PROGRAMA PISA
Ejemplos de ítems de Conocimiento Científico
Programa para la Evaluación Internacional Internacional de Alumnos de 15 años en Matemáticas, Lectura y Ciencias
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Agradecemos Agradecemos al Instituto Vasco de Evaluación e Investigación Educativa (ISEI-IVEI) su colaboración para la difusión de estas pruebas. La Directora del INECSE
Elaboración del informe (ISEI-IVEI): Amaia Arregi Martínez Alicia Sainz Martínez Inmaculada Tambo Hernández Joserra Ugarriza Ocerin Asesoramiento y supervisión técnica: Eduardo Ubieta Muñuzuri Revisión (INECSE): Joaquín Martín Muñoz Ramón Pajares Box
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ÍNDICE
1. Presentación Presentaci ón …………………………………… …………………………………………………….. ………………..
4
2. Definición de las las ciencias ciencias en PISA. Concepto Concepto de conocimiento científico…………………………………… científico…………………………………………. …….
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3. Cómo se mide el Conocimiento Científico…………………..
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4. Tipos de preguntas……………………………………………… preguntas…… …………………………………………
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5. Criterios de corrección……………………………… corrección………………………………………….. …………..
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6. Presentación de los ítems……………………………………… ítems………………………………………
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7. Ejemplos de ítems de Ciencias……………………………… Ciencias………………………………... ...
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¡Detengan a ese germen!................................................. Peter Cairney……………………………………………….. Maíz…………………………………………………………... Clonación ……………………………………………………. Luz del día …………………………………………………... …………………………………………………... Los autobuses ……………………………………………… Las moscas …………………………………………………. La biodiversidad ……………………………………………. El cambio climático ………………………………………… El chocolate ………………………………………………… Los clones del cordero …………………………………….. Ozono ……………………………………………………….. Semmelweis …………………………………………………
11 13 17 20 24 27 29 33 36 39 42 45 52
8. Bibliografía………………………………………………………..
59
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PRESENTACIÓN Con la presentación de los ítems de Ciencias liberados de las evaluaciones PISA 2000 y 2003 y el análisis de los mismos, se pretende facilitar a los profesionales del área de Ciencias una reflexión que permita poner en marcha aspectos que ayuden a la mejora del rendimiento de su alumnado. El conocer el enfoque de la evaluación, aplicación del conocimiento científico versus memorización de conceptos, puede favorecer el desarrollo de una didáctica coherente con los logros a conseguir (saber resolver problemas que se plantean en la vida real: situaciones de viaje, compra, domésticas, económicas, económicas, etc.) y que mejore el rendimiento que será medido a través de las evaluaciones correspondientes. correspondie ntes. Dado que la próxima evaluación PISA, que se realizará en el año 2.006, evaluará fundamentalmente el área de Conocimiento Científico, concretamente las destrezas alcanzadas en el área de Ciencias por el alumnado de 15 años, se ha considerado de interés hacer una recopilación del tipo de ítems que el proyecto PISA suele utilizar. El objetivo, por tanto, es acercar al profesorado que imparte el área de Ciencias, a los Departamentos de este área en los centros educativos, así como a los profesionales que se ocupan del asesoramiento del área científica, el tipo de cuestiones que se plantean en las evaluaciones actuales. Conocer los procedimientos científicos que están en la base de estas preguntas, las competencias que se deben aplicar para su resolución y valorar las actitudes hacia la ciencia actual, puede ser una clave a la hora de planificar los programas escolares y las actividades del alumnado. Finalmente, y en coherencia con la definición del conocimiento científico que hace PISA, se trata de que el alumnado alcance las estrategias y competencias necesarias para comprender los hechos científicos del mundo actual. En el año 2000 la evaluación PISA se llevó a cabo en 32 países en condiciones que hicieran posible la comparabilidad de los resultados. De las unidades utilizadas en dicha evaluación se reservó un número determinado de ellas para ser utilizadas en futuras aplicaciones, ya que la aplicación de las mismas unidades en varias evaluaciones permite equiparar las puntuaciones en una escala común y comparar los resultados a lo largo del tiempo de forma rigurosa. El resto de unidades que no se reservan no se vuelven a utilizar en las pruebas y son “liberadas” para conocimiento público. El objetivo es servir de modelo de cómo se entienden y se miden los conocimientos de ciencias en la evaluación internacional PISA. Los ítems que se presentan en este documento son trece en total, y fueron utilizados bien en los pilotajes o bien en las propias evaluaciones PISA. Esta publicación recoge 2 unidades que fueron utilizadas en Pisa 2000, así como otras 2 unidades liberadas de PISA 2003. Además, se incluyen algunos ítems de Ciencias que fueron utilizados en los pilotajes pero que no fueron incluidos en las pruebas definitivas por su similitud en cuanto a lo que miden, con otros sí seleccionados para la evaluación.
