TUGAS ILMU KESEHATAN MASYARAKAT
“Pendekatan Epidemiologi”
Oleh Amelisa Anzeli Fitria Kasih Gusfidira Darma Helmi Fitrayuna Lusia Falahdina Putri Awalina.S Rati Diana Silvia Prodesta Vebri Dwi Hartati Yossa Melka Putri
Dosen Pembimbing : Yani Maidelwita,SKM,M.Biomed STIKES MERCUBAKTIJAYA PADANG 2012
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KATA PENGANTAR
Puji syukur kehadirat Allah SWT atas berkat rahmat-Nya sehingga penyusun dapat menyelesaikan makalah yang berjudul “Pendekatan “Pendekatan Epidemiologi” Epidemiologi ” Makalah ini disusun guna memenuhi tugas Ilmu Kesehatan Masyarakat. Penyusun menyadari, makalah ini dapat terselesaikan bukan hanya karena kemampuan dan usaha penyusun sendiri tetapi juga bantuan dan bimbingan berbagai pihak.Penyusun juga menyadari dalam penyusunan makalah ini masih terdapat kekurangan karena keterbatasan pengetahuan dan kemampuan. Oleh karena itu, saran dan masukan dari berbagai pihak sangat penulis harapkan. Akhirnya, harapan penyusun semoga makalah ini dapat bermanfaat.
Padang,
Jan 2012
Penulis
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DAFTAR ISI KATA PENGANTAR DAFTAR ISI BAB I
PENDAHULUAN 1.1 1.2
BAB II
Latar Belakang Tujuan
TINJAUAN TEORI 2.1 Pengertian Epidemiologi 2.2 Konsep 2.3 Macam - macam 2.4 Tujuan dan Penerapan 2.5 Peranan 2.6 Ruang Lingkup 2.7 Riwayat Penyakit Alamiah 2.8 Upaya pencegahan dan Ukuran frekuensi penyakit 2.9 Penelitian dan Variabel 2.10 Pengukuran Epidemiologi
BAB III
PENUTUP 3.1 Kesimpulan 3.2 Saran
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
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BAB I PENDAHULUAN
1.1 Latar Belakang Epidemiologi berasal dari perkataan Yunani, dimana epi- yang berarti ” permukaan, diatas, menimpa, atau tentang”, demos yang berarti ” orang, populasi, penduduk,
manusia
”
serta ologi berarti
“ilmu tentang”. Secara Secara
etimologis,
epidemiologi berarti ilmu mengenai kejadian yang menimpa penduduk. Epidemiologi lahir berdasarkan dua asumsi dasar. Pertama, penyakit pada populasi manusia tidak terjadi dan tersebar begitu saja secara acak. Kedua, penyakit pada manusia sesungguhnya mempunyai faktor penyebab dan faktor preventif yang dapat diidentifikasi melalui penelitian sistematik pada berbagai populasi, tempat, dan waktu. Berdasarkan asumsi tersebut, epidemiologi dapat didefinisikan sebagai ” ilmu yang mempelajari distribusi dan determinan – determinan frekuensi penyakit dan status kesehatan pada populasi manusia. Definisi tersebut mengisyaratkan bahwa epidemiologi pada dasarnya merupakan ilmu empirik kuantitatif, yang banyak melibatkan pengamatan dan pengukuran yang sistematik tentang frekuensi penyakit dan sejumlah faktor-faktor yang dipelajari hubungannya dengan penyakit. Tujuan akhir riset epidemiologi yaitu mencegah kejadian penyakit, mengurangi dampak penyakit dan meningkatkan status kesehatan manusia. Sasaran epidemiologi adalah
populasi
manusia,
bukan
individu.
Ciri-ciri
ini
yang
membedakan
epidemiologi dari ilmu kedokteran klinik dan ilmu-ilmu biomedik, yang lebih memusatkan perhatiannya kepada individu, jaringan, atau organ. Epidemiologi berguna untuk mengkaji dan menjelaskan dampak dari tindakan
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menyertakan deskripsi keberadaannya di dalam populasi dan faktor – faktor yang mengendalikan ada atau tidaknya penyakit tersebut.
1.2 Tujuan
Untuk mengetahui defenisi,konsep,macam,tujuan dan penerapan, peranan, ruang lingkup,pengukuran epidemiologi.
