A s k ep Anemia A nemia aplik aplik as asii Nanda N anda NI NIC C NO NOC C merupakan konsep asuhan keperawatan secara teoritis yang diberikan kepada pasien dengan masalah anemia. Pada konsep askep stroke pada artikel ini menggunakan konsep Nan mulai dari Nand da NI C N OC mulai pengkajian, diagnose keparawatan, intervensi keperawatan menggunakan ilmu keperawatan Nanda NIC NOC.
Definisi Anemia
Anemia merupaka merupakan n suatu kondisi atau istilah yang menunjuk menunjukan an rendahny rendahnya a hitungan jumlah sel darah merah dan kadar hemoglobin hemoglobin di bawah normal. Anemia adalah gejala dari kondisi yang mendasari, seperti kehilangan komponen darah, elemen tak adekuat atau kurangnya nutrisi yang dibutuhkan untuk pembentukan sel darah merah, yang mengakibatkan penurunan kapasitas pengangkut oksigen di dalam darah.
Dengan demikian anemia bukan merupakan suatu diagnosis atau penyakit, melainkan merupakan pencerminan keadaan suatu penyakit atau gangguan fungsi tubuh dan perubahan patofisiologis yang mendasar yang diuraikan melalui anemnesis yang seksama, pemeriksaan fisik dan informasi laboratorium.
Klasifikasi Anemia
Klasifikasi anemia berdasarkan derajat berat ringannya menurut WHO adalah sebagai berikut: Ringan sekali, jika kadar Hb 10,00 gr% -13,00 gr% Ringan, jika kadar Hb 8,00 gr% -9,90 gr% Sedang, jika kadar Hb 6,00 gr% -7,90 gr% Berat, jika kadar Hb < 6,00 gr%
Klasifikasi
anemia
berdasarkan
pembentukan eritrosit.
akibat
Gangguan
Eritropoiesis
atau
sumber
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Anemia Defisiensi Besi
Anemia defisiensi zat besi diakibat diakibatkan kan oleh tidak cukupny cukupnya a suplai zat besi ke dalam tubuh sehingga mengakibatkan defek pada sintesis Hb dan mengakibatkan timbulnya sel darah merah yang hipokrom dan mikrositer.
Anemia Megaloblastik
Anemia megalobla megaloblastik stik disebabk disebabkan an oleh defisiensi asam folat atau vitamin B12, sehingga mengakibatkan gangguan pada sintesis timidin dan defek pada replikasi DNA, efek yang dapat timbul adalah pembesaran prekursor sel darah (megaloblas) di sumsum tulang, hematopoiesis yang tidak efektif dan pansitopenia.
Anemia Aplastik
Anemia aplastic pada umumnya disebabk disebabkan an oleh sumsum tulang gagal memproduks memproduksii sel darah akibat hiposelularitas. Hiposelularitas ini dapat terjadi akibat dari paparan racun, radiasi, reaksi terhadap obat atau virus, dan defek pada perbaikan DNA serta gen atau keturunan.
Anemia Mieloptisik
Anemia mieloplastik mieloplastik merupakan merupakan anemia anemia yang yang terjadi akibat akibat penggantian penggantian sumsum sumsum tulang tulang oleh infiltrate sel-sel tumor, kelainan granuloma, yang menyebabkan pelepasan eritroid pada tahap awal.
Penyebab Anemia
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lain adalah zat besi, vitamin B12 dan asam folat. Selebihnya merupakan akibat dari beragam kondisi seperti perdarahan, kelainan genetik, penyakit kronik, keracunan obat, dan sebagainya.
Berikut adalah penyebab yang umum dari kondisi anemia, antara lain: Perdarahan hebat dan akut (mendadak) Kecelakaan Pembedahan atau operasi Persalinan Pecah pembuluh darah Epistaksis atau perdarahan hidung Wasir atau hemoroid Ulkus peptikum Kanker atau polip di saluran pencernaan Tumor ginjal atau kandung kemih Perdarahan menstruasi yang sangat banyak Berkurangnya pembentukan sel darah merah Kekurangan zat besi, vitamin B12, asam folat dan vitamin C Penyakit kronik Meningkatnya penghancuran sel darah merah Pembesaran limpa Kerusakan mekanik pada sel darah merah Reaksi autoimun terhadap sel darah merah
Pathway Anemia
Tanda Dan Gejala Anemia
Tanda dan gejala klinis anemia yang biasa muncul merefleksikan gangguan fungsi dari berbagai sistem yang ada di dalam tubuh antara lain penurunan kinerja fisik, gangguan neurologik (syaraf) yang di manifestasikan dalam perubahan perilaku, anorexia (badan kurus kerempeng), pica, serta perkembangan kognitif yang abnormal pada anak.
