Nuestros diputados [americanos] alegaron las órdenes que tenían casi todos de sus respectivas provincias de Nueva España, para procurar la extinción de todas estas distinciones sobre el color, tan quiméricas como injustas y perjudiciales. Y amenazaron de lo contrario con la venganza de estas gentes agraviadas, que podrán repetir en otras partes sobre los blancos la tragedia de Santo Domingo.58
La cita aparece en un escrito cuyo argumento central consiste en comproba com probarr que era er a absurdo a bsurdo excluir excluir a las llamadas castas castas de las Cortes de Cádiz Cádiz.. Mier M ier demuestra a través de la historia historia (Brading habla de d e su método méto do histórico59 histórico59) que qu e en e n la España Esp aña misma la población tenía ten ía más sangre africana que la de América. Negando a la gente de color americana los derechos del ciudadano ciudada no y en consecuencia consecuencia el derecho derec ho de represent rep resentación ación política, política, la Constitución Constitución de Cádiz, Cádiz, votada vota da en marzo de 18 1812 12 po porr 133 133 diputado dipu tadoss españoles españole s y 51 americanos, american os, asegu as egurab rabaa a la península una un a mayoría mayoría abrumadora abrum adora frente a las coloni colonias. as. La denuncia denun cia de esta discriminaci discriminación ón ocupa un espacio considerable en la obra de Fray Servando y la alusión a los “acontecimientos
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82 Johanna von Grafenstein Grafenstein Gareis Gareis
canos sus legítim legítimos os derechos políticos de que q ue les esperarí espe raríaa una suerte su erte similar a la de los blancos de Santo San to Domingo. Domingo. Las citas anteriores muestran que, aunque se trata de alusiones breves y esporádica esporádicas, s, la revolució revoluciónn de Haití H aití es evocada evocada frecuenteme frecu entemennte en las discusiones; constituía un punto de referencia tanto en el discurso político político de los defensores del orde o rdenn colonial como en el de los partidarios de la independencia; los primeros buscaron en su ejemplo la fundamentación de temores en cuanto a un desarrollo no deseado de los acontecimientos, los segundos recurrían a ella para justificar sus aspiraciones de independencia. Es interesan inter esante te ubicar la percepción de la Revolución Revolución haitiana hait iana por po r la élite peninsu p eninsular lar y criolla criolla en Méxic Méxicoo en un contexto más amplio de su apreciación apreciación por po r observadores observadores contemporáneos co ntemporáneos de la región circun circun caribeña, tanto ta nto de defensores del orden colonial colonial como de protagonispro tagonistas de la independencia indepen dencia americana. Como en Méxic México, o, podemos observar dos tendencias: los los que pro pagan los los acontecimientos acontecimientos de SaintDomingue con ánimo ánimo de presen pre sen tarlos como el gran espectro de la destrucción y violencia, y los que formulan juicios juicios más razonados, que calibran el peligro peligro pero per o sin caer en la histeria de los los primeros. Reacciones mejor documentadas y analizadas las encontramos para Cuba. Un trabajo tra bajo reciente se ha abocado a estudiar la irradiación de la revolución revolución haitiana en Cuba Cub a en los primeros primeros momentos del es
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El impacto de la Revolución Revolución haitiana haitiana 83
Según los los autores autore s citados, citados, el peligro real de un “contagio” era míni mínimo mo al lado del positivo positivo efecto dinamizador de la economía cubana cub ana por p or la caída de d e la producción produc ción de café y azúcar azúca r en la vecina colonia francesa. Veamos a continuación un ejemplo concreto de d e las reacciones reacciones que qu e se dieron en Cuba C uba a raíz de la revolución revolución haitiana. Francisco Arango y Pareño, representa repr esentante nte de la sacarocraci sacarocraciaa cubana en ascenso, ascenso, pre sentó al capitán general de la isla isla de Cuba, Marqués Marq ués de Someruelo Someruelos, s, un informe informe sobre el estado de d e la isla isla de Santo Domingo Domingo en la prima vera