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Kodak Student Handbook.pdf Uploaded by Ion Mikel Onandia Martinez

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KODAK: General Curve Regions

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General Curve Regions Regardless of film type, all characteristic curves are composed of five regions: D -min, the toe, the straight-line portion, the shoulder and Dmax.

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Exposures less than at A on negative film or greater than at A on reversal film will not be recorded as changes in density. This constant density area of a black- and-white film curve is called base plus fog . In a color film, it is termed minimum density or D-min.

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The toe (A to B), as shown in Figure 9, is the portion of the characteristic curve where the slope (or gradient) increases gradually with constant changes in exposure (log H).

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The straight-line (B to C), Figure 10, is the portion of the curve where the slope does not change; the density change for a given log-exposure change remains constant or linear. For optimum results, all significant picture information is placed on the straight-line portion. The shoulder (C to D), Figure 11 , is the portion of the curve where the slope decreases. Further changes in exposure (log H) will produce no You're Reading a Preview increase in density because the maximum density (D-max) of the film has been reached. Unlock full access with a free trial.

Base density is the density of fixed -out (all silver removed) negativeDownload With Free positive film that is unexposed and undeveloped. NetTrial densities produced by exposure and development are measured from the base density. For reversal films, the analogous term of D-min describes the area receiving total exposure and complete processing. The resulting density is that of the film base with any residual dyes. Fog refers to the net density produced during development of negative positive films in areas that have had no exposure. Fog caused by development may be increased with extended development time or increased developer temperatures. The type of developing agent and the Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title pH value of the developer can also affect the degree of Useful fog. The net fog   Not useful Cancel anytime. value for a given development time is obtained by subtracting the base Special offer fordensity students:from Only $4.99/month. the density of the unexposed but processed film. When such values are determined for a series of development times, a time-

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Figure 9

Figure 10

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the characteristic curve, the higher the contrast. The terms gamma and average gradient refer to numerical means for indicating the contrast of the photographic image. Gamma is the slope of the straight-line portion of the characteristic curve or the tangent of the angle (a) formed by the straight line with the horizontal. In Figure 5, the tangent of the angle (a) i s obtained by dividing the density increase by the log exposure change. The resulting numerical value is referred to as gamma. Gamma does not describe contrast characteristics of the toe or the shoulder. Camera negative films record some parts of scenes, such as shadow areas, on the top portion of the characteristic curve. Gamma does not account for this aspect of contrast. Average gradient is the slope of the line connecting two points bordering a specified log-exposure interval on the characteristic curve. The location of the two points includes portions of the curve beyond the straight-line portion. Thus, the average gradient can describe contrast characteristics in areas of the scene not rendered on the straight-line portion of the curve. Measurement of an average gradient extending beyond the straight-line portion is shown in Figure 13. Curves for a Development-Time Series on a Typical Black and White Negative Film



Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. Figure 12


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Figure 13

The particular gamma or average gradient value to which a specific black-and-white film is developed differs according to the properties and uses of the film. Suggested control gamma values are given on the data sheets for black-and-white negative and positive films. If characteristic curves for a black-and-white negative or positive film are You're Reading a Preview determined for a series of development times and the gamma or average gradient of each curve is plotted against the time of development, a Unlock full access with a free trial. curve showing the change of gamma or average gradient with increase development is obtained. You can use the time-gamma curve ( Figure Download Free Trial 14) to find the optimum developing time toWith produce the control gamma values recommended in the data sheet (or any other gamma desired). Black-and-white reversal and all color film processes are not controlled by using gamma values. Flashing camera films to lower contrast is a technique 3 that involves uniformly exposing film before processing to lower its overall contrast. It's used with some color films. It is actually an intentional light fogging Read Free For 30this Days Signor up to vote on title of the film. You can make the flashing exposure before after the subject exposure, either in a camera or in a printer. The required amount Useful useful  Not Cancel anytime. of exposure and the color of the exposing light depends on the effect Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. desired, the point at which the flashing exposure is applied, the subject of the main exposure, and the film processing. Because of potential


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Figure 14

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Figure 15

This fairly common practice is often used to create a closer match of two films' contrast characteristics when they are intercut. The hypothetical characteristic curves in Figure 15 show what occurs when one film is flashed to approximately match another film's characteristic curve. The illustration has been simplified to show an ideal matching of the two films. In practice, results will depend on the tests run using the specific You're Reading a Preview films intended for a production. Unlock full access with a free trial.

Some film productions use flashing (called "creative flashing") to alter the contrast of the original camera negative of a particular scene to Download With Free Trial create a specific effect-making pastels from more saturated col ors, enhancing shadow detail, and the like. Further discussion of this type of flashing is presented in "Creative Post-Flashing Technique for the The Long Goodbye," American Cinematographer Magazine, March 1973.

Home | Search | Service & Support | Visit shop @ kodak , the online store | Careers Copyright © Eastman Kodak Company, 1994-2002 and Privacy Practices (updated 14 -Sep-2001).



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KODAK: Color Sensitivity and Spectral Sensitivity

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Color Sensitivity and Spectral Sensitivity area 12

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The term color sensitivity is used on data sheets for some black-andwhite films to describe the portion of the visual spectrum to which the film is sensitive. All black-and-white camera films are panchromatic (sensitive to the entire visible spectrum). Some laboratory films are also panchromatic: Eastman Fine Grain Duplicating Panchromatic Negative Film, Eastman Panchromatic Separation Film, and Eastman High Contrast Panchromatic Film.

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Some films, called orthochromatic , are sensitive mainly to the blue-andgreen portions of Lhe visible spectrum. Eastman Direct MP, Eastman Reversal BW Print, and Eastman Sound Recording II Films are all orthochromatic laboratory or print films.

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Films used exclusively to receive images from black -and-white materials are blue-sensitive: Eastman Fine Grain Release Positive Film, Eastman High Contrast Positive Film, and Eastman Fine Grain Duplicating Positive Film. One film is sensitive to blue light and ultraviolet radiation: Eastman You're Reading a Preview Television Recording Film. The extended sensitivity in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum permits the film respond to trial. the output of Unlock fullto access with a free cathode- ray tubes.

Download With Free Trial While color films and panchromatic black-and-white films are sensitive to all wavelengths of visible light, rarely are two films equally sensitive to all wavelengths. Spectral sensitivity describes the relative sensitivity of the emulsion to the spectrum within the film's sensitivity range. The photographic emulsion has inherently the sensitivity of photosensitive silver halide crystals. Itese crystals are sensitive to high-energy radiation, such as X-rays, gamma rays, ultraviolet radiation and bluelight wavelengths (blue- sensitive black-and-white films). In conventional photographic emulsions, sensitivity is limited at the short (ultraviolet) wavelength end to about 250 nanometers (nm) because the nthis used Read Free Foron 30 Days Sign up togelati vote title in the photographic emulsion absorbs much ultraviolet Useful radiation. The   Not useful Cancel anytime. sensitivity of an emulsion to the longer wavelengths can be extended by Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. the addition of suitably chosen dyes.


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density. The radiation expressed in nanometers is plotted on the horizontal axis, and the logarithm of sensitivity is plotted on the vertical axis to produce a spectral-sensitivity curve, as shown in Figure 17.


Figure 16


Equivalent neutral density (END) -When the amounts of the components of an image are expressed in this unit, each of the density figures tells how dense a gray that component can form.

Because each emulsion layer of a color film has its own speed and contrast characteristics, equivalent neutral density (END) is derived as a standard basis for comparison of densities represented by the spectralsensitivity curve. For color films, t he standard density used to specify spectral sensitivity is as follows: Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd & The New Yorkfilms Times For reversal , END = 1.0

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negative films, direct duplicating, and print films , Special offer forFor students: Only $4.99/month. END= 1.0 above D -min.


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masked films have a curve that represents typical dye densities for a mid-scale neutral subject. The wavelengths of light, expressed in nanometers (nm), are plotted on the horizontal axis, and the corresponding diffuse spectral densities are plotted on the vertical axis. Ideally, a color dye should absorb only in its own region of the spectrum. All color dyes in use absorb some wavelengths in other regions of the spectrum. This unwanted absorption, which could prevent satisfactory color reproduction when the dyes are printed, is corrected in the film's manufacture. In color negative films, some of the dye-forming couplers incorporated in the emulsion layers at the time of manufacture are colored and are evident in the D-min of t he film after development. These residual couplers provide automatic masking to compensate for the effects of unwanted dye absorption when the negative is printed. This explains why negative color films look orange. Since color reversal films and print films are usually designed for direct projection, the dye-forming couplers must be colorless. In this case, the couplers are selected to produce dyes that will, as closely as possible, absorb in only their respective regions in the spectrum. If these films are printed, they require no printing mask.





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Figure 18 Home | Search | Service & Support | Visit shop @ kodak , the online store | Careers Copyright © Eastman Kodak Company, 1994-2002 and Privacy Practices (updated 14 -Sep-2001).





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KODAK: Image Structure

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Image Structure The sharpness of image detail that a particular film type can produce cannot be measured by a single test or expressed by one number. For example, resolving-power-test data gives a reasonably good indication of image quality. However, because these values describe the maximum resolving power a photographic system or component is capable of, they do not indicate the capacity of the system (or component) to reproduce detail at other levels. For more complete analyses of detail quality, other evaluating methods, such as the modulation-transfer function and film granularity, are often used. An examination of the modulation -transfer curve, RMS granularity, and both the high- and low-contrast resolving power listings will provide a good basis for comparison of the detailimaging qualities of different films.

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Modulation-Transfer Curve area 14 Modulation transfer relates to the ability of a film to reproduce images of different sizes. The modulation-transfer curve describes a film's capacity to reproduce the complex spatial frequencies of detail in an object. In physical terms, the measurements evaluate the effect on the image of light diffusion within the emulsion. First, film is exposed under carefully controlled conditions to a series of special test pattems, You're Reading a Previewsimilar to that illustrated in (a) of Figure 19. After development, the image (b) is full access with a(c). free trial. scanned in a microdensitometer Unlock to produce trace




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KODAK: Image Structure

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When the microdensitometer scans the test film, the densities of the trace are interpreted in terms of exposure, and the effective modulation of the image (Mi) is calculated. The modulation-transfer factor is the ratio of the modulation of the developed image to the modulation of the exposing pattern (Mo), or Mi/Mo. This ratio is plotted on the vertical axis (logarithmic scale) as a percentage of response. The spatial frequency of the patterns is plotted on the horizontal axis as cycles per millimeter. Figure 20 shows two such curves. At lower magnifications, the test film represented by curve A appears sharper than that represented by curve B; at very high magnifications, the test film represented by curve B appears sharper.

You're Reading a Preview Figure 20

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All of the photographic modulation-transfer curves in the data sheets Trial by ANSI were determined using a methodDownload similar toWith thatFree specified Standard PH2.39-1977. The fil ms were exposed with the specified illuminant to spatially varying sinusoidal test patterns having an aerialimage modulation of a nominal 35 percent at the image plane, with processing as indicated. In practice, most photographic modulationtransfer values are influenced by development adjacency effects and are not exactly equivalent to the true optical modulation-transfer curve of a particular photographic product.

Master your semester with Scribd Modulation-transfer measurements can also be madeRead for up the -film Free Foron 30this Days Sign to non vote title components in a photographic system such as cameras, lenses, printers, & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful etc, to analyze or predict the sharpness of the entire system. By Cancel anytime.

Special offer formultiplying students: Onlythe $4.99/month. responses for each ordinate of the individual curves, you can combine the modulation-transfer curve for a film with similar curves

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KODAK: Graininess and Granularity

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Graininess and Granularity area 15 The terms graininess and granularity are often confused or even used as synonyms in discussions of silver or dye-deposit distributions in photographic emulsions. The two terms refer to two distinctly different ways of evaluating the image structure. When a photographic image is viewed with sufficient magnification, the viewer experiences the visual sensation of graininess, a subjective impression of nonuniformity in an image. This nonuniformity in the image structure can also be measured objectively with a rnicrodensitometer. This objective evaluation measures film granularity. Motion picture films consist of silver halide crystals dispersed in gelatin (the emulsion) which is coated in thin layers on a support (the film base). T'he exposure and development of these crystals forms the photographic image, which is, at some stage, made up of discrete particles of silver. In color processes, where the silver is removed after development the dyes form dye clouds centered on the sites of the developed silver crystals. The crystals vary in size, shape, and sensitivity, and generally are randomly distributed within the emulsion. Within an area of uniform exposure, some of the crystals will be made developable by exposure; others wil l not.

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The location of these crystals is also random. Development usually does Unlock withof a free trial. not change the position of a grain, so full theaccess image a uniformly exposed area is the result of a random distribution either of opaque silver particles (black- and-white film) or dye clouds film), separated by Download With(color Free Trial transparent gelatin (Figures 21 and 22).


Figure 22


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resolves random groupings of these particles into denser and less dense areas. As magnification decreases, the observer progressively associates larger groups of spots as new units of graininess. The size of these compounded groups gets larger as the magnification decreases, but the amplitude (the difference in density between the darker and the lighter areas) decreases. At still lower magnifications, the graininess disappears altogether because no granular structure can be seen ( Figure 23).


Download With Free Trial Figure 23 (a) A 2.5X enlargement of a negative shows no apparent graininess. (b) At 20X, some graininess shows. (c) When a segement of the negative is inspected at 60X, the individual silver grains strt to become distinguishable. (d) With 400X magnification, the discrete grains are easily seen. Note that surface grains are in focus while grains deeper in the emulsion are out of focus. The apparent "clumping" of silver grains is actually caused by overlap of grains at different depths when viewed in two-dimensional projection. (e) The makeup of individual grains takes different forms. This Read filamentary Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title silver, enlarged by an electron microscope, appears as a single Useful Not useful opaque grain at low magnification. Cancel anytime.


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Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. Randomness is a necessary condition for the phenomenon. If the

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Figure 24 If the uniform dot pattern of a conventional halftone is used to reproduce a scene, the eye accepts the image as a smooth, continuous-tone rendition (a). This happens because the dots are regularly spaced. However, when the halftone dots are distributed randomly in an area to reproduce a scene (b) the image looks "grainy." Graininess in the image is due, in part, to the random distribution of the individual elements which make up that image.

When you view a random pattem of small dots magnified enough to You're Reading aan Preview resolve the individual dots, you do not perceive orderly or intelligible pattem. When the magnification is decreased so the dots cannot be Unlock full access with a free trial. resolved, they appear to blend together to form an image whose surface is nonuniform or grainy.


Measuring RMS Granularity The attributes of the photographic image which cause the human eye to perceive graininess can also be measured (and simulated) by an electrooptical system in a microdensitometer. These measurements are analyzed statstically to provide numerical values that correlate with the visual impression of graininess. The two major advantages of objective measurement are that instruments can be devised to make rapid and Free Foron 30this Days Sign to manipulated vote title precise measurements and that these measurementsRead canup be readily by mathematical means.  Useful  Not useful


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Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. Ordinary densitometers measure density over areas much larger than

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and the current produced is then fed to a meter calibrated to read the standard deviation of the random-density fluctuations (see Figure 26 ).

Figure 25 A large aperture "sees" a vast number of individual silver grains. Therefore, small local fluctuations have practically no effect on the density it records. Small apertures (about one twentieth of the larger aperture diameter) detect random differences in grain distribution when they sample the large "uniform" area.