DEFINICIÓN DE LAS CIENCIAS EN PISA El programa PISA considera que la formación científica es un objetivo clave de la
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Considera, por tanto, que la formación básica en ciencias es una competencia general necesaria en la vida actual. La aptitud para la Ciencias se define en PISA como: La capacidad para emplear el conocimiento científico para identificar preguntas y obtener conclusiones basadas en pruebas, con el fin de comprender y poder tomar decisiones sobre el mundo natural y sobre los cambios que la actividad humana produce en él.
En este enfoque, la atención no se centra en cómo “ hacer ciencia”, tampoco en cómo crear conocimientos científicos, ni en cómo recordarlos brevemente en un examen final. “…Así pues, en ciencias, se debería pedir a los estudiantes que fueran capaces de evaluar pruebas factuales, de distinguir entre teorías y observaciones y de valorar el grado de confianza que hay que conceder a las explicaciones proporcionadas” proporcionadas” (Millar y Osborne, 1998) 1 El desarrollo de un conocimiento científico implica comprender los elementos característicos del área (lenguaje científico, tablas, gráficos, diagramas, etc.) y también aprender a utilizarlos para resolver problemas en una gran variedad de situaciones sociales. sociales. Desafortunadamente se da a veces la circunstancia de que una persona conoce bien los elementos del área o materia y sin embargo no logra entender su estructura ni sabe como utilizarlos para resolver problemas. El programa PISA no plantea la evaluación como una prueba curricular; sin embargo, admite que, al menos en el caso de las Ciencias, muchos de los ítems se responden mejor en la medida en que la experiencia escolar haya dado como resultado un mejor entendimiento de los procesos científicos y haya aumentado la capacidad para aplicar el conocimiento científico en situaciones de la vida real. El análisis de los ítems de Ciencias de PISA conduce a plantear la hipótesis de que, aun cuando no son ítems estrictamente curriculares, muchos de los conocimientos científicos que se precisan para resolverlos (básicamente conocimientos conceptuales y procedimentales) tienen que ser explícita e intencionalmente enseñados. De ahí la importancia de la experiencia escolar que el alumnado tenga en relación con el aprendizaje de las ciencias. Conocer las características de los ítems de Ciencias puede aportar información relevante en este sentido. Cuando se analizan las características de los ítems de Conocimiento Científico se observa que para la resolución de todos ellos se precisa: • Tener un conocimiento básico de tipo conceptual Tener un conocimiento de tipo procedimental • Aplicar determinados procedimientos a situaciones concretas • • Conocer y comprender un léxico básico propio del lenguaje científico, lógicamente correspondiente al dominio exigible al alumnado de 15 años.
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Aunque PISA es una prueba no curricular, los contenidos de los ítems se adquieren si existe una enseñanza específicamente dirigida a ello, una enseñanza no incidental. Dicho de otra manera, los procedimientos de deducción, identificación de los detalles de una investigación, la comunicación de un argumento científico, etc., son cuestiones que también necesitan ser enseñadas de forma intencional . El profesional de la enseñanza sabe que tener la experiencia de la utilidad de los conocimientos que se van adquiriendo para cubrir necesidades reales añade un plus de motivación y disposición positiva por parte del alumnado ante nuevos aprendizajes.