de 1803. Después de cuarenta días de residencia en Guaricó y Puerto Pu erto Príncipe, Príncipe, Arango elabora elabor a uno un o de los testimoni testimonios os más impo imporrtantes tan tes sobre sob re la revolución de los esclavos esclavos de la colonia SaintDomin gue.63 Su visión de la revolución es la de un “empresario” ilustrado quee analiza con objetividad qu objetividad y pragmatismo los los acontecimientos de la colonia vecina. vecina. Ante su graved gravedad, ad, Arango apunta apu nta “que “ que por p or ningún motivo motivo creo creo que nos conviene conviene seguir seguir con la indiferencia indiferencia y descuido descuido con que qu e hemos estado estad o hasta aquí” (p. (p. 24 249) 9) y “creo que q ue es mayor el interés interés de d e la nación española que el que debe tener la francesa para la tranquilidad de Santo Domingo” (p. 250). Recomienda entonces, a cambio de aceptar un u n comisario comisario francés francés en Cuba, enviar un represen rep resentante tante a la vecina vecina isla “que “q ue siendo sien do testigo de lo que qu e pase, prevenga con sus oficios oficios o con sus oportunas noticias, los muchos y graves males con que se ve amenazado el comercio de toda esta parte de la América y de la
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Grafenste tein in Gare Gareis is 84 Johanna von Grafens
para mantener la guerra contra los rebeldes y la necesidad de que España Espa ña la socorra con bastante ambigüedad: ambigüedad: expone expone largamente largament e las razones que hacen en su opinión necesario el otorgamiento del préstamo, no tanto en el interés de Francia, sino en el de la misma España y de sus colonias. El siguiente extracto ilustra este aspecto además de que muestra esta enorme capacidad de Arango para juzgar, con mesura mesu ra y conocimiento, sin histeria, pero pe ro con objetividad y pragmatismo, pragmatismo, la situación económica y política de la vecina colonia y sus sus consecuencias consecuencias para par a el imperio colonial colonial de España, especialmenespecia lmente para p ara Cuba: Cuba: la República debe abando abandonar nar una empresa que va a costarle más de lo que puede producirle producirle y que que si bien se mira, a los que verdaderamente importa es a los soberanos que te tengan ngan en la la vecindad colonias colonias que conservar conservar [...] [...] Arruinadas como se hallan todas las haciendas de Santo Domingo, la Francia lo que va a conquistar es un montón de tierra que puede qu quizás izás servirle servirle para para fundar fundar después una colonia nueva, y este interés a mi vista vista no vale q uince m illones de pesos, dos navios de
los mejores y treinta mil guerreros que lleva perdidos hasta ahora [...] El comercio de Francia carece hoy de los grandes medios que poseía en la dichosa época de 1763 a 1788. Entonces que los tenía y que en en lugar lugar de prever prever los riesgos riesgos con con que los empleaban empleaban en Santo Doming Domingo, o, sólo veía veía las ganancias ganancias que en en una titierr erraa nueva nueva producía
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El E l impacto impacto de la Revolución Revolución haitiana haitiana 85
o por sí mismos mismos o excitados por alguna alguna nación enemiga, pasen algún día a nuestras colonias a hacer que nuestros esclavos adopten sus funestas máximas: lo que yo temo, lo que veo de cerca es que volvamos al al tiempo de los filibustiers y bucaniers, bucaniers, y que infestadas nuestras costas de tan atrevidos piratas, se acabe la seguridad que necesita el comercio de la Costa Firm Firme, e, el de la isla de Cuba Cub ay el del Seno Seno Mejicano. Por ese solo solo temor dije dije y repito que la Francia, Francia, que ya no tiene ti ene que perder, que pelea pelea por esperanzas remotas remotas y quizás quizás aéreas, o no no seguirá o no llevará llevará sola el peso peso de esta esta funesta guerra, guerra, y que nosotros que estamos en la vecindad, en la posesión de inmensos terrenos, y no menos lisonjeras esperanzas, esperanzas, estamos más interesados que ella en al ruina de un enemigo que por sí solo es temible, que lo será mucho más con el auxilio de los ingleses y de los angloamericanos (pp. 251-252).