Figure 26


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about 0.6 to 0.9). The light tones of the print are on the toe of the characteristic curve where the slope is very much lower than unity. Hence, the contrast with which the graininess is reproduced is very lowdecreasing its visibility. In dark tones, the eye is less able to distinguish graininess. The eye easily detects density differences as low as 0.02 in the average highlight density, but can detect density differences only on the order of 0.20 in the average shadow density. In the midtones, where the slope of the curve is constant, the print material has its maximum contrast and the eye can more readily distinguish small density differences; therefore, the granularity can be most easily detected by the eye as graininess. Another factor in perceiving graininess is the amount of detail in a scene. Graininess is most apparent in large areas with fairly uniform densities and is much less evident in areas full of fine detail or motion. It is difficult to predict the magnification at which projected print images will be viewed since both the projection magnification and the distance from the observer to the screen can very. Both factors affect the picture magnification, and thus the graininess. When a motion picture film i s seen at great magnification (as from a front-row theater seat), the viewer may be aware of grains "boiling" or "crawling" in uniform areas of the image. This sensation is caused by the frame-to-frame changes of grain positions, which make graininess more noticeable in a motion picture than in a still photograph. Conversely, the moving image tends to distract the viewer's attention away from this You're Reading a Preview sensation, and graininess is, therefore, usually noticed only in static scenes. Unlock full access with a free trial.


Home | Search | Service & Support | Visit shop @ kodak, the online store | Careers Copyright © Eastman Kodak Company, 1994-2002 and Privacy Practices (updated 14 -Sep-2001).



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KODAK: Resolving Power

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Resolving Power area 16 The resolving power of a film emulsion refers to its ability to record fine detail. It is measured by photographing resolution charts or targets under exacting test conditions. The parallel lines on resolution charts are separated from each other by spaces the same width as the lines. The chart contains a series of graduated parallel-line groups, each group differing from the next smaller or next larger by a constant factor. The targets are photographed at a great reduction in size, and the processed image is viewed through a microscope. The resolution is measured by a visual estimate of the number of lines per millimeter that can be recognized as separate lines.

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The measured resolving power depends on the exposure, the contrast of the test target, and, to a lesser extent, the development of the film. The resolving power of a film is greatest at an intermediate exposure value, falling off greatly at high- and low-exposure values. Obviously, the loss in resolution that accompanies under- or over-exposure is an important reason for observing the constraints of a particular film when making exposures.

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Resolution also depends on the contrast of the image, hence, the contrast of the target. Test exposures usually made with both a highYou'reare Reading a Preview contrast (luminance ratio 1000: 1) and a low -contrast (1.6:1) target. A Unlock full access with a is freehigher. trial. film resolves finer detail when the image contrast Both highand low-contrast resolving-power values are determined according to a method sirnilar to the one described in ANSI No.Free PH2.33-1969 1R1976). Download With Trial "Method for Determining the Resolving Power of Photographic Materials," are given on the data sheets. The resolving power reported is based on film exposed and processed as recommended. The maximum resolution obtainable in practical photographic work is limited both by the camera lens and by the film. The formula often used to predict the resolution of a camera original is

Master your semester with 1 Scribd 1 1 = + & The New York Times R 2 R 2 R 2 S

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Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. RS = Resolution of the system (lens + film)

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KODAK: Physical Characteristics

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Physical Characteristics l l l l

l

Film Base Antihalation Backing Edge Numbers Dimensional Change Characteristics ¡ Temporary Size Change n Moisture n Temperature n Rates of Temporary Change n Swell During Processing ¡ Permanent Size Change n Raw Stock Shrinkage n Processing Shrinkage n Aging Shrinkage Other Physical Characteristics ¡ Curl ¡ Buckling and Fluting

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KODAK: Film Base

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Film Base area 17 The film base is the plastic support that carries the li ght-sensitive emulsion. Requirements for a suitable film base include optical transparency, freedom from optical imperfections, chemical stability, photographic inertness, and resistance to moisture and processing chemicals. Mechanical strength, resistance to tearing, flexibility, dimensional stability, and freedom from physical distortion are also important factors in processing, printing, and projection.

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Two general types of film base are currently used -cellulose triacetate esters and a synthetic polyester polymer known as ESTAR Base. Cellulose triacetate film base is made by combining the cellulose triacetate with suitable solvents and a plasticizer. Most current Kodak and Eastman Motion Picture Films are coated on a cellulose triacetate base.

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ESTAR Base, a polyethylene terephthalate polyester, is used for some Kodak and Eastman Motion Picture Films (mostly intermediate and print films) because of its high strength, chemical stability, toughness, tear resistance, flexibility, and dimensional stability. The greater strength of ESTAR Base permits the manufacture of thinner films that require less room for storage. ESTAR Base films andReading other polyester You're a Previewbase films, cannot be successfully spliced with readily available commercial film Unlock full access withsplicer a free trial. cements. You can splice these films with a tape or with a splicer that uses an ultrasonic or an inductive beating current to melt and fuse the film ends. Download With Free Trial

Antihalation Backing Light penetrating the emulsion of a film can be reflected from the baseemulsion interface back into the emulsion. As a result, there is a secondary exposure causing an undesirable reduction in the sharpness of the image and some light scattering, called halation, around images of bright objects. See Figure 27. A dark layer coated on or in the film base will absorb and minimize this reflection, hence it is called an antihalation Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title layer. Three methods of minimizing halation are commonly used:  Useful  Not useful


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Special offer forRem students: $4.99/month. Jet :Only A black-pigmented, nongelatin layer on the back of the film base serves as an antihalation and antistatic layer. This layer is removed

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KODAK: Film Base

Pag Figure 27 Light Piping

Dyed film base : Film bases, especially polyester, can also transmit or pipe light that strikes the edge of the film. This light can travel inside the base and fog the emulsion (Figure 27 ). A neutral-density dye is incorporated in some film bases and serves to both reduce halation and prevent light piping. This dye density may vary from a just detectable level to approximately 0.2. The higher level is used primarily for halation protection in black-and-white negative films on cellulosic bases. Unlike fog, the gray dye does not reduce the density range of an image, because it, like a neutral- density filter, adds the same density to all areas. It has, therefore, a negligible effect on picture quality.






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KODAK: Edge Numbers

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Edge Numbers Edge numbers (also called key numbers or footage numbers) are placed at regular intervals along the film edge for convenie nce in frame -forframe matching of the camera film to the workprint. The numbers are printed along one edge outside the perforations on 35 mm film and between the perforations on 35 mm film and between the perforations on 16 mm film. The numbers are sequential, usually occurring every 16 frames (every 12 inches) on 35 mm film and every 20 frames (every 6 inches) on 16 mm film. In a few instances, edge numbers on 16 mm films are located every 40 frames (12 inches). All Kodak camera film is edge numbered at the time of manufacture in one of two ways:

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Latent Image : The film edge is exposed by a printer mounted at the perforator to produce an image visible only on processed film. The five or seven digits are sequential and will change every 16 (35 mm) or 20 (16 mm) frames. The cluster of numbers and letters to the left of the sequential numbers are a manufacturer's code for the type of product, the perforator, and the equipment used to produce the product. All Kodak 16 mm and 35 mm camera color film is latent-image edge numbered ( Figure 28). You're Reading a Preview Unlock full access trial.is numbered Visible Ink Image: During manufacturing, the with filrna free stock with a visible ink. Again, this process is performed at the perforators. The ink, unaffected by photographic chemicals, is printed Download With Free Trial on the emulsion surface of the film. The numbers are visible on both the raw stock and the processed film. In Figure 29, the visible ink edge numbering will be more visible after processing. All 35 mm Kodak blackand-white motion picture camera films have ink edge numbers. The letter "C" is a manufacturer's product identification.

A third method of applying edge numbering is very often used by commercial motion picture labs. There the film is numbered on the base side, generally with yellow ink. This numbering Special offer fordoes students: $4.99/month. notOnly interfere with the manufacturer's edge numbers because



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KODAK: Edge Numbers

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Figure 29

Figure 30

Visible ink edge numbering

La bora tory applied edge numbering

In 1990, Eastman Kodak Company introduced a new edge-numbering system that will eventually be included on all Eastman camera negative films, both black-and-white and color. The new system incorporates Eastman KEYKODE TM ; numbers which are machine readable in bar code. A variety of scanners can read this bar code in the same way that the bar code on most products in supermarkets is read by a scanner in the checkout line. The human- readable key numbers are similar to previous edge numbers, but are easier to read. In this improved format, the key number consists of 12 highly legible characters printed at the familiar one-foot, 64 perforation interval. The KEYKODETM ; number incorporates the same human-readable number, but in a bar code. See Figures 31 and 32.

Eastman 16 mm Edgeprint You're Format Reading a Preview Featuring KEYKODE TM Numbers - Figure Unlock full access31, with 32 a free trial.

Download With Free Trial Home | Search | Service & Support | Visit shop @ kodak , the online store | Careers Copyright © Eastman Kodak Company, 1994-2002 and Privacy Practices (updated 14-Sep- 2001).



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KODAK: Temporary Size Change

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Temporary Size Change Moisture. Relative Humidity (RH) of the air is the major factor affecting the moisture content of the film, thus governing the temporary expansion or contraction of the film (assuming constant temperature). For camera films, the humidity coefficients are slightly higher than for positive print films. The coefficients given in the table above are averages for the range of 15- to 5 0-percent RH, where the relationship between film size and relative humidity is approximately linear. For ESTAR Base films, this coefficient is larger at lower humidity ranges, and smaller at higher humidity ranges. When a given relative humidity level is approached from above, the exact dimensions of a piece of film on cellulose triacetate support may be slightly larger than when the level is approached from below. The opposite is true for ESTAR Base films, which will be slightly larger when the film is previously conditioned to a lower humidity than it would be if conditioned to a higher humidity.

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Temperature. Photographic film expands with heat and contracts with cold in direct relationship to the film's thermal coefficient. The thermal coefficients for current Kodak and Eastman Motion Picture Films are listed in the previous table. Rates of Temporary Change . Following a shift ina the relative humidity of You're Reading Preview the air surrounding a single strand of film, humidity size alterations occur Unlock full access with a free trial. rapidly in the first 10 minutes and continue for about an hour. If the film is in a roll, this time will be extended to several weeks because the moisture must follow a longer path. In the With case Free of temperature Download Trial variations, a single strand of film coming in contact with a hot metal surface, for example, will change almost instantly. A roll of film, on the other hand, requires several hours to alter size. Swell during Processing . All motion picture films swell during photographic processing and shrink during drying. The swell of triacetate films is initially rapid and depends upon the temperature of the processing solutions, time, and film tension. Acetate films swell more in the widthwise than in the lengthwise direction, and negative films swell Read Free Forsmaller. 30this Days Signis up to vote on title more than print films. The change for ESTAR Base films much Not useful The effects of drying upon the final dimensions are discussed in  Useful the Cancel anytime. permanent Special offer forsection students:on Only $4.99/month.size change.


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Permanent Size Change Permanent size change is the summation of the shrinkage of the raw film, the size change due to processing, and the shrinkage of the processed film. Raw Stock Shrinkage. Immediately after slitting and processing, the unexposed motion-picture film is placed in cans that are sealed with tape. Until the film is removed from the can, solvent loss from triacetate film is extremely low. The lengthwise shrinkage will rarely exceed 0.5 percent during the first 6 months in a 1000 -foot can of 35 mm film. ESTAR Base films will not shrink more than 0.2 percent while in a taped can.


Processing Shrinkage. The net effect triacetate base film is Unlockof fullprocessing access with a free trial. normally slight shrinkage (see table ) unless the film has been stretched. Some commercial processing machines have sufficiently high tension to Download With Free Trial stretch the wet film (particularly 16 mm film); consequently, a lower net processing shrinkage or even a slight permanent stretch may result. Because of its greater strength and resistance to moisture, the overall size change of ESTAR Base films is much less. Aging shrinkage. It is i mportant that motion picture negatives, internegatives, and color originals have low aging shrinkage so that you can make satisfactory prints or duplicates even after many years of storage. With motion picture positive film intended for projection only, Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up toon vote title shrinkage is not especially critical because it has little effect projection.  Useful  Not useful


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Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. The rate at which aging shrinkage occurs depends upon the conditions of

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about 0.1 to 0.3 percent for 35 mm film and 0.1 to 0.4 percent for 16 mm film during the first two years. Higher shrinkage can occur over a longer period, as indicated in this table. Shrinkage of films on ESTAR Base is unlikely to exceed 0.04 percent. Although aging shrinking of motion picture films is a permanent size change, humidity and thermal size changes can either increase or decrease the observed size change.






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KODAK: Other Physical Characteristics

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Other Physical Characteristics Aside from image quality considerations, other factors can affect the satisfactory performance of motion picture film.

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Photographic-film curl is defined as the departure from flatness of photographic film. Curl toward the emulsion is called positive while curl away from the emulsion is termed negative. Although the curl level is established during manufacture, it is influenced by the relative humidity during use or storage, processing and drying temperatures, and the winding configuration.

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You're Reading a Preview Figure 33



At low relative humidities, the emulsion layer contracts more than the base generally producing positive curl. As the relative humidity increases, the contractive force of the emulsion layer decreases and the inherent curl of the support becomes dominant. Film wound in rolls tends to assume the lengthwise curl conforming to the curve of the roll. When a strip of this curled film is pulled into a flat configuration, the lengthwise curl is transformed into a widthwise curl.

Master your semester with Scribd Buckling and Fluting & The New York Times


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Special offer forVery students: Only high or $4.99/month. low relative humidity can also cause abnormal distortions of film in rolls. Buckling, caused by the differential shrinkage of the outside

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KODAK: Other Physical Characteristics

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Calhoun, J. M "The Physical Properties and Dimensional Behavior of Modon Picture Films," ournal of the SMPTE , 43:227-66, October 1944. Fordyce, C. R., "Improved Safety Motion Picture Film Support," Journa l of the SMPTE , 51:331 -50, October 1948. Fordyce, C. R., Calhoun, J. M., and Moyer, E. E., "Shrinkage Behavior of Motion Picture Film," Journa l of the SMPTE , 64:62 -66, February 1955. Miller, A. J. and Robertson, A. C., "Motion Picture Film-Its Size and Dimensional Characteristics," Journ al o f th e S MPTE, 74:3-1 1, January 1965. Neblette, C. B., "Photography-Its Materials and Process," Chapter 11, D. VanNostrand Co., Inc., 1962






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KODAK: Storage of Raw and Exposed Film

Storage of Raw and Exposed Film l

l

Raw Stock in Original Package ¡ Temperature ¡ Radiation ¡ Gases and Vapors ¡ Relative Humidity ¡ Handling Unprocessed Film before and after Exposure ¡ General Concerns ¡ Temperature ¡ Gases and Radiation ¡ Relative Humidity ¡ Handling

Storage of Raw and Exposed Film (18) The sensitometric characteristics of virtually all unprocessed photographic materials gradually change with time, causing loss in sensitivity, a change in contrast, a growth in fog level, or possibly all three. In color films, the rates at which the various color-sensitive layers respond are not necessarily the same, thus the color balance of the material can also change. Improper storage usually causes much larger changes in color quality and film speed than do You're Reading a Preview variations in manufacturing. Scrupulous control of temperature and humidity, Unlock full access withgases, a free trial. thorough protection from harmful radiation and and careful handling are important to long, useful film life.