Pada kondisi anemia sering pula terjadi abnormalitas pertumbuhan, gangguan fungsi
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Cara mudah mengenal anemia dengan 5L, yaitu lemah, letih, lesu, lelah, lunglai. Kalau muncul 5 gejala ini, bisa dipastikan seseorang terkena anemia.
Gejala lain yang dapat kita lihat pada anemia adalah kulit tampak pucat, konjungtiva mata pucat dan sclera atau warna pucat pada bagian kelopak mata bawah.
Komplikasi Anemia
Anemia jika di biarkan dan tidak ditanggulangi ditanggulangi dengan tepat dapat menyebabkan daya tahan tubuh berkurang. Akibatnya, penderita anemia akan mudah terkena infeksi atau dengan kata lain mudah sakit. Gampang batuk-pilek, gampang flu, atau gampang terkena infeksi saluran napas, jantung juga menjadi gampang lelah, karena harus memompa darah lebih kuat.
Pada kasus ibu hamil dengan anemia, jika lambat ditangani dan berkelanjutan dapat menyebabkan kematian, dan berisiko bagi janin. Selain bayi lahir dengan berat badan rendah, anemia bisa juga mengganggu perkembangan organ-organ tubuh, termasuk otak
Peemeriksaan penunjang
Pemeriksaan penunjang yang perlu dilakukan untuk mendiagnosa anemia adlah sebagai berikut. Jumlah darah lengkap (JDL) : hemoglobin dan hemalokrit menurun. Jumlah eritrosit : menurun (AP), menurun berat (aplastik); MCV (molume korpuskular rerata) dan MCH (hemoglobin korpuskular rerata) menurun dan mikrositik dengan eritrosit hipokronik (DB), peningkatan (AP). Pansitopenia (aplastik). Jumlah retikulosit : bervariasi, misal : menurun (AP), meningkat (respons sumsum tulang terhadap kehilangan darah/hemolisis). Pewarna sel
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tertentu, sel darah merah mempunyai waktu hidup lebih pendek. Tes kerapuhan eritrosit : menurun (DB). SDP : jumlah sel total sama dengan sel darah merah (diferensial) mungkin meningkat (hemolitik) atau menurun (aplastik). Jumlah trombosit : menurun caplastik; meningkat (DB); normal atau tinggi (hemolitik) Hemoglobin elektroforesis : mengidentifikasi tipe struktur hemoglobin. Bilirubin serum (tak terkonjugasi): meningkat (AP, hemolitik). Folat serum dan vitamin B12 membantu mendiagnosa anemia sehubungan dengan defisiensi masukan/absorpsi. Besi serum : tak ada (DB); tinggi (hemolitik) TBC serum : meningkat (DB). Feritin serum : meningkat (DB). Masa perdarahan : memanjang (aplastik) LDH serum : menurun (DB). Tes schilling : penurunan eksresi vitamin B12 urine (AP) Guaiak : mungkin positif untuk darah pada urine, feses, dan isi gaster, menunjukkan perdarahan akut / kronis (DB). Analisa gaster : penurunan sekresi dengan peningkatan pH dan tak adanya asam hidroklorik bebas (AP). Aspirasi sumsum tulang/pemeriksaan/biopsi : sel mungkin tampak berubah dalam jumlah, ukuran, dan bentuk, membentuk, membedakan tipe anemia, misal: peningkatan megaloblas (AP), lemak sumsum dengan penurunan sel darah (aplastik). Pemeriksaan andoskopik dan radiografik : memeriksa sisi perdarahan : perdarahan GI
Penatalaksanaan
penatalaksanaan umum anemia ditunjukan untuk mencari penyebab dari anemia tersebut dan mengganti jumlah darah yang hilang jika anemia disebabkan oleh perdarahan. Anemia ini dapat diberikan: Transpalasi sel darah merah. Antibiotik diberika diberikan n untuk mencegah mencegah infeksi. infeksi. Suplemen asam folat dapat merangsang pembentukan sel darah merah. Menghindari situasi kekurangan oksigen atau aktivitas yang membutuhkan oksigen Obati penyebab perdarahan abnormal bila ada. Diet kaya besi yang mengandung daging dan sayuran hijau.