El pragmatismo de la plantocracia cubana frente a la revolución haitiana y la formación formación del del estado independie indep endiente nte de Haití H aití encuentra encue ntra también expresión en la “Representación dirigida por el Real Consulado de d e La Habana Hab ana al ministro de Hacie Ha cienda nda el 10 de julio de 17 1799 99”” .64 En ella se da todo to do el peso a la “insurrección de esclav esclavos os de las colonias colonias francesas” y su influencia en la creación de la Junta, con el fin de evalua ev aluarr el efecto de d e la revolución en la colonia vecina y el peligro real de “contagio”. “ contagio”. Se Se constata que “ la independencia sola de los negros de Santo Domingo justifica en gran medida nuestro actual susto y cuidado” (pp. 133134). Po parecía imposible imposible cerrar del todo to do la isla isla a la
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Grafens nste tein in Gare Gareis is 86 Johanna von Grafe
citado,65Alfred N. Hunt analiza la prensa, panfletos de activistas y obras literarias del sur de Estados Unidos con el fin de estudiar en ellos la imagen de Toussaint Louverture. La visión que se tenía de este líder de la revolució revoluciónn haitiana parece hasta cierto punto pun to paradópara dó jica: Toussaint Toussain t tenía te nía admiradores admir adores tanto tan to ent e ntre re los plantad pla ntadores ores esclavistas del sur, como ent e ntre re lo loss abolicionistas: abolicionistas: los primeros primer os veían en él un símbolo para pa ra man m anten tener er la esclavitud esclavitud en el Nuevo Mundo (p. 91). 91). Juzgaban su reglamento agrario66 como un instrumento eficaz para ejercer ejer cer control sobre la mano ma no de obra o bra exesc exesclav lavaa y para garantizar g arantizar la producción en e n gran escala escala.. En sus sus argumentaciones racistas racistas recurrían a dicho reglamento porque porqu e comprobaba, según según ellos, ellos, que “los negros negros sólo trabaja tra bajaban ban si se les les obligaba” (p. 89). 89). Según Philip Philip Foner, Foner , citado en el texto de Hunt, la preocupación de los plantadores esclavistas porr la estabilidad po estabilidad de su mano de obra, antes y después de la emancipación, los hizo elogiar a un líder negro de una rebelión de esclavos (p. 90). 90). Hunt Hu nt observa también que qu e los propietarios propie tarios de esclavo esclavoss del sur de Estados Unidos eran más antifranceses que antinegros (p. 87), temían más una eventual expansión de los franceses en el valle del Mississippi que la presencia de una figura tan reconcilatoria con los plantadores blancos como Toussaint, quien además lograba actuar con una independencia sorprendente con respecto a la metrópoli francesa. Los abolicionistas, abolicionistas, cambio, admirab adm iraban an los talentos talento s militares de
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El E l impacto impacto de la Revolución Revolución haitiana haitiana 87
Reynal y su profecía de que qu e vendrá un líder líde r valiente valiente que liberaría a los negros (p. 95). Para esta es ta autora, auto ra, Toussaint Toussai nt era un u n antiguo esclavo esclavo lleno de gratitud, un cristiano honesto, un padre de familia, un pacifista (p. 96).
Consideraciones finales Tratamos Tratam os de demostrar, d emostrar, a lo largo del del trabajo, que las repercusiones de la Revolución Revolución haitiana ha itiana en la región circuncaribeña fueron múltiples y profundas. profundas. La eliminac eliminación ión del primer productor produ ctor de azúcar que había sido SaintDomingue, llevó a un “renovado crecimiento del régimen de plantac p lantación ión y de la esclavitud"6 esclavitud"67en la zona. Por P or otra o tra parte pa rte,, la Revolución haitiana constituyó una fuente de inspiración para múltiples conspiraciones y rebeliones, a pesar de que qu e no se logró una repetición repe tición de d e su ejemplo. A nivel nivel de la política colonial colonial e ideología de
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Índice
Ricardo Melgar Bao
Presentación..................................................................................7
Guillermo Castro Herrera
Naturaleza, sociedad sociedad y cultura cultura en la historia de América L a t in a .......... .............. ......... .......... .......... ......... ......... .......... ......... ......... ..........9 .....9
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Nuestr Nuestra a América: América: crít crític ica a de los signo signoss ocultos de la modernidad se terminó de
imprim imprimir ir el mes mes de abril de 1994 1994 en los talleres de Contabilidad RUF Mexica na, S.A. El tiraje consta de mil ejem
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