This section explains how to store raw film stock and exposed but unprocessed film. This chart summarizes optimum storage conditions.

Raw Stock in Original Package Temperature In general, the lower the temperature at which a film is stored, the slower will be its rate of sensitometric change during aging. For periods up to six months,  motion picture raw stock should be stored at a t emperature 13ºC (55ºF) Read Free For 30this Days Sign up toof vote on title or  lower during the entire storage period if optimum film properties are to be Not useful  Useful  Cancel anytime. retained. Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.


Raw stock should be stored at -18º to -23ºC (0º to -IOºF) if it must be kept

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Package (25ºF) Rise (100ºF) Rise 8 mm super 8 16 mm 35 mm

1 1 1 3

1 1/2 1 1/2 1 1/2 5

Radiation Do not store or ship raw stock near X -ray sources or other radioactive materials. Some scanning devices used by postal authorities and airlines may fog raw stock. Take special storage precautions in hospitals, industrial plants, and laboratories where radioactive materials are in use. Label packages of unprocessed films that must be mailed across international borders: "Contents: Unprocessed photographic film. Please do not X-ray."

Short-Term (less than 6 months)

Long-Term (more than 6 months)

% % Temperature Relative Temperature Relative Humidity Humidity Raw Stock (in original sealed cans) Exposed Unprocessed

13ºC (55ºF)

below 70

-18º to -23ºC (0º 10ºF)

-

-18º to -23ºC Not Recommended (see text (0º 10ºF)* You're Reading a Preview below)

After removal from storage, keep sealed (in original cans) until temperature is above the dew Unlock full access with a free trial. point of outside air. (See table of warm up times.) * Exposed film should be processed as soon as possible after exposure.

Download With Free Trial Gases and Vapors Gases (such as formaldehyde, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, ammonia, illuminating gas, engine exhaust) and vapors (from solvents, mothballs, cleaners, turpentine, mildew and fungus preventives, and mercury) can change the sensitivity of photographic emulsions. The cans in which motion picture film is packaged provide protection against some gases, but others can slowly penetrate the adhesive tape seal. Keep film away from any such contaminationfor example, closets or drawers that contain mothballs-otherwise,  desensitization of the silver halide grains or chemicalRead fogging can occur. Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times Relative Humidity

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Special offer forSince students: Only $4.99/month. a small amount of vapor leakage through the closure of a taped can is unavoidable, give motion picture films additional water-vapor protection if they

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Construct and insulate rooms that are artificially cooled so that moisture does not condense on the walls. If the building itself is not fireproof, install sprinklers. As indicated, control of relative humidity below 70 percent is not critical as long as the film cans remain sealed. Maintain the temperature as uniform as possible throughout the storage room by means of adequate air circulation so that sensitometric properties remain consistent, roll to roll. Do not store film near heating pipes or in the line of sunlight coming through a window, regardless of whether the room is cool or not.

Unprocessed Film before and after Exposure General Concerns Once you open the original package, the film is no longer protected from high relative humidities that can cause undesirable changes. Exposed footage is even more vulnerable to the effects of humidity and temperature. Therefore, process film as soon as possible after exposure . Temperature Protect film in original packages or loaded in cameras, cartridges, magazines, on reels, and in carrying cases from direct sunlight and never leave film in closed spaces that may trap heat. The temperatures in closed automobiles, parked airplanes, or the holds of ships, for example, can easily reach 60 ºC (140ºF) or more. A few hours under these conditions, either before or afer exposure, can severely affect the quality of the film. If processing facilities are not immediately available, store exposed films at -18ºC (OºF).


Gases and Radiation Keep films away from the harmful gases and radiation mentioned earlier. Unlock full access with a free trial. Relative Humidity Download With Free Trial When handling motion-picture film in high relative humidities, it is much easier to prevent excessive moisture take-up than it is to remove it. If there are delays of a day or more in shooting, remove the magazine containing partially used film from the camera and place it in a moisture- tight dry chamber. This prevents any absorption of moisture by the film during the holding period. Immediately after exposure, return the film to its can and retape it to prevent any increase in moisture content over that picked up during actual exposure. Moisture leakage into a taped can is more serious when the can contains only a small quantity of film. When these circumstances exist, seal as many rolls as  Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title possible in a second moisture- resistant container. Read


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Special offer forHandling students: Only $4.99/month. Handle the film strand only by the edges to avoid localized changes in film

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KODAK: How do I know I'm ordering the right film?

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How do I know I'm ordering the right film? How to identify the fil m's format, emulsion, length, and winding

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Motion picture film emulsions are coated on a 54 -inch-wide continuous web of film base. These 54-inch rolls constitute the master stock rolls that are slit into strips during the finishing process. Each master roll is assigned a number, and each strip also has a reference number. After slitting, the strips are perforated and cut to the designated lengths.

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Kodak and Eastman Motion Picture Camera Films are then wound on cores or spools, the ends are taped, and the wound film is wrapped in black, plastic bags before being packaged in taped metal cans or box bins. The plastic bags protect the film from exposure to light, provide a high degree of cleanliness, and make the film fit snugly inside the can.

Motion Pic

The tape used on the outside of a film can serves as a seal between the cover and body of the can. This tape is designed to resist the flow of air and moisture so that the newly manufactured film retains its original moisture content. The tape and can are both marked to identify the contents. A description of the identifying codes on tape, can label, and You're Reading a Preview film appears under Film Identification. Unlock full access with a free trial.

The "rolls available" block on the data sheet describes forms in which a particular film type is available.


The first column gives the catalog number (CAT No.), perhaps the most important piece of information to know when ordering film from Kodak. The catalog number identifies a particular kind of emulsion, film format, and length to our Customer Relations Representatives. For example, CAT No. 124 6636 describes only one film package: 100 feet of Eastman Color Negative Film 5247 (35 mm), EI Winding, one row of perfs (1866 pitch), with a film identification number of ECN718.

Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign a up to vote title The second column gives the film identification number, combination of a three-letter film emulsion designation (ECN, in the example and & The New York Times Useful above)  Not useful anytime. a three-digit specification number (718, in this case). The Cancel number Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. designates film width; perforation type and format; type of core, spool, or magazine; and winding. This code does not generally refer to the film

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KODAK: Cores and Spools

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Cores and Spools KODAK and EASTMAN Motion Picture Films are available on several types of cores and spools, each appropriate to the design of the equipment in which the films are to be exposed. The films are connected to the core, or spool, in one of the following ways: (1) wound on the core indicates the film is i nitially started by tightly lapping several convolutions of film around the core. When the film is wound on the core, the core cannot be removed from the film except by unwinding the film; (2) core inserted indicates that the film is initially wound on a collapsible mandrel that is later removed and the core inserted in the cavity of the roll. Thus, the film is not attached to the core.

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The standard core and spool types for KODAK and EASTMAN Motion Picture Films are shown and described below:

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Figure 34 Type T Core-16 mm. Figure 34 illustrates a plastic core with a 2-inch (51 mm) outside diameter and a 1-inch (25.4 mm) diameter center hole with keyway and film slot. Normally You're a Preview used with 16 mm films up to 400 feet (122 m) in Reading length, except 100 -foot (30.5 m) and 200-foot (61 m) lengths of camera negative and reversal materials, which generally come on camera spools with integral leaders and trailers for loading subdued light. Unlock full access with aunder free trial.

Download With Free Trial Figure 35

Type Z Core-16 mm. A plastic core with a 3 -inch (76 mm) outside diameter. Contains a 1-inch (25.4 mm) diameter center hole with keyway and a film slot. Used with camera and print films in roll sizes longer than 400 feet (122 m). See Figure 35.



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KODAK: Cores and Spools

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1-inch (25.4 mm) diameter center hole with keyway a nd a film slot. Used with 2000-foot (610 m), 3000 -foot (914 m), 4000-foot (1219 m), and some 1000-foot (305 m) lengths of negative, sound, print, and television recording films. See Figure 37.

Figure 38

Type Y Core-35 mm. A plastic core with the sa me dimensions as the Type K Core but made of a stronger material to hold 6000-foot (1829 m) rolls of color print film. See Figure 38.

Figure 39

R-90 Spool-16 mm. A metal camera spool with a 3.615-inch (92 mm) flange diameter and a 1 1/4 -inch (32 mm) core diameter. Square hole with single keyway in both flanges. Center hole configuration is aligned on both flanges. The standard sales lengths for this spool are 100 feet (30.5 m) of acetate base film. Used in cameras such as the Canon and Elmo for double super 8 film and in 16 mm spool-loading cameras. See Figure 39.


Download With Free Trial Figure 40

R-190 Sp ool-16 mm. A metal camera spool with a 4.940-inch (125 mm) flange diameter and a 1 1/4 -inch (32 mm) core diameter. Square hole with single keyway, two offset round drive holes, and one elliptical hole in both flanges. Side 1 and Side 2 markings. Will accept 200 feet (61 m) of acetate base film. See Figure 40.



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KODAK: Winding

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Winding When a 16 mm roll of raw stock, perforated along one edge, is held so that the end of the film leaves the roll at the top and to the right, it is designated Winding A if the perforations are toward the observer, Winding B if the perforations are away from the observer, as shown in Figure below. Winding A films are used to make contact prints and are not intended for use in the camera. Winding B is used for camera film, to make optical prints, and on bidirectional printers.

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NOTE: When requesting single-perforated film on a spool or core that has nonsymmetrical flanges (i.e., a different hole or keyway on either side), you must indicate the hole or keyway closest to the perforations and specify whether the emulsion should be wound in or out.

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You're Reading a Preview Winding A Winding B full access with a free Emulsion SideUnlock in Emulsion Side in trial.

Film for use in 16 mm single -system soundWith cameras is regularlyg Download Free Trial furnished in Winding B on 100-foot (30.5 m) and 200 -foot (61 m) spools. It is also furnished in Winding B on 400- foot (122 m) Type T cores and, occasionally, on spools.




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KODAK: Perforations

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Perforations l l

l l

Sizes and Shapes Perforation Types ¡ 35 mm and 60 mm End Use ¡ 16 mm End Use Optimum Pitch for Printing Projection Print Aspect Ratios

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KODAK: Sizes and Shapes

Pag

Sizes and Shapes In the early days of 35 mm motion pictures, film perforations were round. Because these perforations were more subject to wear, the shape was changed to that now known as the Bell & Howell (BH) or 'negative' perforation. See Figure 43. This modification improved positioning accuracy and was the standard for many years. During this time, 35 mm professional motion picture cameras and optical printers were designed with registration pins that conformed to negative (BH) perforation and are still so designed to this day. Thus, camera films and many laboratory films use the negative (BH) perforations. The high shrinkage of older films on nitrate base made the negative perforation a problem on projection films because of the excessive wear and noise during projection as the sprocket teeth ticked the hold-back side of the perforations as they left the sprocket. The sharp corners also were weak points and projection life of the film was shortened. To compensate for this, a new perforation was designed with increased height and rounded corners to provide added strength. This perforation, commonly known as the KS or "positive" perforation, has since become the world standard for 35 mm projection print films.

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During the period when the production of color prints involved the multiple printing of separation negatives onto a common print film, a third design, known as the Dubray-Howell perforation, was introduced. You're Reading a Preview It had the same height as the negative (BH) perforation t o maintain the necessary registration but had rounded corners life. This Unlockto fullimprove access with projection a free trial. perforation is still available for special applications and on certain fi lms (Eastman Color Intermediate II Film 5243, for example). Because shrinkage Download With Free Trial in current films is low, the shorter perforation height poses no projection wear problems. In 1953, the introduction of CinemaScope produced a fourth type of perforation. This wide-screen projection system incorporated 35 mm film with perforations that were nearly square and smaller than the positive (KS) perforation. The design provided space on the film to carry four magnetic-sound stripes for stereophonic and surround sound. Although not widely used now, this perforation is still available on 35 mm Eastman Color Print Film.

Master your semester with Scribd Read Free For 30this Days Sign up to16 vote on title Except for early experimentation, perforation dimensions on mm and 8 mm films have remained unchanged since their introduction. & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful Cancel anytime.

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Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. Each type of perforation is referred to by a letter identifying its shape and by

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KODAK: Sizes and Shapes

Pag

along only one edge (single perforated). All 35 mm camera films are double perforated. Films for single-pass 16 mm and 8 mm camera use may be single or double perforated. Single-perforated 16 mm films are often magnetically striped for single-system sound or post process sound addition. Double-perforated super 8 and regular 8 film is always suppled in 16 mm width to allow two -pass camera operation. Films used in laboratories for intermediate and release prints are supplied in a variety of perforation formats. The letter R preceded by a number designates the number of rows of perforations in a strip (1R-one row, 2R -two rows, etc.). Some flexibility is possible in selecting double- or single-perforated film. You can use double -perforated film in cameras having a single pull-down claw. Also, you can duplicate or print footage exposed on double-perforated film on single-perforation stock if a photographic (optical) or magnetic sound track is to be added to the film. (NOTE: Do not use single- perforated film in equipment designed for double-perforated film.)



Figure 43

Perforation Type

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KODAK: Perforation Types

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Perforation Types 35 mm and 65 mm End Use

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1. BH- 1870-35 mm Bell-Howell negative perforations with a pitch measurement of 0.1870" (long pitch), ANSI PH22.93-1980 2. BH-1866-35 mm Bell-Howell negative perforations with a pitch measurement of 0.1866" (short pitch), ANSI PH22.93-1980 3. KS-1870-35 mm and 65 mm Kodak Standard Positive perforations with a pitch measurement of 0.l870" (long pitch), ANSI PH22.1391980; PH22.145 -1981 4. KS-1866-35 mm and 65 mm Kodak Standard Positive perforations with a pitch measurement of 0.1866" (short pitch), ANSI PH22.139-1980; PH22.145-1981 5. DH-1870-35mm Dubray-Howell perforations with a pitch measurement of 0.1870" (long pitch), ANSI PH22.102 -1980 6. CS-1870-35 mm CinemaScope perforations with a pitch measurement of 0.1870" (long pitch), ANSI PH22.102 -1980 7. KS-1870-70 mm film perforated 65 mm Kodak Standard Positive perforations with a pitch measurement of 0.1870" (long pitch), ANSI PH22.119-1981

16 mm End Use

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8. 2R-2994-16 mm film perforated two edges with a perforation pitch of 0.2994" (short pitch), ANSI PH22.110-1980 Download Free Trial 9. 2R-3000-16 mm film perforated two With edges with a perforation pitch of 0.3000" (long pitch), ANSI PH22.110-1980 10. IR-2994-Same as No. 8 except perforated one edge, ANSI PH22.109-1980 11. 3R-2994-35mm film perforated 16 mm with perforation pitch of 0.2994" (short pitch), ANSI PH22.171 -1980 12. IR-3000-Same as No. 11 except with a perforation pitch of 0.3000" (long pitch), ANSI PH22.171-1980 13. 3R-3000-Same as No.11 except with a perforation pitch of 0.3000" (long pitch) ANSI PH22.171- 1980 Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

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Confinuous printers used for motion-picture film are designed so t hat the

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0.1870 inch (4.750 mm) on print film and 0.1866 inch (4.740 mm) on original film; for 16 mm film, they are 0.3000 inch (7.620 mm) on print film, 0.2994 inch (7.605 mm) on original film. For intermediate and print films used to make super 8 prints, the pitch dimensions are 0.1667 inch (4.234 mm) on print film, 0.1664 inch (4.227 mm) on intermediate film. This difference in pitch accounts for about 0.2 percent of the theoretical 0.3 percent; processing and aging shrinkage of the original film before printing usually provides the balance. See the first perforation type reference for additional information.