Pengobatan (untuk pengobatan tergantung dari penyebabnya) :
Anemia defisiensi besi
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dan sayur. Pemberian preparat fe Perrosulfat 3x 200mg/hari/per oral sehabis makan Peroglukonat 3x 200 mg/hari /oral sehabis makan. Anemia pernisiosa pernisiosa dengan dengan pemberian pemberian vitamin vitamin B12 Anemia asam asam folat diberikan diberikan asam asam folat 5 mg/hari/ora mg/hari/orall Anemia karena perdara perdarahan, han, untuk mengatasi perdarah perdarahan an dan syok dengan pemberian cairan dan transfusi darah.
ASKEP ANEMIA APLIKASI NANDA NIC NOC
Untuk
selanjutnya
langsung
saja
saya
paparkan
bagaimana
konsep A Asu suha han n
K eper awatan A ne nem mi a Mengguna Mengg unakan kan Ap A plilikasi kasi N and nda a NI C N OC yang saya dapat dari literature-literatur. Identitas Klien
Silahkan masukkan identitas klien mulai dari nama, usia, jenis kelamin, pekerjaan, tempat tiinggal, dan lain-lain. Identitas klien disini dapat menjadi penunjang informasi dalam memberikan asuhan keperawatan. Keluhan Utama
Keluhan utama yang biasa muncul pada pasien anemia biasanya 5 L, lemah, letih, lesu, lemas dan lunglai. Riwayat penyakit masa lalu
Riwayat penyakit gastritis, tukak lambung, perdarahan, hemoroid dain lain-lain. DATA FOKUS PENGKAJIAN ASKEP ANEMIA MENGGUNAKAN 13 DOMAIN NANDA PROMOSI KESEHATAN
Data S ubjektif:
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D O: KU tampak sakit sedang hingga berat TTV: TD terkadang turun dari normal, Nadi Biasanya normal atau takikardi, RR dapat naik, suhu biasanya normal. NUTRISI
DS : Perubahan selera makan seperti anoreksia, mual dan muntah
D O: BB biasanya juga dapat menurun ELIMINASI Sistem gastrointestinal
DS : Riwayat penyakit pencernaan, hemoroid, gastritis, gastritis erosive dan melena.
D O: Konsistensi dan karakteristik BAB biasanya disertai darah Pengkajian abdomen: Inspeksi perut tampak normal Palpasi perut lembut Perkusi abdomen peka Auskultasi bising usus usus biasanya biasanya normal
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DS : Nadan terasa dingin
D O: Suhu biasanya normal dan turun Keringat dingin PEMERIKSAAN PENUNJANG YANG DAPAT DI LAKUKAN UNTUK MENUNJANG DIAGNOSA ANEMIA
Pemeriksaan penunjang untuk menunjang diagnosis anemia biasanya pemeriksaan darah atau hemoglobin dan biasanya didapatkan kadar hb menurun. DIAGNOSE KEPERAWATAN YANG MUNGKIN DAPAT MUNCUL PADA PASIEN ANEMIA 1. Kelelahan berhubungan dengan anemia 2. Perubahanperfusi jaringan perifer berhubungan dengan penurunan konsentrasi hemoglobin dalam darah 3. Risikoinfeksi INTERVENSI KEPERAWATAN PADA PASIEN ANEMIA Diagnosa 1 : Kelelahan berhubungan dengan anemia
Tujuan Tujua n dan dan k riteria ha has il (NOC )
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Mengadaptasi
gaya
hidup
dengan tingkat energy Melaporkan
ketahanan
yang
adekuat untuk aktivitas
Intervens i keperawat keperawatan (NI C ) Pengkajian Kaji dampak keletihan pada kualitas hidup
Manajemen energy (NIC): Pantau bukti adanya keletihan fisik dan emosi yang berlebihan pada pasien Pantau respon kardiorespirasi terhadap aktivitas missal takikardi, disritmia, dyspnea pucat dan sesak napas) Pantau dan catat pola tidur pasien dan jumlah jam tidurnya Pantau lokasi dan sifat ketidaknyamanannya atau nyeri selama bergerak dan beraktivitas Tentukan persepsi pasien pada orang terdekat pasien tentang penyebab keletihan Pantau asupan nutrisi untuk menjamin keadekuatan sumber energy Pantau pemberian dan efek stimulant dan depresan