CÓMO SE MIDE EL CONOCIMIENTO CIENTÍFICO EN PISA El Conocimiento Científico se evalúa a través de tres grandes dimensiones: • Los procesos o destrezas científicas • Los conceptos y contenidos científicos • El contexto en el que se aplica el conocimiento científico
Procesos o destrezas científicas Se refiere a los procesos mentales implicados en la resolución de un problema científico. El interés de PISA no consiste tanto en comprobar si los chicos y chicas de 15 años pueden realizar investigaciones científicas por sí mismos, como en conocer si su experiencia escolar ha dado como resultado un entendimiento de los procesos científicos y una capacidad de aplicar los conceptos de manera que puedan “tomar decisiones sobre el mundo natural y los cambios que la actividad humana produce en él” (PISA 2003). PISA identifica cinco procesos científicos. La evaluación de cada uno de ellos ayuda a entender hasta qué punto la educación científica prepara a los futuros ciudadanos y ciudadanas para tomar decisiones sobre los cambios que la actividad humana produce en el mundo natural. 1. Reconocer cuestiones científicamente investigables:
Este proceso implica identificar los tipos de preguntas que la ciencia intenta responder, o bien reconocer una cuestión que es o puede ser comprobada en una determinada situación. 2. Identificar las evidencias necesarias en una investigación científica: Conlleva la identificación de las evidencias que son necesarias para contestar a los interrogantes que pueden plantearse en una investigación científica. Asimismo, implica identificar o definir los procedimientos procedimientos necesarios para la recogida de datos.
3. Extraer o evaluar conclusiones: conclusiones:
Este proceso implica relacionar las conclusiones con la evidencia en la que se basan o deberían basarse. Por ejemplo, presentar a los estudiantes el informe de una investigación dada para que deduzcan una o varias conclusiones alternativas.
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5. Demostrar la comprensión de conceptos científicos:
Se trata de demostrar si existe comprensión necesaria para utilizar los conceptos en situaciones distintas en las que se aprendieron. Esto supone, no sólo recordar el conocimiento, sino también saber exponer la importancia del mismo o usarlo para hacer predicciones o dar explicaciones. explicaciones. Estos procesos científicos se organizan en tres grupos de competencias según el tipo de capacidad de pensamiento predominante que se requiere para resolver las preguntas que se presentan.
Competencias I- Descripción, explicación y predicción de fenómenos científicos. II- Comprensión de la investigación científica. III- Interpretación de evidencias y conclusiones científicas.
Conceptos y contenidos El programa PISA no pretende identificar todos los conceptos que podrían estar asociados a los grandes temas científicos para ser objeto de evaluación. En lugar de ello, define una serie de temas principales de la ciencia, y a partir de ellos se hace un muestreo seleccionando los contenidos a incluir según cuatro criterios de relevancia: •
•
•
Que aparezcan en situaciones cotidianas y tengan un alto grado de utilidad en la vida diaria. Que se relacionen con aspectos relevantes de la ciencia, seleccionando aquellos que con más probabilidad mantengan su importancia científica en el futuro. Que sean aptos y relevantes para detectar la formación científica del alumnado.
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Cambio fisiológico Biodiversidad Control genético Ecosistemas La Tierra y su lugar en el universo Cambio geológico
Contextos científicos Se refiere a las situaciones y áreas en las que el alumnado tiene que aplicar sus conocimientos científicos. Tanto los conocimientos como los contextos donde se aplican son preferentemente de la vida cotidiana y se priorizan los que se relacionan con problemas y temas que tienen repercusión en el bienestar humano. Los espacios de aplicación de las ciencias se agrupan en tres grandes áreas: 1. Las ciencias de la vida y la salud 2. Las ciencias ciencias de la Tierra y del medio ambiente ambiente 3. Las ciencias ciencias aplicadas a la la Tecnología Tecnología Estas áreas incorporan aspectos que los estudiantes del mundo actual, ciudadanos y ciudadanas del mañana, necesitan comprender ya que en su vida cotidiana tendrán que tomar decisiones acerca de ellos.
TIPOS DE PREGUNTAS Las preguntas de Ciencias se presentan agrupadas en unidades. Cada unidad comienza con la presentación de un texto t exto introductorio relacionado con una situación científica de la vida real. A este texto le siguen las preguntas o ítems que los alumnos y alumnas deben responder. Las preguntas se presentan en diferentes formatos y se resuelven mediante dos tipos de respuestas. Son las siguientes: Respuesta de Elección Múltiple: se selecciona una sola opción entre varias alternativas dadas, normalmente cuatro. Respuesta de construcción abierta: se contestan redactando o calculando una respuesta en un espacio abierto.