Figure 46 A printing sprocket

Projection Print Aspect Ratios The aspect ratio is the relationship between the width and height of an image. While the image dimensions may vary in size according to projection requirements, the aspect ratio should comply with the cinematographic intent. The industry standard for theatrical motion pictures remained a constant 1.37:1 between the introduction of sound and the introduction of CinemaScope in 1953 when wide screen presentations were developed. While the original stereophonic (four -track -track magnetic) CinemaScope presentation had an aspect ratio of 2.55: 1, the flat , or nonanamorphic nonanamorphic systems, designed to simulate wide screen images, provided several aspect ratios from 1.66:1 all the way up to and Special offer forincluding students: Only $4.99/month. 2:1. During this uncertain period, release prints were often printed with wider



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borders. Today, the usual procedure when filming productions for theatrical release and eventual TV showing is to "matte" the camera viewfinder to clearly indicate 1:85:1 and to keep all pertinent action within this area. Nevertheless, the entire 1.37:1 frame is exposed. The cinematographer must make certain no scene rigging, mike books, cables, or lighls are included i n the expanded area. Subsequent release prints, therefore, contain a sufficient frame height to provide normal telecine transmission. transmission. In the theater, the projectionist must use a 1:85:1 aperture plate and exercise some judgment in adjusting the projector framing. This can be done conveniently during the showing showing of the titles.

Home | Search | Service & Support | Visit shop @ kodak , the online store | Careers Copyright © Eastman Kodak Company, 1994-200 1994-2002 2 and Privacy Practices (updated 14 -Sep-2001) -Sep-2001)..



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KODAK: Film Identification

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Film Identification l l l l

Unprocessed Film How to Read a Film Can Label Processed Film Know Your Films ¡ Test Exposures ¡ To Provide a Reference Point ¡ For Locations with Unfamiliar Lighting ¡ To Establish a Reference with You and Your Laboratory ¡ To Evaluate Specific End End-Use -Use Appearan Appearance ce ¡ To Determine the "Look" of the Finished Job ¡ To Check Specific Color Reproduction

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KODAK: Unprocessed Film

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Unprocessed Film The eleven-digit code on the label in Figure 49 (5247-123-4567) identifies the film type (5247), the emulsion batch number (123), and the number of the roll (4567) from which this strip of Eastman Color Negative Film was cut. The emulsion batch number and roll number also appear on the tape sealing the can. The Film Identification code (ECN 718 in this case) gives the emulsion type (ECN or Eastman Color Negative Film) and fi lm specification number (718), a code describing width, perforation type and format, winding, and type of core, spool, or magazine. The film width, perforation pitch, and emulsion position and winding type are identified on the label. The film-strip reference number identifies the location of a particular strip of film cut from the master roll. This number (1 through 38 for 35 mm and 1 through 83 for 16 mm) appears on a sticker affixed to most cans holding 400 or more feet of film. Figure 48 shows such a sticker.



Figure 48



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KODAK: Unprocessed Film

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You're Reading a Preview Film Sizes



Figure 49

Master your semester with Scribd  Processed Film Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful The film strip reference number affixed to the can of raw stock film also appears Cancel anytime.

Special offer foras students: Onlyimage $4.99/month. a latent on the film itself. It is visible on the processed film between "Eastman" and "SAFETY FILM" on the edge print.

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KODAK: Know Your Films

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Know Your Films Design, manufacture, actual shooting, projection, and storage conditions all influence film performance and selection. First we'll discuss why an on-site test is a good idea. Suppose your test shows that the film stock being considered produces unattractive results under the lights you plan to use to illuminate a few scenes. Will a filter correct the situation? Can you change the lighting? Will another film stock work better for those scenes?

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Our second topic, filtration, covers the wide range of uses for filters to fill the needs of your unique circumstances. The third section covers the process by which the sound you recorded is combined with your images in the final print.

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The last two sections explain how to care for t he finished films you have carefully created.

Test Exposures Every production presents a unique set of conditions and demands. A full You're Reading a Preview understanding of the job at hand and careful evaluation of the information in the data sheets should give thewith filmmaker Unlock full access a free trial. a good idea of how a chosen film stock will respond to most filming situations. Testing reduces any remaining uncertainties and establishes the reaction of a Download With Free Trial particular film to a unique situation. Tle variations that make test exposures worthwhile and the technique of interpreting such exposures are the subjects of this section. Testing is one aspect of professional work too often overlooked in practice. When seeking the best possible results, filmmakers should run tests to provide reference points during production and to confirm choices based on previous experience and data sheet information. Here, listed in the orderwith of the time they may occur, are the principle Master your semester Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days causes of real or apparent changes in speed in all films, and Signand up tocontrast vote title color balance in color films. Failure to understand theseUseful & The New York Times Notlead useful  causescan to misunderstanding or misinterpretation of photographic results: Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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than those permitted by manufacturing tolerances. These are the basic reasons why you should make a test exposure whenever speed and color-balance are important. Test exposures are necessary for reversal materials that will be projected directly after processing more so than for negative or printed reversal materials because density and color -balance adjustments cannot be made during printing. Most professionals realize the perishable nature of sensitized materials and are careful to avoid subjecting films (especially color) to extreme heat and humidity, either before or after exposure. The other factors listed are equally important, however, even if not equally familiar. None should ever be overlooked when choosing a film or attempting to e xplain an unexpected result. Two or more causes of variation may influence results at the same time. Often the effects are additive, and minor single variations will, when combined, produce noticeable results unless proper compensation is made in advance. Only a test exposure under the practical conditions of use will furnish this information.

To Provide a Reference Point A speed variation of 1/3 stop, and sometimes more, usually passes unnoticed when black-and-white film is projected. In a color film, where the performance of each emulsion layer is evaluated in terms of the other two, a much smaller variation in the relative speed of any one layer is evident to the user. Coating thickness is a manufacturing You're Reading a Preview variable that provides an excellent illustration of the technical accuracy maintained in making color films.Unlock Tests fullhave access shown with a freethat trial. the thickness of each emulsion layer must be controlled within 4 or 5 percent; any larger variation would by itself use up the entire color-balance tolerance Download With Free Trial available. Since a typical color emulsion is only 3 ten thousandths of an inch thick, so only 15 millionths of an inch variation is allowable. And this kind of accuracy is maintained in making successive coatings on a thin, flexible base in the dark! Every effort is made to achieve the greatest possible uniformity in the manufacture of Kodak films, but within such close tolerances minor Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title variations are unavoidable. Of course, variations are Read smallest among films of the same emulsion number. In any case, test Usefulobtained data  Not useful Cancel anytime. under actual production conditions is recommended to supplement the Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. manufacturer's data.


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weave, tensile strength, freedom from scratches, etc., are also carefully controlled. With Eastman and Kodak EKTACHROME Films, the permitted colorbalance variations, tested under normal recommended use, fall approximately within the range correctable by a CC10 filter in the camera exposure. In the case of negative films, normal color-balance variations fall within a range for which adjustment can easily be made in the printing process. The careful cinematographer should make practical picture tests on new film batches with the exposure and filtration to be used for the rest of the production. These tests will help to determine if any additional filtration and exposure adjustments are needed.

For Locations with Unfamiliar Lighting Filmmakers are well aware that color films are balanced in manufacture for exposure to light of a certain color quality. Color negative film offers considerable latitude because some adjustments for color balance you can make during printing. Even reversal materials that will be printed offer some latitude because of the printing step. However, when a reversal material isn't going to be printed , you must make compensation if the light source differs in color quality from that for which the film is balanced. Even the "correct" light may be changed appreciably in color quality as it passes from source to subject to film. Discolored or dirty reflectors and camera lenses with a color tint can change color quality. You're Reading a Preview Furthermore, the color quality of tungsten and fluorescent lamps can change with age and voltage fluctuations. Lighting from Unlock full access with a free trial.mixed sources will also change color renderings.

Download With Free Trial Home | Search | Service & Support | Visit shop @ kodak , the online store | Careers Copyright © Eastman Kodak Company, 1994-2002 and Privacy Practices (updated 14 -Sep-2001).



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Film Identification To Establish a Reference with You and Your Laboratory

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About the

Different laboratories can produce noticeable variations in image quality and effective film speed, and from time to ti me variations can be noted at a single laboratory. Typical processing can result in speed variations of plus or minus 1/2 -stop and color-balance variations on the order of +/CC10 filter. Tests processed by your chosen laboratory serve as a base in all future discussions with the laboratory.

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To Evaluate Specific End-Use Appearance

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The conditions under which film is viewed have a marked effect on the apparent color quality of the picture. For critical applications, test film should be projected and evaluated under the specific conditions in which it will be used. The locations of the projector, the viewer, and the screen can affect the image quality dramatically.

To Determine the "Look" of the Finished Job Because the viewers' reactions toYou're a projected involve their Readingimage a Preview psychological responses, a projected image can never be "perfect" in any simple sense. Unlock full access with a free trial. Like all photographic and electronic imagingWith systems, Kodak color films Download Free Trial exhibit small color differences between the image and the subject itself when they are critically compared. Usually these differences are insignificant, but cinematographers have to judge whether the "look" of the film is consistent with their intentions and with the nature of the subject. Since the manufacturer's evaluation of color balance is determined from picture tests judged by a number of observers, it is obvious that an individual cinematographer, producer, or laboratory may prefer a color Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title balance different from one judged desirable by the manufacturer.  Useful  Not useful


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Special offer forBecause students: Only the $4.99/month. manufacturer can never judge color balance appropriately for all tastes and all extremes of working conditions, critical work should

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Since a large majority of all photographs include people, the reproduction of flesh tones is a primary consideration in the design of a color film. Also important are the reproduction of neutrals (whites, grays, and blacks) and the reproduction of common "memory" colors, such as blue sky, green grass, etc. Because films are designed to reproduce these colors properly under a variety of conditions, some other colors such as shades of chartreuse, lime, pink, and orange-may reproduce less well. (It is possible to design a film that would improve the reproduction of these other colors, but only at the expense of generally more important flesh tones, sky, grass, etc.) More noticeable difficulties can be encountered because color films do not have exactly the same color sensitivities as the human eye. For most subjects, the three lightsensitive layers of the film do not have to "see" the subject exactly the same way the human eye does. In most cases, the differences are scarcely noticeable. Sometimes, though, the differences between film sensitivity and visual sensitivity produce unwelcome results. Since color films are sensitive to ultraviolet radiation, a substance reflecting ultraviolet energy will reproduce bluer on film than it looks to the eye. If it is blue to begin with, this effect is of littl e or no consequence. With other colors, however, the additional blueness may neutralize the original color or even make it appear blue. Neut ral and near-neutral colors are more apt to be affected by such a shift, because their saturation is low. For example, a black tuxedo made of synthetic material may appear blue. An ultraviolet absorbing filter, such as a Kodak WRATTEN Gelatin Filter No. 2B, over the lens or over t he light source when practical can reduce this effect. You're Reading a Preview Unlock full access with a free trial. Closely related is the effect of ultraviolet fluorescence. Some fabrics absorb ultraviolet radiation and remit it in the near-blue (shortest wavelength) portion of the visibleDownload spectrum. Since eye is not very With Freethe Trial sensitive in this part of the spectrum, the effect may not be readily apparent until a photograph of the subject is viewed. An analogous visual effect is created by black light which makes special paints, some fabrics, etc, glow in the dark.

Under an ultraviolet lamp, any fabric containing brighteners will fluoresce, but many white fabrics contain brighteners introduced during manufacture or laundering to give them a whiter appearance. Examination of any suspect fabrics under an ultraviolet source will Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title generally indicate whether there will be a fluorescence problem. In this Useful  Not useful  ultraviolet case, a filter over the lens does not help; however, an Cancel anytime. over the light source may prove helpful. A photographic test is Special offer forabsorber students: Only $4.99/month. the best way to determine whether problems with reproduction in the


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Pag

where the photographic effect of the far red reflectance is to neutralize the green, making it appear browner. You can identify high reflectance at the far end of the spectrum can be identified by use of a deep red filter such as a Kodak WRATTEN Gelatin Filter No. 70. If the materials are examined under a tungsten light, a green natural-fiber material will appear black, whereas a synthetic material with high reflectance in the far red will appear much lighter. Because the judgment is quantitative, a sample of a green fabric known to reproduce well should be compared with the test fabric under the filter. If the test fabric appears distinctly light in a side-by-side comparison through the No. 70 filter, you should expect a reproduction problern. Even then, confirmation by means of a photographic test under actual working conditions is advisable if circumstances permit.






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16mm


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EASTMAN 16 mm KEYKODE� Numbers USERS’ GUIDE Film Identification

Letter which identifies

EASTMAN KEYKODE Numbers

Current Films

Kodak's machine-readable key numbers. Includes the 10-digit key number, manufacturer identification code, film type, and offset in perforations. (barcode detail next page)

D. . . E. . . H. . . I... K. . . L. . . M. . .

7234 7222 7231 7246 7245 7293 7248

Y

Discontinued Film A. . . C. . . J. . . N. . .

7243 7297 7296 7292

O T W

You're Reading a Preview Zero-Frame Reference Mark

Unlock Dot which identifies the full access with a free trial. frame directly below as the zero-frame specified by both Download With Free Trial the human-readable key number and the machinereadable bar code.

Key Number:

Prefix — Six digits that identif film roll.

Count — Four digits that incr

every six inches (20 perforations).

Manufacturer Identification Code (Below the Zero-Frame Reference Mark) Letter which identifies film manufacturer. K=Eastman Kodak Company.

Strip Number



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EASTMAN KEYKODE Numbers Information

Encoded in USS Barcode

Start Character is toward head of film

Manufacturer’s Information

Matching Check Symbo

Four randomly selected and placed symbols designed as extra matching check.


To Use: After matching key number and checking pictur verify that the same symbols located in the same position both the workprint and the negative.


Repeats every two feet (80 perforations).

Density Patch Repeats every ten feet (400 perforations).



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35mm


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EASTMAN 35 mm KEYKODE� Numbers USERS’ GUIDE

Base Up

Strip Number

Manufacturer’s Information You're Reading a Preview Unlock full access with a free trial.

Manufacturer Identification Code


Letter which identifies film manufacturer. K=Eastman Kodak Company.



Kodak's machine-readable key numbers. Includes the 10-digit key number, manufacturer identification code, film type, and offset in perforations.  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to detail vote title (barcode next page) 

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Zero-Frame Reference Mark

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Matching Check Symbols Two randomly selected and placed symbols designed as an extra matching check. To Use: After matching key numbers and picture, verify that the same symbols are located in the same position on both the workprint and the negative.

Frame-Index Marker A hyphen every four perforations helps locate the frame lines for dark scenes.