Untuk mengetahui riwayat penyakit alamiah dan upaya pencegahannya.
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BAB II PEMBAHASAN 2.1 PENGERTIAN EPIDEMIOLOGI 2.1.1
Epidemiologi Menurut Asal Kata Jika ditinjau dari asal kata epidemiologi berasal dari bahasa Yunani yang terdiri dari 3 kata dasar yaitu epi yang berarti pada atau tentang, demos yang berati penduduk dan kata terakhir adalalah logos yang berarti ilmu pengetahuan. Jadi epidemilogi adalah ilmu yang mempelajari tentang penduduk. Sedangkan dalam pengertian modern pada saat ini epidemiologi adalah “Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang Frekuensi dan Distribusi (Penyebaran) masalah – factor yang kesehatan pada sekelompok orang/masyarakat serta Determinannya (Faktor – factor Mempengaruhinya) atau dapat juga di artikan sebagai suatu ilmu yang mempelajari awal timbulnya, perjalanan, dan pencegahan pada penyakit infeksi menular maupun tidak menular.
2.1.2
Pengertian Epidemiologi Menurut Para Ahli
Greenwood ( 1934) Mengatakan bahwa Epidemiologi mempelajari tentang penyakit dan segala macam kejadian yang mengenai kelompok penduduk.
Brian Mac Mahon ( 1970 )
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Abdel R. Omran ( 1974 ) Epidemiologi adalah suatu ilmu mengenai terjadinya dan distribusi keadaan kesehatan, penyakit dan perubahan pada penduduk, begitu juga determinannya serta akibat – akibat – akibat akibat yang terjadi pada kelompok penduduk.
Hirsch ( 1883 ) Epidemiologi adalah suatu gambaran kejadian, penyebaran dari jenis – jenis – jenis penyakit pada manusia pada saat tertentu di berbagai tempat di bumi dan mengkaitkan dengan kondisi eksternal
2.1.3
Pengertian Epidemiologi Ditinjau Dari Berbagai Aspek
Aspek Akademik Secara akademik, epidemiologi berarti analisa data kesehatan, sosial-ekonomi, dan trend yang terjadi untuk mengindentifikasi dan menginterpretasi perubahanperubahan kesehatan yang terjadi atau akan terjadi pada masyarakat umum atau kelompok penduduk tertentu.
Aspek Klinik Ditinjau dari aspek klinik, epidemiologi berarti suatu usaha untuk mendeteksi secara dini perubahan insidensi atau prevalensi yang dilakukan melalui penemuan klinis atau laboratorium pada awal timbulnya penyakit baru dan awal terjadinya epidemi.
Aspek praktis
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2.2 KONSEP EPIDEMIOLOGI
Konsep-konsep epidemiologi yang masih berlaku saat ini adalah antara lain:
Pengaruh lingkungan terhadap kejadian suatu penyakit
Penggunaan data kuantitatif dan statistic
Penularan penyakit
Eksprimen pada manusia
Di dalam perkembangan batasan epidemiologi selanjutnya mencakup sekurang-kurangnya 3 elemen, yakni :
Mencakup semua penyakit Epidemiologi mempelajari semua penyakit, baik penyakit infeksi maupun penyakit non infeksi.seperti kanker, penyakit kekurangan gizi (malnutrisi), kecelakaan lalu lintas maupun kecelakaan kerja, sakit jiwa dan sebagainya. Bahkan di negara-negara maju, epidemiologi ini mencakup juga kegiatan pelayanan kesehatan.
Populasi Apabila kedokteran klinik berorientasi pada gambaran-gambaran dari penyakit-penyakit individu maka epidemiologi ini memusatkan perhatiannya pada distribusi penyakit pada populasi (masyarakat) atau kelompok.
Pendekatan ekologi Frekuensi dan distribusi penyakit dikaji dari latar belakang pada keseluruhan lingkungan
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epidemiologi yaitu orang (person), tempat (place) dan waktu (time).Cara menggambarkan masalah kesehatan dapat dalam bentuk: narasi, tabel, grafik atau gambar/peta.