Penyuluhan untuk pasien dan keluarga Jelaskan hubungan antara keletihan dan proses penyakit Manajemen energy: Ajarkan pasien pasien dan orang terdekatny terdekatnya a untuk mengenali tanda tanda dan gejala keletihan yang memerlukan pengurangan aktivitas Ajarkan pengatura pengaturan n aktivitas aktivitas dan teknik teknik manajemen manajemen waktu waktu untuk mencegah mencegah keletihan
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Bantu pasien dalam mengidentifikasi tindakan yang dapat meningkatkan konsentrasi Dukung pembatasan iteraksi social pada saat interaksi tinggi Dukung pasien untuk melaporkan aktivitas serta awitan nyeri yang meningkatkan dan menimbulkan keletihan Rencanakan aktivitas yang mengurangi keletihan yang meliputi: Bantu aktivitas ADLs sesuai dengan kebutuhan Kurangi aktivitas yang prioritasnya rendah
Manajemen energi: Kurangi ketidaknyamanan fisik yang dapat mengganggu fungsi kognitif dan pemantauan atau pengaturan aktivitas diri Bantu pasien dan orang terdekatnya untuk membuat tujuan kegiatan yang realistis Berikan aktivitas hiburan yang menenangkan Tingkatkan tirah baring dan pembatasan aktivitas Cegah aktivitas perawatan selama periode istirahat terjadwal Batasi stimulus lingkungan Batasi jumlah pengunjung jika perlu
Perawatan dirumah Diskusikan bersama pasien dan keluarga tentang cara memodifiksi lingkungan rumah untuk mempertahankan aktifitas dan meminimalkan keletihan Kaji lingkungan rumah untuk adanya factor yang dapat meningkatkan keletihan Jika nyeri kronik merupakan etiologi keletihan rujuk ke program manajemen nyeri di komunitas Bekerja sama dengan klien dan keliarga untuk emnetukan prioritas aktivitas berdasarkan harapan realitas kemampuan klien Dorong keluarga untuk mempertahankan klien terlibat didalam rutinitas keluarga seoptimal mungkin Bantu klien menjadi asertif dalam menetapkan batasan pada tuntutan orang lain Rujuk pada layanan bantuan rumah tangga dan layanan bantuan kesehatan keluarga
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Diagnosa 2 : Perubahan perfusi jaringan perifer berhubungan dengan penurunan konsentrasi hemoglobin dalam darah
Tujuan Tujua n dan dan k riteria ha has il (NOC ) Setelah diberikan perawatan pasien akan: Menunjukkan keseimbangan cairan, integritas jaringan: kulit dan membrane mukosa dan perfusi jaringan perifer yang dibuktikan oleh indicator sebagai berikut: 1 gangguan eksterm 2 berat 3 sedang 4 ringan 5 tidak ada gangguan Indikator
1 2 3 4 5
Tekanan darah Nadi perifer Turgor kulit Suhu, sensasi, elastisitas, hidrasi, keutuhan, dan ketebalan kulit Pengisian ulang kapiler Warna kulit Integritas kulit Pasien akan mendeskripsikan rencana perawatan dirumah Ekstremitas bebas dari lesi
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Pantau tromboflebitis dan thrombosis vena profunda Pantau kesesuaian alat penyangga, prosthesis, sepatu dan pakaian
Penuluhan untuk pasien dan keluarga
Ajarkan pasien pasien dan dan keluarga keluarga tentang: Menghindari suhu yang eksterm pada ekstremitas Pentingnya mematuhi program diet dan program pengobatan Tanda dan gejala yang dapat dilaporkan pada dokter Perawatan sirkulasi (NIC): ajarkan pasien untuk melakukan perawatan kaki yang tepat Pentingnya pencegahan ststis vena