To Use: Locate one frame line. Determine its offset Note: The solid squares also from index marker (0, +1, +2, serve as density patches. or +3 perforations). Use this offset for frame-line reference. You're Reading a Preview Note: The frame-index is trial. not printed when Unlock full access marker with a free it interferes with any other Mid-Foot Key Number edgeprint information. Positioned halfway (+32 perforations) between Download With Free Trial each main key and Keykode number, these midfoot numbers identify short scenes that may not include a main key or Keykode number. Mid-foot key numbers are printed in smaller type to distinguish them from the main key numbers. Film Identification Letter which identifies

Current Films

EASTMAN KEYKODE Numbers Information


D. . . 5234 R. . . E. . . 5222 S. . . H. . . 5231 T. . .  U. . . I . . . 5246 Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title K. . . 5245 V. . .  Useful  Not useful Cancel anytime. L. . . 5293 M. . . 5248 X. . . Q. . . 5277 Y. . . Z

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65mm


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Base Up

Manufacturer’s Informat



Kodak's machine-readable key numbers. Unlock full access with a free trial. Includes the 10-digit key number, manufacturer identification code, film type, and offset in perforations. Download With Free Trial

(barcode detail next page)

Zero-Frame Reference Mark Dot which identifies the frame directly above as the zero-frame specified by both the humanreadable key number and the machine-readable bar code.

Key Number Count — Four digits that increment every 120 perforations.

Master your semester with Scribd Prefix — Six digits that identify film roll. & The New York Times Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. Film Identification Code

Current Films I . . . 5246 K. . . 5245 Read Free ForL.on 30 Sign up to vote title . this . Days 5293 . . useful 5248  Useful M.Not Cancel anytime. Q. . . 5277

R. . . T. . . U.  .. V. . . Z. . .

5289 5298 5279 5244 5274

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EASTMAN 65 mm KEYKODE� Numbers USERS’ GUIDE

One-third Key Number The key number +40, with bar code and frame-reference dot, is offset 40 perforations from the main key number. Use to identify short scenes which may not include the main key number.

Matching Check Symbols Two randomly selected symbols for addition matching checks.

To Use: After Use: After matching key numbers a checking picture, verify that same symbols located in same position on both the workp and the negative. Check symbols are anoth aid in matching very short scenes. The solid squares also serve as density patches to evaluate edgeprint exposure.

EASTMAN KODAK Numbers Information



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Tails

Two-thirds Key Number Like the one-third key number , but +80 perforations following the main key number.

Frame-Reference Markers A Dash, Key and Key and Plus are Plus are printed regular intervals to help locate fram lines, especially for scenes shot in low light.

– Dash: Frame reference mark for 5- and 10-perf formats.

Key: Frame reference mark for 8-perf format.

+ Plus: Frame reference mark for 15-perf format. (Every third dash is dash is a plu


To Use: Locate Use: Locate one frame line and nearest reference marker  for the Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title given film format. Count the numbe Notbetween useful the frame of perforations  Useful  Cancel anytime. line and the marker. Use this perf offset to identify the location of

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Improved Edgeprint Format for KODAK 65mm Film

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Interval between main Keykode numbers increased 80- to 120-perforations 120-perforations

Facilitates the development of software programs for ac electronic editing in all 65mm formats.

Two intermediate Keykode numbers offset 40- and perforations from the main Keykode number An aid in matching short scenes which may not include key number.

Larger (full-size) human-readable intermediate key

Easier to read on original and intermediate films. More l on 35mm printdown workprint. Along with +40 and +80 designators, the two alpha-characters preceding the key number are half size to further indicate these are interm key numbers.

Frame-reference marker (key) added for 8-perf form

A new reference symbol for quickly locating the frame l dark scenes shot in the 8-perf format. (An addition to th and plus symbols currently used to reference frame line 5-, 10- and 15- perf formats.)

New manufacturer identification code-22

Allows readers and software t o automatically recognize new edgeprint format and accurately record Kodak Key numbers from the new and previous formats, even whe intercut. Note: The Note: The identification code was 02 for the pr 65mm format.

New printer number sequence -91 and -92

Printer numbers (first two digits of the key number) are 92. Printer numbers for previous Kodak 65mm films wer or 02. On a negative cut list, the different numbers quick identify the edgeprint format of the film.

Strip number added to the manufacturer's informa Provides further identification for any roll of 65mm film.



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KODAK: Filtration

Pag

Filtration l

l l l l l l l l

Filters Useful with All Camera Films ¡ Polarizing Filters ¡ Neutral Density Filters ¡ Filters for Black-and-White Films ¡ Correction Filters ¡ Contrast Filters ¡ Haze Filters Filters for Color Films Selecting Filters for Correcting Color Temperature Light Source Conversion with Filters Light Balancing Filters Conversion Filters Limits to Color Temperature Measurement Ultraviolet-Absorbing and Haze-Cutting Filters Color Compensating Filters for Color Correction ¡ Combining Color Compensating Filters ¡ Exposure Allowance for Filters ¡ Filters for Color Printing

Student M

About the

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White light is the sum of all the colors of the rainbow; black is the absence of all these colors. For practical purposes, we can consider white You're Reading a Preview light as composed of equal amounts of three primary light colors-red, green, and blue. For example, if Unlock greenfull and red are subtracted, we see access with a free trial. blue. We, see many more colors in nature than these t hree because absorption and reflection of the primaries are rarely complete.


Our perception of a color is influenced by the surrounding colors and brightness level, the surface gloss of an object, and any personal defects in our color vision. Different films also see colors differently due to differences in spectral sensitivity. Filtration used with black-and-white films can control the shades of gray to obtain a technically correct rendition or to exaggerate or suppress the tonal differences for visibility, emphasis, or other effects. Filtration with color films can change the color quality of the light source to produce proper color rendition or to Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title create special effects.  Useful  Not useful

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times Special offer for students: Only as $4.99/month. Colors Seen in

Light

White

Cancel anytime.

Colors of Light Absorbed

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KODAK: Filtration

Pag

Filters always subtract some of the light reflected from a scene before it reaches the film plane in the camera. A red filter then is not "red" but rather a filter that absorbs blue and green. Similarly, a yellow filter is one that absorbs blue light. A yellow sunflower absorbs blue light and reflects the other parts of white light-red and green, which we see as yellow (lack of blue).






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KODAK: Filters Useful with All Camera Films

Pag

Filters Useful with All Camera Films Polarizing Filters

Student M

About the

Polarizing filters (also called polarizing screens) are used to subdue reflections from surfaces such as glass, water, and polished wood, and for controlling the brightness of the sky. By reducing glare, polarizing filters also increase color saturation. Using a polarizing filter to control the brightness of the sky has several advantages over color filters: (1) The color rendering of foreground objects is not altered. (2) It is easy to determine the effect produced by the polarizing filter by checking the appearance of the image in t he viewfinder (for cameras equipped with reflex-type viewfinders), or by looking through the filter when it is held at the same angle as used on the camera. (3) Other filters can be used with a polarizing filter to control the color rendering of objects in the foreground, while the polarizer independently controls the brightness of the sky.

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The amount of polarized light from a particular area of the sky varies according to the position of the area with respect to the sun, the maximum occurring at an angle of 90º from the sun. Panning the camera, therefore, should be avoided with a polarizing because the sky will become darker or lighter as the camera position changes. You're Reading a Preview full access with a free trial. The sky may appear lighter than Unlock you would expect for these reasons: l

l

l

Download With as Free Trial blue sky. You A misty sky does not photograph as dark a clear can't darken an overcast sky by using a polarizing filter. The sky is frequently almost white at the horizon and shades to a more intense blue at the zenith. Therefore, the effect of the filt er at the horizon is small, but it becomes greater as you aim the camera upward. The sky near the sun is less blue than the surrounding sky and, therefore, is less affected by a filter.

Master your semester with Scribd When you begin making exposures with a polarizing Read filter, be sure to Free Foron 30 Days Sign up to vote this title remember that this filter has a minimum filter factor of 2.5 (increase & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful exposure by 1 1/3 stops). This factor applies regardless of how the Cancel anytime.

Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. olarizing screen is rotated. In addition to this exposure increase, you must make any exposure increases required by the nature of the

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Filters for Black-and-White Films Kodak WRATTEN Gelatin Filters are used with a wide range of black-andwhite films for many purposes. They can emphasize clouds, reduce the brightness of blue sky and water, penetrate haze in distant landscapes, increase tonal contrast between colored objects, and produce special effects such as simulated night scenes.

The filters used in black-and-white work fall into three main types: (1) Correction filters change the color quality of the e xposing light so that the film records all colors at approximately the relative brightness values seen by the eye. (2) Contrast filters change the relative brightness values so that two colors that would otherwise record as nearly the same shade of gray will have decidedly different brightness in the picture. (3) Haze filters reduce the effects of aerial haze.

Correction Filters Most panchromatic emulsions have a high sensitivity to both ultraviolet and blue radiation. Because this sensitivity is dissimilar to the spectral sensitivity of the eye, blue or violet subjects are often overexposed and rendered too light on the final print. For example in location work, correction filters are often used to overcome an apparent lack of contrast between blue sky and white clouds. At the red end of the spectrum, certain higher speed panchromatic films possess a marked red sensitivity that, unless compensated for, tends to distort the rendering of red subject matter. Deliberate overcorrection is sometimes done to achieve You're Reading a Preview special effects. Unlock full access with a free trial.

Foliage looks slightly darker than we expect when it is photographed on black-and-white film without a filter. By using a yellow or yellow -green Download With Free Trial filter to absorb some of the unwanted blue and red light, you can record foliage in its proper gray tone. This may seem to imply a contradiction: If a filter subtracts light, there will be less density on the ne gative and the print will be darker, so how does the filter make foliage lighter? Actually, the filter darkens the rendering on the print of the color it absorbs, thus making the colors it transmits lighter by comparison.

Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title This becomes apparent when the negative is correctly printed. & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful Special offer forContrast students: OnlyFilters $4.99/month.

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Kodak WRATTEN Filter Nos. 23A, 25, 29, or 72B.

The color filter circle, Figure 51 , will help you decide what filters to use to lighten or darken the gray-tone rendering of most colors. The No. 58 filter is green, for example, which lightens the gray -tone rendering of green, yellow, and blue-green, and darkens the rendering of orange, magenta, and red. The filter factors given are often different for tungsten and for daylight because tungsten light contains relatively more red light while daylight contains more blue.

Haze Filters The effects of haze can be reduced by filtering out some of the blue and ultraviolet lighy. Yellow filters, commonly used for haze peneration and darkening of the sky, are Kodak WRATTEN Filters No. 3, 8, 12, and 15, in order of increasing absorption. For further darkening of the sky and increased haze penetration, use filters ranging from light orange to deep red, such as filters No. 21, 23A, 25 and 29. These filters absorb varying degrees of blue l ight and green light.





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KODAK: Filters for Color Films

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Filters for Color Films In exposing color films and in making prints and intermediates, there are a number of conditions under which you can obtain good color rendition through the use of correcting filters. Daylight and artificial light differ from one another in spectral quality and are individually subject to considerable variation. When the actual light is different from that specified for a particular film, correction filters can adjust the color quality of the illumination to that for which the film is balanced.

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Data sheet tables are usually a reliable guide to the right filters for obtaining optimum color balance and are especially useful as a starting point from which to run tests. However, they cannot cover all such variables as high or low voltage, aging of lamps, or color contribution of diffusers. Colo r-temperature meters measuring the three primary colors provide an accurate method of determining the spectral-energy distribution of light sources as they relate to the sensitivities of the three layers in color films. Such meters as the Spectral-tricolor meter and the Minolta 3 color meter, while costly, provide the user an excellent means of finding the actual spectral distribution. Two -color meters (much less costly) show the balance between the red and blue light, and are adequate to indicate the spectral distribution of light sources having a continuous energy distribution across spectrum (such as an You'rethe Reading a Preview incandescent light). They are not satisfactory for sources (such as fluorescent lights) having a skewed orfull discontinuous Unlock access with a free distribution. trial.

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Some meters give a choice of correcting the balance either wilh color Download With Free Trial balancing and conversion filters or with color compensating filters. In most instances, making the main correction with color compensating filters requires many filters, whole correcting with light balancing and conversion filters requires two at the most. Because the addition of many filters over a camera lens increase flare and decreases sharpness, color temperature (red- blue) correction is best made with light balancing and conversion filters and green-magenta adjustment is best made with color conipensating filters.

Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title Selecting Filters for Correcting Color Temperature & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful Cancel anytime.

Special offer forThe students: $4.99/month. colorOnly quality of some illuminants can be expressed in terms of color temperature-a measure of the light irradiated by an idea-radiator , that

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KODAK: Light Source Conversion with Filters

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Light Source Conversion with Filters To evaluate filter requirements for the conversion of light sources, it is helpful to use the reciprocal of the color temperature. The concept of expressing color temperature in reciprocal form is useful because a given sum of reciprocal units corresponds approximately to the same color difference for most visibly emitting sources (in t he range from 1000 K to 10,000 K). The reciprocal color temperature is commonly multiplied by 1,000,000 to give numbers of convenient size. The values obtained by this operation have, in the past, been called micro -reciprocal degrees or "mireds."

1,000,000 x

1 Tk

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Recently, the term reciprocal megakelvins (MK-1 ) has been used to replace mireds. The reciprocal color temperature expressed in reciprocal megakelvins has the same numerical value as with mireds, but the value is arrived at by first expressing the color temperature in megakelvins (1 MK = 1,000,000 K) and taking the reciprocal. For example, the reciprocal color temperature for a 6000 K source is


1/0.006 MK = 167 MK-1


Filters such as Kodak Light Balancing Filters and Kodak WRATTEN Photometric Filters modify the effective color temperature, hence the Download With Free Trial reciprocal color temperature, of any light source by a definite amount. Each filter can be given a visual shift value that is defined by the expression 1 1 T2 T1 where Tsemester is the color temperature of the light through the filter (both Master your with Scribd Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote this title values expressed in megakelvins). Remember that the concept ofon color temperature to the response of the visual system. To match & The New Yorkrelates Times useful  Useful  Notthe 1

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response of films as opposed to the response of the eye, some Special offer foractual students: Only $4.99/month. filters are designed empirically to fit existing photographic requirements.

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KODAK: Light Source Conversion with Filters

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illumination (e.g., daylight to artificial light).

Limits to Color Temperature Measurement Color temperature refers only to the visual appearance of a light source and does not necessarily describe its photographic effect. Although some light sources emit strongly in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum, the color temperature of such a source does not measure this portion of the emission because the eye is not sensitive to radiation below 400 nm. Since a film is usually sensitive to ultraviolet radiation, a scene can record overly blue unless special corrective means are used to filter out the ultraviolet. Also, color temperature does not take into account the spectral distribution of a light source. Unless the light source has a similar spectral distribution to that of a black body radiator (e.g. various types of tungsten- filament lamps), its ef fective color temperature alone may not be reliable as a means of selecting a suitable filter for adapting the source for color photography. Fluorescent lamps, for example, do not have the continuous, smooth spectral-distribution curve that is characteristic of a tungsten- filament source. Although two different light sources may be described as having the same color temperature, the photographic results obtained with each may be quite different.

You're Reading a Preview Home | Search | Service & Support | Visit shop @ kodak , the online store | Careers Unlock full access with a free trial. Copyright © Eastman Kodak Company, 1994-2002 and Privacy Practices (updated 14 -Sep-2001).