Epidemiologi Analitik Epidemiologi yang selain menggambarkan besarnya masalah kesehatan, juga mencari faktor yang menyebabkan masalah kesehatan tersebut di masyarakat. Epidemiologi analitik selain menggambarkan besarnya masalah dengan 3 variabel epidemiologi juga mencari faktor penyebab masalah kesehatan tsb.Cara mencari faktor penyebab dengan melakukan penelitian
2.4 TUJUAN DAN PENERAPAN EPIDEMIOLOGI
1. Tujuan Epidemiologi
Menguraikan distribusi dan besarnya masalah suatu penyakit dalam masyarakat
Memberikan data untuk perencanaan, pelaksanaan, dan evaluasi program pencegahan pemberantasan dan pengobatan penyakit, serta menentukan prioritas antara program-program tersebut.
Mencari factor penyebab dan asal mula penyakit.
2. Penerapan Epidemiologi
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2.5 PERANAN EPIDEMIOLOGI
Dari kemampuan epidemiologi untuk mengetahui distribusi dan factor-faktor penyebab
masalah
kesehatan
mengarahkan
intervensi
yang
diperlukan
maka
epidemiologi diharapkan mempunyai peranan dalam bidang kesehatan masyarakat berupa:
Mengidentifikasi factor-faktor yang berperan dalam terjadinya penyakit atau masalah kesehatan dalam masyarakat.
Menyediakan data yang diperlukan untuk perencanaankesehatan dan mengambil keputusan.
Membantu melakukan evaluasi terhadap program kesehatan yang sedang atau telah dilakukan.
Mengembangkan metodelogi untuk menganalisis keadaan suatu penyakit dalam upaya untuk mengatasi atau menanggulanginya.
Mengarahkan intervensi yang diperlukan untuk menanggulangi masalah yang
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dan diketahui penyebabbnya dilakukan upaya-upaya penanggulangan sebagai tindak lanjutnya.
Pemanfaatan Data tentang Frekuensi dan Penyebaran Masalah Kesehatan Pekerjaan epidemiologi akan dapat mengetahui banyak hal tentang masalah kesehatan dan penyebabnya dari masalah tersebut dengan cara menganalisis data tentang frekuensi dan penyebarannya masalah kesehatan yang terjadi pada sekelompok manusia atau masyarakat.Dengan memanfaatkan perbedaan yang kemudian dilakukan uji statistic, maka dapat dirumuskan penyebab timbulnya masalah kesehatan. Di era modern dan perkembangan teknologi seperti sekarang ini memicu jangkauan epidemiolgi semakin meluas.
Secara garis besarnya jangkauan atau ruang lingkup epidemiologi antara lain: a. Epidemiologi Penyakit Menular b. Epidemiologi Penyakit Tidak Menular c. Epidemiologi Kesehatan Reproduksi
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2.7 RIWAYAT ALAMIAH PENYAKIT
Riwayat alamiah suatu penyakit dapat digolongkan dalam 5 tahap :
Pre Patogenesis Tahap ini telah terjadi interaksi antara penjamu dengan bibit penyakit, tetapi interaksi ini terjadi di luar tubuh manusia, dalam arti bibit penyakit berada di luar tubuh manusia dan belum masuk ke dalam tubuh. Pada keadaan ini belum ditemukan adanya tanda-tanda penyakit dan daya tahan tubuh penjamu masih kuat dan dapat menolak penyakit. Keadaan ini disebut sehat.
Tahap inkubasi (sudah masuk Patogenesis) Pada tahap ini bibit penyakit masuk ke tubuh penjamu, tetapi gejala-gejala penyakit belum nampak. Tiap-tiap penyakit mempunyai masa inkubasi yang berbeda. Kolera 1-2 hari, yang bersifat menahun misalnya kanker paru, AIDS dll.
Tahap penyakit dini Tahap ini mulai dihitung dari munculnya gejala-gejala penyakit. pada tahap ini
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Sembuh tapi cacat , penyakit penjamu berakhir atau bebas dari penyakit, tapi kesembuhannya tak sempurna, karena terjadi cacat (fisik, mental maupun sosial) dan sangat tergantung dari serangan penyakit terhadap organ-organ tubuh penjamu.