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PRESENTACIÓN DE LOS ÍTEMS Los textos y preguntas presentados a continuación se reproducen exactamente como fueron presentados a los alumnos y alumnas en sus cuadernillos. Se presenta en primer lugar cada unidad temática con un texto introductorio de contenido científico. Tras esta presentación se muestran los ítems o preguntas. La descripción de cada ítem tiene una parte común -texto introductorio, características del ítem, criterios de corrección, etc.- y se complementa con otro tipo de información sobre los resultados obtenidos y comentarios sobre el ítem en determinados determinados casos en los que existe esta información. información. Las preguntas se presentan según el siguiente esquema: a. Texto introductorio de la Unidad b. Planteamiento Planteamient o del problema a resolver c. Descripción de las características de cada cada ítem incluyendo: • Área • Tema Proceso • • Competencia requerida • Tipo de respuesta d. Criterios de corrección de cada ítem e. Porcentaje de de respuestas correctas correctas en ítems de de las evaluaciones evaluaciones PISA 2000 2000 y PISA 2003.
PISA 2000 1.En la OCDE 2.En España
PISA 2003 1.En La OCDE 2.En España 3.En Castilla León 4.En Cataluña 5.En el País Vasco
f. Otra información complementaria complementaria (en determinados determinados ítems)
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EJEMPLOS DE ÍTEMS DE CIENCIAS DEL PROGRAMA PISA
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!DETENGAN A ESE GERMEN!
Ya en el siglo XI, los médicos chinos manipulaban el sistema inmunitario. Al soplar polvo de costras de un enfermo de viruela en los orificios nasales de sus pacientes, a menudo podían provocar una enfermedad leve que evitaba un ataque más grave posterior. Hacia 1.700, la gente se frotaba la piel con costras secas para protegerse de la enfermedad. Estas prácticas primitivas se introdujeron en Inglaterra y en las colonias americanas. En 1.771 y 1.772, durante una epidemia de viruela, un médico de Boston llamado Zabdiel Boylston puso a prueba una idea que tenía. Arañó la piel de su hijo de seis años y de otras 285 personas y frotó el pus de las costras de viruela en las heridas. Sobrevivieron todos sus pacientes a excepción de seis.
ITEM 1: ¡DETENGAN A ESE GERMEN! ¿Qué idea estaba tratando de poner a prueba Zabdiel Boylston?
_________________________ ____________ _____________________________ _____________________ _____ _________________________ ____________ _____________________________ _____________________ _____ _________________________ ____________ _____________________________ _____________________ _____
CARACTERÍSTICAS DEL ÍTEM Área: Las ciencias de la vida y la salud Tema: Biología humana Proceso: Extracción o evaluación de conclusiones Competencia requerida: Comprensión de la investigación científica Tipo de respuesta: Construcción abierta
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ITEM 2: ¡DETENGAN A ESE GERMEN! Enumera otras dos informaciones que necesitarías para determinar el grado de éxito del método de Boylston.
_________________________ ____________ _____________________________ _____________________ _____ _________________________ ____________ _____________________________ _____________________ _____ _________________________ ____________ _____________________________ _____________________ _____ _________________________ ____________ _____________________________ _____________________ _____
CARACTERÍSTICAS DEL ÍTEM Área: Las ciencias de la vida y la salud Tema: Biología humana Proceso: Identificación de la evidencia necesaria en una investigación científica Competencia requerida: Comprensión de la investigación científica Tipo de respuesta: Construcción abierta
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PETER CAIRNEY Las cuatro preguntas siguientes forman parte de una unidad cuyo estímulo es un fragmento sobre Peter Cairney, quien trabaja para el Australian Road Research Board (Consejo Australiano de Investigación Vial). Se presenta el siguiente estímulo:
... …Otra manera que tiene Peter de obtener información para mejorar la seguridad de las carreteras es el uso de una cámara de televisión colocada sobre un poste de 13 metros para filmar el tráfico de una carretera estrecha. Las imágenes muestran a los investigadores cosas tales como la velocidad del tráfico, la distancia entre los coches y qué parte de la carretera utilizan. Después de algún tiempo se pintan líneas divisorias en la carretera. Los investigadores pueden utilizar la cámara de televisión para observar sí el tráfico es ahora diferente. ¿Es el tráfico ahora más rápido o más lento? ¿Van los coches más o menos distanciados entre sí que antes? ¿Los automovilistas circulan más cerca del margen de la carretera o más cerca del centro ahora que hay líneas? Cuando Peter conozca todo esto podrá recomendar sobre si hay que pintar o no pintar líneas en carreteras estrechas.