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KODAK: Ultraviolet-Absorbing and Haze-Cutting Filters

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Ultraviolet-Absorbing and Haze -Cutting Filters Photographs of distant landscapes, mountain views, snow scenes, scenes over water, and sometimes aerial photographs in open shade made on color films balanced for daylight are frequently rendered with a bluish cast. This is caused by the scattering of ultraviolet radiation to which the film is more sensitive than the human eye. Kodak WRATTEN Filter No. 1A (skylight filter) absorbs ultraviolet light. By placing this filter over the lens, you can reduce the bluish cast and slightly penetrate the haze.

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Kodak Light Balancing and Conversion Filters for Color Films

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Filter Color

Filter Number

Bluish

82C + 82C 82C + 82B 82C + 82A 82C + 82 82C 82B 82A 82

Exposure Increase in Stops*

1 1/3 2490 K 2610 1 1/3 2570 K 2700 1 2650 K 2780 1You're Reading 2720 Ka Preview 2870 2/3 2800 K 2950 2/3 2900with K a free3060 Unlock full access trial. 1/3 3000 K 3180 1/3 3100 K 3290

No Filter Necessary

Yellowish

81 81A 81B 81C 81D 81EF

To Obtain To Obtain 3200 K 3400 K from from


1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3 2/3 2/3

K K K K K K K K

3200 K

3400 K

3300 3400 3500 3600 3700 3850

3510 3630 3740 3850 3970 4140

K K K K K K

K K K K K K

Nominal Shift Value (MK -1)* -89 -77 -65 -55 -45 -32 -21 -10 9 18 27 35 42 52

Conversion Filters Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title Nominal Exposure & The NewFilter York Times Not useful  Useful  Shift Filter Conversion Increase

ColorOnly $4.99/month. Number Special offer for students:

in Stops*

in Degrees K

Cancel anytime.

Value (MK -1)*

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test, especially if more than one filter is used.


Download With Free Trial The nomograph can be used to find the shift value for a particular conversion by placing a staightedge from an original source (T 1) to a second source (T 2 ). The shift value can be read on the center line. Use of the nominal shift values for filters shown on the previous tables will allow choice of filters that approximate the necessary correction. Shift values are algebraically additive; filters can be combined to acheive the required shift.

Figure 52 with Scribd Master your semester Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title & The New Times Filters for Color Correction ColorYork Compensating  Useful  Not useful Cancel anytime.

Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. A color compensating (CC) filter controls light by attenuating principally

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susceptible to scratches and fingerprints, both of which can affect optical quality to a serious degree. Color compensating filters are available in several density values for each of the following colors: cyan, magenta, yellow, red, green, and blue. The density of each color compensating filter is indicated by the numbers in the filter designation, and the color is indicated by the final letter. In a typical filter designation, CC20Y represents a "Color Compensating Filter with a density of 0.20 that is Yellow ." The densities of color compensating filters are measured at the wavelength of maximum absorbtion (i.e., the density of a yellow filter is given for blue light). That's the reason the term peak density is used in the table. The density values do not include the density of the gelatin on which the filter dye is coated, nor do they include the density of the glass in which a filter may be mounted. The standardized density spacing of these filter series (5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 in each color) helps predict the photographic effects of filter combinations. The red, green, and blue filters each absorb two thirds of the visible spectrum; the cyan, magenta, and yellow filters each absorb one third of the spectrum. In the red, green, and blue series, each filter contains the same dyes in approximately the same amounts as the two corresponding yellow and magenta, yellow and cyan, or magenta and cyan filters.

Combining Color Compensating Filters You're Reading a Preview The determination of filter combinations can usually simplified by Unlock full access with a freebe trial. thinking of all the filters in terms of the subtractive colors:


Red (absorbs blue and green) = yellow (absorbs blue) + magenta (absorbs green) Green (absorbs blue and red) = yellow (absorbs blue) + cyan (absorbs red) Blue (absorbs green and red) = magenta (absorbs green) + cyan (absorbs red)

Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title The following method of calculation is recommended: & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful Cancel anytime.

1. Convert the filters to their equivalents in the subtractive colorsSpecial offer for students: Only $4.99/month. cyan, magenta, and yellow-if they are not already of these colors.

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4. If the filter combination contains two different filters of equal density, substitute the equivalent single red, green, or blue filter. For example, 10M + 10C = 10B.

Exposure Allowance for Filters You must make filters absorb light. You must increase exposure for this loss of light. The published exposure increases for Kodak Color Compensating Filters (see below) provide a rough guide to the exposure adjustments required for a single filter. To determine the exposure increase for two or more filters of different colors run practical tests using initially the sum of the suggested increases for the individual filters. Kodak Color Compensationg Filters Peak Density 0.025 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 Peak Density

0.025 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50

Yellow (Absorbs Blue) CC025Y CC05Y** CC10Y** CC20Y** CC30Y CC40Y** CC50Y Red (Abosrbs Blue and Green) CC025R CC05R** CC10R** CC20R** CC30R CC40R CC50R

Exposure Increase in Stops* 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3 2/3 Exposure Increase in Stops*

1/3 1/3 1/3 2/3 2/3 1

Magenta (Absorbs Green) CC025M CC05M** CC10M** CC20M** CC30M CC40M** CC50M

Exposure Increase in Stops* 1/3 1/3 1/3 2/3 2/3 2/3

Cyan (Absorbs Red) CC025C CC05C** CC10C** CC20C** CC30C CC40C** CC50C

Green Blue Exposure You're Reading a Preview (Absorbs (Absorbs Increase Blue and Red and in Stops* Unlock Red full access with a free trial. Green)

1/3Free Trial CC05B Download With CC05G 1/3 CC10B CC10G CC20G 1/3 CC20B CC30G 2/3 CC30B CC40G 2/3 CC40B CC50G 1 CC50B

Exposure Increase in Stops* 1/3 1/3 1/3 2/3 2/3 1 Exposure Increase in Stops*

>1/3 1/3 2/3 2/3 1 1 1/3

* These values are approximate. For critical work, they should be checked by practical tests, especially if more than one filter is used. **Similar Kodak Color Printing Filters (Acetate) are available.

Master your semester with Scribd Filters for Color Printing & The New York Times


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Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. Motion picture printers used for printing color films are generally equipped with high-wattage lamps, making it necessary to insert a heat

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See Kodak Publication No. B -3, Handbook of Kodak Photographic Filters , for more technical information concerning the filters discussed in this section.

Kodak Color Printing Filters Cyan

Magenta

Red

Yellow

CP05C CP10C CP20C CP40C

CP05M CP10M CP20M CP40M

CP05R CP10R CP20R CP40R

CP05Y CP10Y CP20Y CP40Y






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KODAK: Motion Picture Sound Recording

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Motion Picture Sound Recording l l

A Brief History of Sound Magnetic and Photographic Sound ¡ Photographic Tracks ¡ Basics of Photographic Sound ¡ Photographic Sound-Track Reproduction

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KODAK: A Brief History of Sound

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A Brief History of Sound Sound was introduced to the movies in 1927 with Al Jolson's The Jazz Singer . In 1977, the motion picture industry celebrated the 50th anniversary of the talkies.

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1920's

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The very first sound was produced in the early 1900's from a phonograph disk running in mechanical synchronism with the picture at 33 1/3 RPM. Obvious synchronization problems requiring the constant attention of the projectionist led to a system which allowed the picture and sound track to be printed together on the same piece of film.

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1930's Two photographic-sound recording systems evolved -variable-density and variable-area. Variable-density meant that the density of the sound track varied in accordance with the audio signal. Variable-area meant that the width of the clear area of the track varied with the signal. Also, there were several differentYou're typesReading of variable-area a Preview tracks-the earliest unilateral, the improved bilateral and dual-bilateral and the special push-pull tracks. BecauseUnlock of the push-pull tracks, full complexities access with a free of trial. they were used for in-house operations, not released. Only on picture, the 1941 version of Walt Disney's Fantasia , was released with push-pull With Free Trial where Disney tracks, and then only as a specialDownload road show performance technicians had complete control.

1940's The primary shortcoming of photographic sound tracks was (and still is) noise. Early in their use, schemes were devised for noise reduction. Over the years, many variations of both variable density and variable -area tracks were developed to increase their dynamic range. This need for Read Free For 30 Days Signdensity up to vote this title greater sound level led to the abandonment of variable inon favor of the higher output variable -area recording.  Useful  Not useful


Cancel anytime.

Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. The added realism of stereophonic sound challenged engineers. In the

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track for surround sound. Todd-AO, the company which invented 70 mm 6-track magnetic sound tracks, revolutionized the industry with its 70 mm release of Oklahoma in 1955. This double -width film not only gave the very best wide-screen picture, but its six magnetic-sound tracks produced stereo sound of superb quality. Many other wide-screen contenders offering improved quality or lower cost came and wentCinemaScope 55, MGM Camera 65, Cinemiracle, Technirama, and VistaVision.

1960's and 1970's In the 1960's and early 1970,s, 70 mm 6-track magnetic sound and 35 mm CinemaScope fared the best. However, the laws of economics did catch up with CinemaScope. Ninety percent of these prints were released with no magnetic tracks, only a monaural optical track. Of the remaining 10 percent that had magnetic tracks for stereo, nearly all also had a 1/2 width optical sound track nudged in so that the print could be played in theaters without magnetic stereo capability. The reason was simple. The addition of magnetic stripes and recording four tracks on each print increased their cost from 50 to 75 percent. Also, superior magnetic sound required scrupulous and costly maintenance of the magnetic sound reproducers. These cost pressures caused engineers to take a close look at optical sound. If they could substantially improve the frequency response and signal-to-noise ratio of an optical track, several tracks could be recorded in the space used for one. They could produce stereo sound without the You're Reading a Preview added print costs of magnetic tracks. Unlock full access with a free trial.

In mid-1965, Ray Dolby from Oregon, then living and working in England, developed a noise reduction system for magnetic reduction in Download With FreeinTrial magnetic recording that was adopted immediately the music industry. In 1972, Dolby noise reduction was introduced into motion -picture sound- recording, but for monaural sound, not st ereo sound. Dolby Laboratories, spurred by a Kodak employee, Ron Uhlig's success with 2-track, 2-channel stereo sound for 16 mm film, developed a 2 track stereo variable-area system with complete compatibility. Theaters converted to decode Dolby tracks could enjoy the low noise, relatively wide-frequency range stereo reproduction and also get acceptable monaural sound when playing a standard Academy mono print. Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title


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Useful  Not useful Cancel anytime. Also, Dolby-encoded stereo prints would yield acceptable monaural Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. reproduction on unconverted projectors on theaters not equipped for stereo. In 1974, two pictures were released with Dolby Stereo Variable

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360, and Pacific Theaters with their drive-in bilingual presentation of Star Wars .

1980's Through it all, three formats have withstood the test of time: l

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35 mm Monophonic Photographic Sound Tracks or Academy Tracks-a standard format since 1927. These are bilateral or dualbilateral variable- area tracks. The term Academy was coined because of standardization efforts made in the late 1930's by a group at the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. 35 mm Stereophonic Photographic Sound Tracks with Dolby Noise Reduction-the most common 35 mm format today. Dolby calls them SVA or Stereo Variable -Area Tracks. 70 mm Magnetic Sound Tracks -a format used in specialized theaters who promote a wide-screen image and high-quality sound. The picture is shot on either 65 mm or 35 mm negative film and the final print is released on 70 mm print film. The only difference between 65 mm and 70 mm film is the added width of 2.5 mm outside the perforation area on each edge of 70 mm film for the magnetic stripes.

By the mid -1980's, considerable interest had developed in digital sound on motion picture film. This interest was spurred to no small degree by the availability to the consumer of compact audio discs. This digital recording medium is quickly supplanting tape and long-play phonograph You're Reading a Preview records for home sound systems because of its virtually flawless audio quality. Unlock full access with a free trial.

1990's and Beyond


In 1990, Cinema Digital Sound (CDS) for film became a reality. The Cinema Digital Sound System was co -developed by Optical Radiation Corporation and the Motion Picture and Television Products Division of Eastman Kodak Company. CDS features six discrete channels of pure digital sound optically encoded on the print film. CDS debuted in 1990 at selected theaters featuring Dick Tracy in the 70 mm format in New York City and Los Angeles.

Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title CDS provides filmmakers with a precise ability to control the direction & The New York Times Useful ofreality. Not useful and movement of sound to create a more compelling illusion Cancel anytime.

discrete channels reproduce the full tonal and frequency ranges the Special offer forFive students: Only $4.99/month. human ear is capable of hearing. A separate sub -woofer channel

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Figure 53 The separation of sound into six discrete channels ensures that audiences will not only hear all of the subtleties of dialogue, effects, and music, the way it is meant to be heard, but from the special location where it originated.

The ability to encode digital sound optically on film required a major technological breakthrough providing the key to affordability and reliability of CDS. Theatres equipped with single channel surround speakers can easily retrofit for the dual channel surround CDS. All it requires is installation You'reofReading a Preview of a digital decoder on the projector and a digital-to-analog processor in Unlock full access with a free may trial. consider the the projection booth equipment-rack. Some theaters option to upgrade speaker systems to realize the full potential that CDS offers. Download With Free Trial CDS technology for 70 mm and 35 mm release prints is virtually the same. A decision was made to debut CDS in 70 mm format so t he new audio system could be introduced in road show theaters. Motion pictures can be released in CDS format by simply remixing the audio made for conventional prints to six discrete channels of digital optical sound.

Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title Eventually recording and mixing techniques will evolve to take full & The New York Times Useful  Not useful advantage of CDS features. More original sound will  be recorded and Cancel anytime.

Special offer formixed students: Only $4.99/month. digitally now that there is a way to release movies in digital sound format.

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KODAK: Magnetic and Photographic Sound

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Magnetic and Photographic Sound Sound is recorded on a motion picture print in one of two ways, either magnetically on a metallic oxide strip coated on the film or hotographically by an optically modulated light system.

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A magnetic sound track consists of a strip of metallic oxide coated along the edge of a motion picture film. Sound is recorded on this stripe by running it past a magnetic recording head that selectively magnetizes the metallic particles in the coating. Since coating formulations have been developed that are not affected by the processing chemicals, they can be applied to the film before (prestripe) or after (poststripe) processing. Seventy-millimeter and some 35 mm prints may have multiple stripes for stereophonic sound and special sound effects.

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A second, much narrower stripe of the same thickness and, usually the same material is coated near the edge of the film support that is used for the sound stripe (between the perforations and the nearest edge) on 16 mm and super 8. This stripe is normally not used for magnetic recording; it balances the film mechanically to keep it from telescoping or binding against the reel flanges during projection and rewinding.

You're Reading Previewmusic, etc.) A photographic sound track is a record of sounda(voice, printed near the edge of a motion picture film. Photographic sound tracks full access withas a free trial. are usually printed on the film atUnlock the same time the photographic image. Thus, the two can also be duplicated simultaneously, unlike magnetic sound tracks which must be recorded on each Download With Free Trialprint in a separate nonphotographic operation. A film producer who wants photographic sound sends the rough-edited workprint, the original film, the script, and the final magnetic recording to a laboratory where conforming, editing, and addition of the sound track are accomplished. The original film, or a printing master with photographic sound track, is then printed for release.