Manajemen sensasi perifer (NIC): Anjurkan pasien atau atau keluarga keluarga untuk memantau posisi posisi bagian bagian tubuh saat pasien pasien mandi, duduk, berbaring atau mengubah posisi Ajarkan pasien pasien atau atau keluarga keluarga untuk memeriksa memeriksa kulit kulit setiap hari untuk mengetah mengetahui ui perubahan integritas kulit
Aktivitas kolaboratif Beri obat nyeri, beritahu dokter jika neri tidak kunjung reda Perawatan sirkulasi (NIC): beri obat antitrombosit atau antikoagulan, jika perlu
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Waspadai gejala terutama emboli paru pada lansia Diagnosa 3 : Risiko infeksi
Tujuan Tujua n dan dan k riteria ha has il (NOC ) Setelah diberikan perawatan pasien akan menunjukkan: Factor resiko infeksi akan hilang yang dibuktikan dengan pengendalian resiko komunitas, penyakit menular, status imun, keparahan infeksi, keparahan infeksi bai baru lahir, pengendalian resiko PMS, dan penyembuhan luka primer dan sekunder. Pasien akan memperlihatkan pengendalian resiko PMS yang dibuktikan oleh indicator sebagai berikut:
1 tidak pernah 2 jarang 3 kadang-kadang 4 sering 5 selalu Indicator
1 2 3 4 5
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Pantau tanda dan gejala infeksi (suhu, denut jantung, drainase, penampilan luka, sekresi, penampilan urin, suhu kulit, lesi kulit, keletihan dan malaise) Kaji factor yang dapat meningkatkan kerentanan terhadap infeksi Pantau hasil laboratorium (hitung darah lengkap, hitung granulosit, absolute, hitung jenis, protein serum, albumin) Amati penampilan penampilan praktek praktek hygiene hygiene personal personal untuk perlindu perlindungan ngan terhadap terhadap infeksi infeksi
Penyuluhan untuk pasien/keluarga Jelaskan pada ppasien dan keluarga mengapa sakit atau terapi meningkatkan resiko terhadap infeksi Instruksikan untuk menjaga personal hygiene Jelaskan manfaat dan rasional serta efek samping imunisasi Berikan pasien dan keluarga metode untuk mencatat imunisasi
Pengendalian infeksi (NIC): Ajarkan pasien pasien tehnik tehnik mencuci mencuci tangan yang yang benar benar Ajarkan kepada kepada pengunjung pengunjung untuk mencuci mencuci tangan tangan sewaktu sewaktu masuk dan meninggalkan ruang pasien
Aktivitas kolaboratif Ikuti protocol institusi untuk melaporkan suspek infeksi atau kultur positif Pengendalian infeksi (NIC): berikan terapi antibiotic, bila diperlukan
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Pengendalian infeksi: ajarkan pasien dan keluarga mengenal tanda dan gejala infeksi serta kapan harus melaporkan ke layanan kesehatan
Untuk bayi dan anak-anak Ajarkan orang orang tua jadwal jadwal imunisasi imunisasi yang yang dianjurkan dianjurkan Rujuk kelembaga sosial untuk memperooleh bantuan finansia untuk imunisasi Pantau seberapa sering penggunaan antibiotic pada bayi dan anak-anak, yakinkan orang tua bahwa salesma tidak diobati dengan antibiotic
Untuk lansia Dengan mengetahui bahwa system imun mengalami penurunan individu lansia mungkin tidak mengeluarkan gejala, bahkan pada kasus infeksi serius sekalipun. Lakukan pengamatan untuk suhu yang rendah dan konfusi Rujuk ke ahli perawatan geriatric untuk kasus kuku yang tumbuh Rekomenasikan untuk mendapat imunisasi influenza dan pneumonia Kaji adanya factor yang meningkatkan resiko pasien terhadap infeksi
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berbagai proses patologik yang mendasari (Smeltzer C Suzane, Buku Ajar Keperawatan Medical Bedah Brunner dan Suddarth ; 935).