Karier , pada karier perjalanan penyakit seolah terhenti karena gejala penyakit tak tampak lagi, tetapi dalam tubuh penjamu masih terdapat bibit penyakit yang pada suatu saat bila daya tahan tubuh penjamu menurun akan dapat kambuh kembali. Keadaan ini tak hanya membahayakan penjamu sendiri, tapi dapat berbahaya terhadap orang lain atau masyarakat, karena dapat menjadi sumber penularan penyakit (human reservoir).
Kronis , pada tahap ini perjalanan penyakit tampak terhenti, tapi gejala-gejala penyakit tidak berubah. Dengan kata lain tidak bertambah berat maupun ringan. Keadaan ini penjamu masih tetap berada dalam keadaan sakit.
Meninggal , Apabila keadaan penyakit bertambah parah dan tak dapat diobati lagi, sehingga berhentinya perjalanan penyakit karena penjamu meninggal dunia. Keadaan ini bukanlah keadaan yang diinginkan.
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Nasihat perkawinan dan pendidikan seks yang bertanggung jawab.
2. Perlindungan umum dan khusus terhadap penyakit-penyakit tertentu
Memberikan immunisasi pada golongan yang rentan untuk mencegah penyakit.
Isolasi terhadap penderita penyakit menular, misal yang terkena flu burung.
Pencegahan terjadinya kecelakaan baik di tempat umum maupun tempat kerja.
Perlindungan terhadap bahan-bahan yang bersifat karsinogenik, bahan-bahan racun maupun alergi.
Pengendalian sumber-sumber pencemaran.
3. Penegakkan diagnosa secara dini dan pengobatan yang cepat dan tepat
Mencari kasus sedini mungkin.
Mencari penderita dalam masyarakat dengan jalan pemeriksaan . Misalnya pemeriksaan darah, rontgent paru.
Mencari semua orang yang telah berhubungan dengan penderita penyakit menular
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Menyadarkan masyarakat untuk menerima mereka kembali dengan memberikan dukungan moral setidaknya bagi yang bersangkutan untuk bertahan.
Mengusahakan perkampungan rehabilitasi sosial sehingga setiap penderita yang telah cacat mampu mempertahankan diri.
Penyuluhan dan usaha-usaha kelanjutan yang harus tetap dilakukan seseorang setelah ia sembuh dari suatu penyakit.
Ukuran frekuensi penyakit menunjukkan kepada besarnya masalah kesehatan yang terdapat pada kelompok manusia atau masyarakat. Artinya bila dikaitkan dengan masalah penyakit menunjukkan banyaknya kelompok masyarakat yang terserang
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b. Studi kasus kontrol/case control study/studi retrospektif. Tujuannya mencari faktor penyebab penyakit. c. Studi ekologik. Studi ini memakai sumber ekologi sebagai bahan untuk penyelidikan secara empiris faktor resiko atau karakteristik yang berada dalam keadaan konstan di masyarakat. Misalnya, polusi udara akibat sisa pembakaran BBM yang terjadi di kota-kota besar.
Eksperimental. a. Clinical Trial
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2.10 PENGUKURAN EPIDEMIOLOGI
Pengukuran epidemiologi penyakit dibagi manjadi 2 yaitu: 2. Insiden
Insiden adalah gambaran tentang frekuensi penderita baru suatu penyakit yang ditemukan pada suatu waktu tertentu di dalam kelompok masyarakat. Untuk dapat menghitung angka insidensi suatu penyakit, sebelumnya harus diketahui terlebih dahulu tentang :
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Manfaat Incidence Rate adalah : - Mengetahui masalah kesehatan yang dihadapi - Mengetahui Resiko untuk terkena masalah kesehatan yang dihadapi - Mengetahui beban tugas yang harus diselenggarakan oleh suatu fasilitas pelayanan kesehatan. b. Attack Rate
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Jumlah penderita baru suatu penyakit yang terjangkit pada serangan kedua dibandingkan dengan jumlah penduduk dikurangi orang/penduduk yang pernah terkena penyakit pada serangan pertama. Digunakan menghitung suatu panyakit menular dan dalam suatu populasi yang kecil ( misalnya dalam Satu Keluarga ). Rumus yang digunakan : Jumlah Penderita Baru pd. Serangan Kedua
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Rumus yang digunakan : Jumlah penderita lama & baru
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BAB III PENUTUP 3.1Kesimpulan
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DAFTAR PUSTAKA
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