Master your semester with Scribd Photographic sound prints can be made from originalRead fil ms with magnetic Free For 30this Days Sign up to vote on title sound stripes or from original films and separate magnetic tracks. A & The New York Times Useful  Not useful photographic sound track will last the life of the film and cannot be easily Cancel anytime.

Special offer fordamaged students: Only $4.99/month. through cleaning or other maintenance of the film. There is also no danger of accidentally erasing the track. However, the

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A photographic sound-track negative consists of an exposed area whose width and area vary with the volume and frequency of sound recorded. The track looks like one or more narrow, jagged, black-and-white patterns along the edge of the film. For optimum quality on a variablearea sound track, the clear portions should be as transparent as possible, and the dark portions should have a density at wavelengths from 800 to 1000 mm between 1.0 and 1.8. Consequently, emulsions and processes that produce high contrast are generally used to record variable-area sound-track negatives.

Basics of Photographic Sound The reproduction of sound requires that the sound waves be converted into electrical signals which are then recorded. The record can then be played back, generating electrical signals, which can be converted back to sound waves by the speakers. In photographic sound reproduction, the actual sound record on the print is a silver, dye, or dye-plus-silver image along the edge of the film. Figures 54A, B, and C show the components which convert the photographic sound track into electrical sound signals. The light energy from the lamp is formed into a narrow beam by a lens and aperture. The beam is transmitted through the sound-track area of the film and then strikes a photocell.


Download With Free Trial Figure 54a Schematic of optical sound reproduction.



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Figure 55

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Figure 56

A sound track as seen through the aperture.

As the film moves, the sound track itself varies, or modulates, the amount of light that reaches the photocell from the sound lamp. The photocell then converts the light energy into electrical energy. The electrical current produced by the photocell is directly proportional to the intensity of the li ght that reaches it. Photocells are made out of various photosensitive materials, each having a different spectral sensitivity. Virtually all 16 mm and 35 mm projectors have S -1 or silicon-type photocells, sensitive primarily in the infrared Reading a Preview area. Therefore all 16 mm and 35You're mm sound tracks must be able to modulate infrared radiation, which silver and to a lesser extent, silver Unlock full access with a free trial. sulfide are capable of doing. A sound track made of dye alone will not modulate the infrared radiation as effectively, reducing the signal-toDownload With Free Trial noise ratio significantly. As the film moves past the sound aperture, the variation in the width of the track determines the amplitude of the signal generated, and the speed of the variation detertmines the frequency of the signal. There are several types of variable -area recordings. A unilateral track consists of modulations that are generated perpendicularly to the longitudinal dividing edge between the opaque and clear portions of the track. A bilateral track, Figure 56 , uses modulations that are symmetrical Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title about the longitudinal center line of the track. A dual bilateral track,  Useful  Not useful Cancel anytime.track Figure 56, has two bilateral images laid side by side; a multilateral Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. employs several bilateral images. The dual bilateral track is the most widely used because it minimizes distortion or signal loss resulting from


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characteristics and, therefore, is generally specified for the particular film concerned. Silver and silver-plus-dye sound-track images are normally suitable for use with any projector and are printed from a negative sound track. Silver sulfide sound-track images have somewhat lower quality. They are produced on reversal color films only and are themselves reversal images that are printed from a positive sound -track original.






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KODAK: Projection

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Projection l

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Handling and Inspection of Motion -Picture Prints ¡ Common Causes of Abrasion and Wear n Excessive Tension n Misalignment of Film in the Projector n Creased Edges n Run-Offs and Roping n Abrasions and Dirt Cleaning Motion-Picture Prints

The success or failure of any finished film lies in the viewing. Once a print is made, the final responsibility for the quality of the screen image rests with the projection equipment and the people who handle the print. This section covers the steps in inspecting a newly received print for flaws, the most common causes of film damage and abrasion, techniques for lubricating new prints, and techniques for cleaning film.

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Handling and Inspection of Motion-Picture Prints It is important to establish that the print meets your standards. When you receive a print, inspect it, following the recommendations below:


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Maintain constant tension while rewinding to provide a smooth, Unlock full access with a free trial. tight reel. Hold the film by the edges and wear clean, lint-free gloves while Download inspecting for damage or bad splices.With Free Trial Remake faulty splices correctly, whether cement or tape. Insist on a replacement reel if major cuts and damage are noted during your inspection. Provide some means to maintain adequate relative humidity (60 percent is ideal) to help eliminate static electricity buildup in film transport systems.

Common Causes of with Abrasion and Wear Master your semester Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title To promote life for your print, you should be alert to the causes of & The New Yorklong Times  Useful  Not useful Cancel anytime. damage that can occur during projection. The five most common causes Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. are discussed below:

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KODAK: Projection

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prints for proper lubrication of the edges on the emulsion side. The first step is to vary the gate tension over the entire range. If no improvement is obtained, inadequate edge lubrication should be suspected. Sixteen-millimeter films should have an overall lubricant. The coefficient of friction of the emulsion side of the unsatisfactory film should be compared to a satisfactory film by the test described in ANSI PH1.A7 Methods for Detecting the Degree of Lubrication on Processed Photographic Film by the Paper Clip Friction Test. A coefficient of 0.2 or lower usually indicates a satisfactory level of lubrication.

Misalignment of Film in the Projector. This problem can cause damage at the corners of the perforations and lead to splitting and breaking at the perforation edge. l

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Check alignment of the film as it enters the feed sprocket or leaves the holdback sprocket. Check alignment of film in the projector gate. Examine the print for damaged perforations before using it. (Order a new reel or print, if necessary.)

C r e a s e d E d g e s . Film edges can become creased if: l

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the projector is improperly threaded so that the pad roller creases the film over the sprocket. the film is under high tension andReading binds against some component You're a Preview or one of the roller flanges. Unlock full access with a free trial.

R u n - O f f s a n d R o p i n g . This type of damage, often reported as sprocket

marked , is caused when the film partially leaves the sprocket and rides Download With Free Trial over the sprocket teeth while under tension. l l

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Check for misaligned splices and remake them. Check for fold-over damaged film sections; repair or replace the section (or reel), if necessary. Check to see if any unperforated tape covers perforations and make necessary repairs. Check the projector for proper threading and adjusunent.

Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title A b r a s i o n s a n d D i r t . Primarily caused by careless handling, improper & The New York Times Useful  of  Not useful threading, and poorly maintained equipment this kind film damage is l

Cancel anytime.

by the viewer. If you can answer yes to the following Special offer forreadily students:seen Only $4.99/month. questions, you are well on your way to minimizing the problems of dirt

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KODAK: Projection

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Cleaning Motion-Picture Prints Clean and lubricate prints by drawing them between soft lintless cloths moistened with a preparation such as Kodak Movie Film Cleaner (with Lubricant). If a film is unsteady and noisy during the first projection, it may not have been lubricated at the processing laboratory. In this case, the film should be lubricated, not only to reduce noise but also to minimize film damage. Cleaning cloths of the following types are usually satisfactory: a good grade of Canton flannel, a short- or medium -pile rayon or nylon plush, or a soft cotton batiste. These should be white, undyed, and free of fabric fillers and additives for stiffening. If in doubt the cloths should be laundered before use. Place the film to be cleaned is placed on a rewind and thread the ladder stripe onto a take -up reel. As you rewind the film, draw it between two cloths moistened with the cleaner and lubricant. Constant light pressure provides continual contact between the film surface and the cloth. Do this slowly enough to permit the cleaner to evaporate completely before the film reaches the take-up reel. Frequent moistening of the cloths is recommended because the solvent evaporates rapidly.* To avoid scratching the film with accumulated dirt particles, refold the cloths often so that only clean areas will be in contact with the film. If streaks are noticed on the film after lubrication, you can remove them by buffing with a soft cloth before projection.


Cleaning and lubrication should be accomplished continuous, Unlock full access with with a free trial. smooth rewinding of the whole reel. When you must stop to refold the cloth and apply more cleaner, back up the film about 1 foot (30.5 cm) Download With Free Trial before resuming the cleaning operation.

* Kodak Movie Film Cleaner (with Lubricant) does not contain carbon tetrachloride. Even so, you should use the cleaner with adequate ventilation. Forced -air ventilation should be provided. No matter what type of cleaner you are using, follow the instructions on the container.


Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title Home | Search | Service & Support | Visit shop @ kodak , the online store | Careers Copyright © Eastman Kodak Company, 1994-2002 and Privacy Practices (updated 14 -Sep-2001). Useful Not useful Cancel anytime.

Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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KODAK: Dealing with a Motion Picture Laboratory

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Dealing with a Motion Picture Laboratory l l

Tips on Selecting a Laboratory Laboratory Services: A Walk -Through

Student M

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During post production, you will be spending quite a bit of time and money with a film laboratory. Locating the right lab is extremely important. Ideally, you should have some feeling for a lead early in the production phase, before you have many hours worth of exposed film on your hands and are wondering what to do with it. How do you find that lab? The purpose of this section is to explain how laboratory operations fit into your total production. First come some tips on selecting a lab. Next is a walk-through of laboratory operations during a typical production. The next section deals with processing and printing operations and equipment so that you can appreciate what can be done with your film once you've exposed it.

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KODAK: Tips on Selecting a Laboratory

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Tips on Selecting a Laboratory Generally, the laboratory that gets your business will be the one whose capabilities best match the requirements for your particularjob. Laboratories differ in terms of the technical services they offer, personnel, track record on similar projects, size and location, prices, and so on. Weight all of these factors in selecting the right laboratory for the job at hand.

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Every production has different requirements. The laboratory selected to do a production filmed in 35 mm for television distribution will probably be different from the one chosen to handle a job shot in 16 mm for reduction to super 8 to be used i n point-of-purchase advertising. The challenge is to find the lab that can satisfy the greatest number of your needs on schedule and within budget. There are a number of trade-offs.

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Consider the question of size. The big lab can usually offer lower prices due to their large-volume operati on, more complete in-house services, and excellent quality control. The small laboratory usually offers custom handling and easy access to the right people for advice and counsel. But they may have to charge more to support their custom operation or subcontract more of the job.

You're Reading a Preview Consider the location. If a laboratory is a significant distance from your Unlock full the accesspotential with a free trial. place of business, you will be faced with hazards and increased costs of shipping valuable footage to and from the lab. Daily communications with the lab mayDownload also be more difficult. With Free Trial Consider your confidence in the laboratory. The selected laboratory should be looked upon as a silent partner in the production of a motion picture. The laboratory should be taken into the producer's confidence, kept informed about the films and photographic techniques being used, advised of the specific objectives, and alerted to any problems that might develop. Given this relationship, the laboratory can assist and simplify your endeavors. You should select a laboratory you feel takes your interests seriously. Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times  Usefulconsiderably  Not useful These important steps in your production can be smoothed Cancel anytime.

Special offer forifstudents: Onlycommunications $4.99/month. adequate are established right from the start. Both you and your laboratory should know what is expected-and when to

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KODAK: Tips on Selecting a Laboratory

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necessary for efficient work flow; but when it comes to specifying what you want, when you want it, and how much it will cost, a carefully written document-the purchase order-is a must. Listed below are some of the principal services offered by commercial motion picture laboratories. Few laboratories will offer all the services listed but most of them will provide a major portion. l

l

l

l

l l

l

l

Processing camera film. (Special overnight pickup and delivery, or weekend service is available in some places by prearrangement) Find out what processes are available, including special techniques (e.g. flashing or force processing). Furnishing advice to help with technical or even aesthetic problems. Printing and duplicating from camera films for workprints or releaseprints. Most laboratories will print or duplicate the camera film after it is processed. They may also hold the original in their vault and forward the print for use as a workprint. Thus the original is protected from damage in handling until it is needed for final conforming. Black-and-white printing from a color original to produce a workprint for sound editing. Edge numbering of originals and workprints to facilitate editing. Editing , cutting, splicing, and assembling as directed by the producer. Conforming by matching the original camera film to the workprint as edited by the producer. Optical effects which these You're include dissolves, wipes, fades, freeze Reading a Preview frames, etc. Unlock full access with a free trial.

Download With Free Trial Home | Search | Service & Support | Visit shop @ kodak , the online store | Careers Copyright © Eastman Kodak Company, 1994-2002 and Privacy Practices (updated 14 -Sep-2001).



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KODAK: Laboratory Services: A Walk-Through

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Laboratory Services: A Walk-Through To help you visualize the way a laboratory's operations interact with you and your production, this walk-through gives you three vie ws of scheduling. First is a flowchart of operations from preproduction through various laboratory operations to delivery of the edited, printed film. The chart shows a graphic description of the close communication between lab and cinematographer that produces a satisfactory final print. Next is a narrative about the production of a film for television that demonstrates the behind the scenes laboratory work that keeps a production on schedule. Last is a day- to -day schedule, from shooting to release print, of this production.

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Pag

assembly where the out-take negative is removed and stored for safekeeping. Rolls (approximately 1,000 ft) of print-take negative are assembled and spliced. The roll is ultrasonically cleaned and printed at exposure values that had been derived through a "fi ne-tuning" of timing information obtained early in the production season on the laboratory's electronic color analyzer. The daily print is developed and screened by the laboratory customer representative usually between 6:00 and 9:00 a.m. The print is projected full aperture at approximately 120 ft/min (32 frames per second) so any film, camera, or laboratory problems can be seen. The daily prints are delivered to the production company's editors by 9:00 am. for syncing with the sound track that has been transfered from 1/4-inch magnetic tape to 35 mm magnetic film. At 1:00 p.m. the director and other production personnel screen the synced dailies on double-system projectors. The laboratory won't be involved in this particular episode in the series for about two weeks (in some cases for two months, depending on the activities of the production company). During this time, the studio is editing, dubbing and mixing sound, and preparing optical effects. The laboratory's next job is to assemble these elements and generate the final composite prints for this episode. The network usually requires two 35 mm prints (for New York and Los Angeles) and three to fifteen 16 mm prints. Two of the 16 mm prints are backup prints for the 35's, one is for Canadian television (which usually is broadcast 3 to 4 days before the U.S. air date), and the remainder are split regionally within the network system.


This phase begins with close communications between the production Unlock full access with a free trial. company's negative cutter and the laboratory. As reels near completion, the negative cutter delivers the cut negative with instructions to the lab. The reel may be only 90 percent Download complete,With but the can begin to Freelab Trial splice and notch the negative, leaving leader in the areas that are not firm or are awaiting inclusion of laboratory -created segments (dissolves, fades, and titles) primarily on color reversal intermediate (CRI) or color intermediate film stock. The optical effects elements are usually created by an independent optical house rather than the laboratory. When the negative has been spliced and notched, it is timed on an electronic analyzer to determine the exposure values to be used in the printer. The timing information is used on a proof printer which prints Read Free For 30this Days Sign up to vote on title only a few frames of each scene. This proof print is screened (single  Useful  Not useful frame projection) to identify any further color or density corrections Cancel anytime. Special offer forrequired. students: Only $4.99/month. A complete composite print (answer print) is then made and evaluated on the analyzer. Once the answer print has been accepted by


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Preproduction

1-6 weeks. Depends on how many locations to be scouted and/or how many sets to be constructed.

Days 0 -6

Production

Photography -6 days.