2. Etiologi Ada beberapa jenis anemia sesuai dengan penyebabnya : a.
Anemia Pasca Pendarahan Terjadi sebagai akibat perdarahan yang massif seperti kecelakaan, operasi dan persalinan dengan perdarahan atau yang menahun seperti pada penyakit cacin gan.
b. Anemia Defisiensi Terjadi karena kekurangan bahan baku pembuat sel darah. c.
Anemia Hemolitik Terjadi penghancuran (hemolisis) eritrosit yang berlebihan karena :
1) Factor Intrasel Misalnya talasemia, hemoglobinopati (talasemia HbE, sickle cell anemia), sferositas, defisiensi enzim eritrosit (G – 6PD, 6PD, piruvatkinase, alutation reduktase).
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e.
Sakit kepala, pusing, kunang – kunang, kunang, peka rangsang.
4. Patofisiologi Timbulnya anemia mencerminkan adanya kegagalan sumsum atau kehilangan sel darah merah secara berlebihan atau keduanya. Kegagalan sumsum dapat terjadi akibat kekurangan nutrisi, pajanan toksik, invasi tumor atau kebanyakan akibat penyebab yang tidak diketahui. Sel darah merah dapat hilang melalui perdarahan atau hemolisis (destruksi), hal ini dapat akibat defek sel darah merah yang tidak sesuai dengan ketahanan sel darah merah yang menyababkan destruksi sel darah merah.
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berlebihan tanpa tambahan makanan padat kaya besi. Bayi yang tidak cukup bulan, bayi dengan perdarahan perinatal berlebihan atau bayi dari ibu yang kurang gizi dan kurang zat besi juga tidak memiliki cadangan zat besi yang adekuat. Bayi ini berisiko lebih tinggi menderita anemia defisiensi besi sebelum berusia 6 bulan. Anemia defisiensi zat besi dapat juga terjadi karena kehilangan banyak darah yang kronik. Pada bayi hal ini terjadi karena perdarahan usus kronik yang disebabkan oleh protein dalam susu sapi yang tidak tahan panas. Pada anak sembarang umur kehilangan darah sebanyak 1 – 7 7 ml dari saluran cerna setiap hari dapat menyebabkan anemia defisiensi zat besi. Pada remaja puteri anemia defisiensi zat besi juga dapat terjadi karena menstruasi.
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Kekuranganbahan baku pembuat sel darah merah
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3) Penurunan SDM : mendeteksi perubahan warna dan bentuk (dapat mengidentifikasikan tipe khusus anemia). 4) LED : peningkatan menunjukkan adanya reaksi inflamasi. 5) Massa hidup SDM : untuk membedakan diagnose anemia. 6) Tes kerapuhan eritrosit : menurun (DB). 7) SDP : jumlah sel total sama dengan SDM (diferensial) mungkin meningkat (hemolitik) atau menurun (aplastik). b. Jumlah trombosit : menurun (aplastik), meningkat (DB), normal / tinggi (hemolitik). c.
Hb elektroforesis : mengidentifikasi tipe struktur Hb.
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Anemia defisiensi besi (DB). Respon regular DB terhadap sejumlah besi cukup mempunyai arti diagnostic, pemberian oral garam ferro sederhana (sulfat, glukanat, fumarat). Merupakan terapi yang murah dan memuaskan. Preparat besi parenteral (dektram besi) adalah bentuk yang efektif
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hiperbilirubinemia membaik (Behrman E Richard, IKA Nelson ; 1700). Thalasemia. Hingga sekarang tidak ada obat yang dapat menyembuhkannya. Transfuse darah diberikan bila kadar Hb telah rendah (kurang dari 6%) atau bila anak mengeluh tidak mau makan atau lemah. Untuk
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1) Riwayat anemia dalam keluarga. 2) Riwayat penyakit
–
prnyakit seperti : kanker, jantung, hepatitis, DM, asthma, penyakit
penyakit insfeksi saluran pernafasan.
–
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5) Kulit Kulit teraba dingin, keringat yang berlebihan, pucat, terdapat perdarahan dibawah kulit. 6) Kepala
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