ÍTEM 1: PETER CAIRNEY Si Peter quiere estar seguro de que está recomendando lo correcto, quizá deba
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CRITERIOS DE CORRECCIÓN Máxima puntuación
Puntuación 2:
Sí, No, Sí, No, en este orden.
Puntuación parcial
Puntuación 1:
Si, No, No, No, en este orden.
Ninguna puntuación
Puntuación 0:
Cualquier otra combinación de respuestas.
ITEM 2: PETER CAIRNEY Supón que Peter se da cuenta de que, tras haber pintado líneas divisorias en un cierto tramo de carretera estrecha, el tráfico cambia tal y como se indica a continuación. Velocidad Posición Distancia de separación
El tráfico va más rápido El tráfico se mantiene más cerca de los márgenes de la carretera Ningún cambio
A la vista de estos resultados se decidió que deberían pintarse líneas en todas las carreteras estrechas. ¿Crees que ésta fue la mejor decisión? Explica tus razones para estar a favor o en contra.
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• de acuerdo porque si el tráfico va más rápido, hay menos necesidad de adelantar; • en desacuerdo porque, si el tráfico va más rápido y se mantiene la misma distancia entre los coches, esto significa que los conductores no tienen espacio suficiente para detenerse en caso de emergencia. Ninguna puntuación
Puntuación 0: Respuestas a favor o en contra pero que no especifican las razones o dan razones que no tienen relación con el problema.
ITEM 3: PETER CAIRNEY Se aconseja a los conductores que dejen más espacio entre su vehículo y el de delante cuando viajan a mayor velocidad que cuando viajan a menor velocidad, porque los coches que van más rápido necesitan más tiempo para frenar. Explica por qué un coche que va más rápido necesita más distancia para detenerse que un coche que va más lento. Razones: ___________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________
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Puntuación parcial
Puntuación 1: Respuestas que indican sólo una de las dos ideas anteriores. Ninguna puntuación
Puntuación 0: Otras respuestas, respuestas, o repetición de la afirmación, p. ej. • que necesita más tiempo para detenerse debido a su velocidad.
ÍTEM 4: PETER CAIRNEY Al ver la televisión, Peter ve un coche (A) que va a 45 km/h que es adelantado por otro coche (B) que va a 60 km/h. ¿A qué velocidad le parece que va el coche B a alguien que va viajando en el coche A? A. 0 km/h B. 15 km/h C. 45 km/h D. 60 km/h E. 105 km/h
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MAÍZ Los tres ítems siguientes se han extraído de una unidad llamada Maíz. El estímulo es un artículo de periódico sobre un agricultor, Auke Ferweda, que quema maíz en su estufa a modo de combustible. combustible. Es el siguiente:
…...Ferwerda señala que el maíz que se utiliza como pienso para el ganado es, en realidad, un tipo de combustible. Las vacas comen maíz para conseguir energía. Pero, según explica Ferwerda, la venta del maíz como combustible en lugar de como pienso podría ser mucho más rentable para los granjeros. Ferwerda sabe que el medio ambiente recibe cada vez más atención y que la legislación estatal para proteger el medio ambiente cada vez es más compleja. Lo que Ferwerda no acaba de entender es la cantidad de atención que se está dedicando al dióxido de carbono. Se le considera la causa del efecto invernadero. También se dice que el efecto invernadero es la causa principal del aumento de la temperatura media de la atmósfera de la Tierra. Sin embargo, desde el punto de vista de Ferweda no hay nada malo en el dióxido de carbono. Al contrario, él aduce
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CARACTERÍSTICAS DEL ÍTEM Las ciencias de la vida y la salud Área: Cambios físicos y químicos Tema: Proceso: Extracción o evaluación de conclusiones Competencia: Descripción, explicación y predicción de fenómenos científicos Tipo de respuesta: Elección múltiple compleja
CRITERIOS DE CORRECCIÓN Máxima puntuación
Puntuación 1: Sí, Sí, Sí, en este orden. (Todas las partes deben haber sido contestadas correctamente, dado que cualquier error indicaría algún fallo de comprensión del proceso de transformación de alimentos en el cuerpo de un animal.) Ninguna puntuación
Puntuación 0: Cualquier otra combinación de respuestas.
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ÍTEM 3: MAÍZ Al final del artículo, Ferwerda se refiere a los científicos que dicen que el dióxido de carbono no constituye la causa principal del efecto invernadero. invernadero. Carolina encuentra la siguiente tabla, en la que se muestran ciertos resultados de las investigaciones investigaciones sobre los cuatro gases principales causantes del efecto invernadero. Efecto invernadero relativo por molécula de gas
Dióxido de carbono
Metano
Óxido nitroso
Clorofluorocarbonos Clorofluorocarbonos
1
30
160
17.000
A partir de esta tabla, Carolina concluye que el dióxido de carbono no es la causa principal del efecto invernadero. No obstante, esta conclusión es prematura. Estos datos deben combinarse con otros datos para poder concluir si el dióxido de carbono es o no la causa principal del efecto invernadero.
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CLONACIÓN Lee el siguiente artículo de periódico y contesta a las preguntas que se presentan a continuación .
¿Una máquina copiadora de seres vivos? Sin lugar a dudas, si hubiera habido elecciones para escoger el animal del año 1997, ¡Dolly hubiera sido la ganadora! Dolly es la oveja escocesa que puedes ver en la fotografía. Pero Dolly no es una oveja cualquiera. Es un clon de otra oveja. Un clon significa: una copia. Clonar significa copiar a partir “de un original”. Los científicos han conseguido crear una oveja (Dolly) que es idéntica a otra oveja que hizo
A este pequeño trozo le sacó el núcleo, después introdujo el núcleo en un óvulo de otra oveja (oveja 2). Pero, anteriormente, había eliminado de ese óvulo todo el material que hubiera podido determinar las características de la oveja 2 en otra oveja producida a partir de dicho óvulo. Ian Wilmut implantó el óvulo manipulado de la oveja 2 en otra oveja hembra (oveja 3). La oveja 3 quedó preñada y tuvo un
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ÍTEM 1: CLONACIÓN ¿A qué oveja es idéntica Dolly? A Oveja 1. B Oveja 2. C Oveja 3. D Al padre de Dolly .
CARACTERÍSTICAS DEL ÍTEM
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ITEM 2. CLONACIÓN En el texto se describe la parte de la ubre que se usó como “un trozo muy pequeño”. A partir del texto del artículo puedes deducir a qué se refiere con “un trozo muy pequeño”. Este “trozo muy pequeño” es A Una célula.
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ITEM 3. CLONACIÓN En la última frase del artículo se dice que muchos gobiernos ya han decidido prohibir por ley la clonación de seres humanos. A continuación se mencionan dos posibles razones para esta decisión.
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LUZ DEL DÍA Lee la siguiente información y contesta a las preguntas que se presentan a continuación .
LA LUZ DEL DÍA 22 JUNIO DE 2002 Hoy, cuando el Hemisferio Norte celebre su día más largo, los australianos
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OCDE: España:
Porcentaje de respuestas correctas PISA 2000 PISA 2003 38,7% OCDE: 42,6% 43,6% España: 44,0% Castilla y León: 49,6% Cataluña: 39,0% País Vasco: 45,0%
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CRITERIOS DE CORRECCIÓN Máxima puntuación
Puntuación 2: El diagrama contiene el Ecuador inclinado hacia el Sol con un ángulo entre 10 ° y 45°, el eje de la Tierra inclinado hacia el Sol dentro del rango de 10 ° y 45° de la vertical, y A
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