Day 2

Postproduction

2-8 weeks Laboratory opertations begin during shooting and include processing the negative, daily workprint printing, cutting the workprint into sequences, making optical effects, adding stock footage and sound effects, making titles, and dubbing (voice, sound effects, and music). Optical effects are scheduled whenever the individual scene elements are available. Several labs may be involved in some phase of these operations.

Day 12

1. First Cut

Includes action and voice only, in rough sequences. No opticals, titles, sound effects, although some opticals and titles are being made.

Day 24

2. Final Cut

Workprint. More precisely edited into final form. Some opticals but no titles or sound effects.

Days 2531

3. Negative Cut Music composed and scored, sound effects made, opticals and titles prepared, editing You're Reading a Preview finished. Camera negative physically cut to conform to access final with cutaof Unlock full freethe trial.workprint. Dupe negatives spliced in where there are opticals and title negative footage added. Download With Free Trial Actual splicing is done at the laboratory.

Day 32

4. Dubbing

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1-3 days. All sound materials (live music, recorded music, voice, sound effects such as gunshots, footsteps, etc) combined into a composite magnetic sound track. Magnetic track transferred to optical track.

Days 34, 5. First Trial Film shows aesthetic defects in some Master your semester with Scribd 35 & 36 areas. Needs tighteningRead up up and polishing, Free Foron 30this Days Sign to vote title slight recutting. Some elements missing in & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful titles. Cancel anytime.

Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. Day 37 6. First Answer Contains everything; becomes New York

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KODAK: Motion Picture Laboratory Operations

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Motion Picture Laboratory Operations l l l l l l l l

Processing Equipment Construction of Containers Transport Design Access Time Time and Temperature Agitation Mechanical Specifications Process Control

Student M

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One important consideration when selecting film-one too often overlooked-is the processing requirements for a given film and the printing needs for the whole production. One way to better appreciate the sophisticated technology that turns your exposed camera film into good projection film is to understand the processes and equipment in the modern film laboratory. In this section, we will describe the operations and equipment involved in processing and printing your film.

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Processing Equipment The modern motion-picture laboratory uses the continuous processor, a You're Reading Preview long lengths of machine that provides the most efficient way ofahandling film. Other kinds of equipment can be built or purchased for full access with a free trial. development of small amounts ofUnlock black-and-white footage, but the continuous processor meets the quantity and quality demands of professional processing. In essence, the continuous moves film Download With Free processor Trial through the appropriate sequences of developers, fixers (or stop baths), washes, and dryer at a carefully controlled speed. The processor also controls solution temperature and agitation to produce optimum results for the particldar kind of film being processed.

Construction of Containers Glass, hard rubber, polyethylene, 316 stainless steel, and titanium are Master your semester with Scribd the materials most commonly used in the construction ofup containers for Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign to vote title mixing, storing, and using photographic solutions. & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful Cancel anytime.

Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. Not all metals are suitable. Tin, copper, and their alloys may cause serious chemical fog or rapid oxidation when used with developers. Do

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Figure 57

Figure 58

Figure 59

Helical path of film through a single rack and tank assembly

This type of wiper- blade squeegee assembly is used on many processors.

Roller undercut in image area.

The film path through the processor wet sections permits only the base side of the film to contact the rollers. In this way, the emulsion is protected from possible physical damage that might occur if the soft, wet emulsion came in contact with the plastic spool surfaces. However, in the dry sections (feed-on and take-off) of some processing machines, there may be emulsion- side rollers. These are usually under cut in the image area and are designed to contact only the edges or perforation area of the film. Some rollers have ridges that Reading touch only edges of the film, or You're a Preview the rollers can be flat and covered with soft-touch tires for uniform film support across the roller width and to full prevent scratching Unlock access with a free trial. of the support in the image area. See Figure 59.

Access Time


Two of the most widely discussed and perhaps the most misunderstood items relating to any processor are speed and access time. Speed refers to the time required for a specific point on a film to travel a specific distance and is measured in feet or meters per minute. Access time refers to the time it takes a particular length of film to be completely processed. Regardless of machine transport speed, which can range from 15 to hundreds of feet per minute, film cannot be processed faster than Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title the total of the times required in each solution. For example, when a Not be useful  Useful  machine running Process VNF-1 is loaded and processing film, it will Cancel anytime. Special offer for15 students: Only15 $4.99/month. minutes seconds before the first foot of film enters the drying cabinet no matter what the speed of the machine. However, the time for


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necessary depending upon the type of sensitometer or densitometer being used.) For color films, specified temperature tolerances, particularly those for the developers, are critical. Developer tolerances of +/- 0.3ºC (+/ 0.5ºF) are typical. Appreciable deviation from these limits results in speed and color- balance changes. Many commercial motion picture laboratories have found it feasible and profitable, in terms of consistent quality, to control the developer temperature to within +/ - 0.15 ºC (+/0.25ºF), or even l ess. Process ECN-2 requires that the developer temperature be held within +/- 0.1 ºC (+/- 0.2ºF). Controlling processing time is also more critical with color films than with black-and-white films because any changes that occur in color emulsions may not be equal in all layers. Improper color reproduction can result from speed shifts, contrast changes, increased fog, etc., in any of the layers. Therefore, a good lab adheres closely to the exact processing specifications for the particular equipment and materials.

Agitation If exposed photographic materials are placed in a developer and allowed to develop without movement, the action slows down because the developing chemicals in contact with the film surface become exhausted. If the film or the solution i s agitated, however, fresh solution is continually brought to the emulsion surface, and the development continues. An equally important effect of agitation is prevention of You're Reading a Preview uneven development that may result in mottle, a nonuniform density in the print that makes it look blotchy. Iffull there noa agitation, the Unlock accessiswith free trial. exhausted solution, loaded with development by - products, may flow slowly across the emulsion from dense areas to less dense areas and Download With Free Trial produce uneven streaks. Agitation keeps the solution uniform throughout and avoids uneven development. In color processing, proper agitation is especially critical during the initial development step. The recommended agitation techniques will vary, depending upon the process and equipment being used. The film movement, as it passes through the developer solution is not always sufficient to create adequate agitation.

Mechanical Specifications

Master your semester with Scribd Read Free For 30this Days Sign up to vote on title If film is to be processed satisfactorily as it moves through the machine, it must be immersed in solutions of the correct te mperature & The New York Times Not useful  Useful forthe Cancel anytime.

of time. In addition, processing solutions must be Special offer forproper students:length Only $4.99/month. adequately replenished and filtered, and sufficiendy agitated. These

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Temperatures on most processors are controlled automatically, often to within +/ - 0.1ºC but can usually be adjusted manually to accommodate any desired temperature changes. The laboratory also keeps a highly accurate thermometer available to double check the processor temperature gauges.

Process Control The degree of development in a negative-positive process or first development in a reversal process is the most important factor in determining the final image quality. Careful control is critical at this point. Development is affected by the temperatures and chemical composition of the developer (or first developer), the time of contact between the film and the solution, and the degree of agitation. The other processing steps are also affected by the same factors. When all is well with the process, the output from the continuous processor will be good pictures. While the se pictures can be evaluated subjectively by simply looking at them, the most accurate evaluation is an objective measurement Sensitometric control strip density values, when plotted in graphic form, give an operator that objective information about the condition of the process. These measurements are made before, during, and after a processing run for maximum control of quality. The operator also checks the physical operation of the machine periodically to ensure good results. A good lab observes the following You're Reading a Preview practices in the physical control of a process: Unlock full access with a free trial.

Use of correct processing temperatures, which are checked often. Thermometers and temperature -controlling devices are calibrated Download With Free periodically to insure that the instruments are Trial operating properly. The temperatures of all solutions are kept within specification to minimize dimensional changes in the emulsion. l Use of recommended processing times. Machine speed is checked by carefully measuring the time it takes for a given length of film to pass a specific point. Knowing it is possible to use an incorrect processing time when a machine uses different thread -ups for different film stocks, the careful laboratory checks the solution times every time there is a threading change. Consider that, for black-and-white negative or positive process, one run up to Read Free For 30 Days Sign might up to vote on this title seven films having nine possible development times through  Useful  Not useful Cancel anytime. Developer D-96 in the course of a f ew hours. Special offer for students: Only Use of $4.99/month. the recommended replenishment rates. Accurate l replenishment increases the useful life of solutions to a great l


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KODAK: Marketing a Film

Pag

Marketing a Film l l l l

FiIm as a Business Tool Potential Clients Client's Communication Requirements Reaching Agreement on Need for Film

Student M

About the

Publicati

Career Pr

Film Tech

"People don't buy goods and services; they buy solutions to problems. People are accustomed to learning through film."

Campus B

Speak Ou

Program M l

l

l

l

Filmmakers who learn how to market and how to communicate with clients are the ones who make films. You have nothing to sell, of course, except yourself-and the promise that you can deliver a film that meets your client's needs. Don't try for a film that will win prizes. If you try for a film that will best serve your client's needs, you will find yourself with a prizewinner . . . and a recommendation for another job. Your reputation is as good as your last film. You build a reputation by taking care of business every day as though your reputation were at stake, because it is.

News & E

Motion Pic






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KODAK: Film as a Business Tool

Pag

Film as a Business Tool "Corporations are closer to the film medium, because they make commercials and they're more exposed to film; t he educational foundations are not the best source of funds for films."

Student M

About the

Publicati

Career Pr

Knowing how to make a film-kowing how to use the medium to communicate a message-is not enough if you are to become successful. You must also know how to communicate with people who need the fil ms so that you can get a chance to use your creative tal ents. In business, that's known as marketing. Your marketing should begin with a sensible look at what you have t o offer. In reality, film is not what you have to offer. What you have to offer are solutions to problems, using film as the medium for communication. That's what nontheatrical filmmaking is all about.

Film Tech

Campus B

Speak Ou

Program M

News & E

Motion Pic

There are several areas open to t he nontheatrical filmmaker-business, education, special interest groups, vacation resorts, governmental agencies. All have a use for sponsored nontheatrical films -films that teach, films that promote, films that pass along information.

You're Reading a Preview Basically, there are three types ofcommunication problems: Those related to skill and knowledge, motivational problems, and problems of Unlock full access with a free trial. information; and, of course, some communication problems are a combination of the three. Download With Free Trial

Problems in the skill-knowledge area usually involve situations where someone lacks the understanding necessary to perform a job. People have to be trained to make products. People have to be instructed in safety procedures. People have to be coached in selling the product. The idea is this: People who know more are more effective. That's a good investment. In the motivational area, the problem is that someone may not want to Master your semester with Scribd do a job. Most recognize that people who want to work more Read Free Foron 30this Days Signare up to vote title productive and will work harder toward a solution to the problem. & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful Motivational problems can also involve prospective clients. The solution Cancel anytime.

Special offer forin students: Onlycan $4.99/month. this case usually be found i n the area of more effective advertising and sales promotion.

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"Organizations (business corporations, universities, churches, hospitals) have internal communications problems, such as training their employees, communicating government regulations and rules, motivating people, and creating a sense of community among their eople so they work as teams; those are common problems for any ki nd of organization."

Every company is a potential client. First, start with a list of companies in your area. Use the phone book, a Chamber of Commerce listing, or the Fortune 500, trade listings. Some companies, because of size, will be obvious prospects. Of course, if those companies use film, they probably have many other filmmakers calling on them already. But you have nothing to lose by offering your services as well. It's true that you may not have anything to offer that they are not getting now, but you'll never know unless you contact them. "Trade journals will tell you what's going on and what kinds of films are being made and who's making them. Also, industries will address business problems in their annual reports . . . Read the business page in your newspaper; look to see where trends are happening."

There may be several people to contact in each company. Internal structures are easy enough to penetrate if you keep the cornmunication needs in mind. One way to get started is to call the switchboard or drop by the lobby, and ask questions: "Could I speak to the manager of the Training Department?" "Who is in charge of Sales Promotion?" You're Reading a Preview "I'd like to talk to someone in Corporate Relations." . . . and so on. It may take a while, but most people are helpful once they understand that Unlock full access with a free trial. you are trying to find someone you can show your talents to.

Free Trial Within each company there may Download be severalWith different departments that have a need for film. You will find that department names vary greatly AV Services, Advertising and Sales Promotion, Media Services, Marketing Development-but their purposes are all the same: to solve communication problems. Somewhere in these departments you will find one or more prospects. They may deal directly with you; on the other hand, they may be required to request the work through a central medial department Don't forget, a company with one prospect for you probably has two.

Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title "To reach individuals in a company, you have to first work through the & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful 'corporate tree' and pick the branch that you feel needs a film." Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

Cancel anytime.

A second way to get potential clients is to offer them a solution to a

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Pag

And don't forget that your prospects may be working with cyclical budgets. For example, the textile industry will probably be most busy twice a year and will have to introduce new products-in the spring and fall. Car manufacturers come out with their new products in the spring and fall. Summer recreation has an obvious selling period, as does winter recreation. Budgets for producing work becomes available before those selling periods. So, your marketing efforts have to coincide with the budgets, not with the selling periods. Direct your efforts toward the future; if your prospect doesn't save money now, the money will come eventually. "What you have to get a litt le more aware of, and perhaps a heck of a lot more of, is corporate budgeting. Corporate budgets have certain approval cycles, certain processes, and there are times that you can get at the money and times that you can't. You don't want to do all your homework and then go in there and find that there's no water in the well."

Before you ever reach a potential client's desk, you have to decide why you are going to meet with that person. Certainly you want to introduce yourself and, if possible, show some samples of your work. But you should be trying to do more than that so that you can best define what you have to offer. Among other things, you will want to find out what communications needs exist in the company, how these needs are currently solved, and whether the person you are talking to has the power or influence to hire you.

Reading Preview When you meet someone for the You're first time, youahave the opportunity to begin a lasting business relationship. You know what you can do. Now is full access with a free trial. your chance to find out what youUnlock can do for your prospect. You can only do that by determining what your prospect needs. Download With Free Trial Home | Search | Service & Support | Visit shop @ kodak , the online store | Careers Copyright © Eastman Kodak Company, 1994-2002 and Privacy Practices (updated 14 -Sep-2001).



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Film as a Business Tool "Corporations are closer to the film medium, because they make commercials and they're more exposed to film; t he educational foundations are not the best source of funds for films."

Student M

About the

Publicati

Career Pr

Knowing how to make a film-kowing how to use the medium to communicate a message-is not enough if you are to become successful. You must also know how to communicate with people who need the fil ms so that you can get a chance to use your creative tal ents. In business, that's known as marketing. Your marketing should begin with a sensible look at what you have t o offer. In reality, film is not what you have to offer. What you have to offer are solutions to problems, using film as the medium for communication. That's what nontheatrical filmmaking is all about.

Film Tech

Campus B

Speak Ou

Program M

News & E

Motion Pic

There are several areas open to t he nontheatrical filmmaker-business, education, special interest groups, vacation resorts, governmental agencies. All have a use for sponsored nontheatrical films -films that teach, films that promote, films that pass along information.

You're Reading a Preview Basically, there are three types ofcommunication problems: Those related to skill and knowledge, motivational problems, and problems of Unlock full access with a free trial. information; and, of course, some communication problems are a combination of the three. Download With Free Trial

Problems in the skill-knowledge area usually involve situations where someone lacks the understanding necessary to perform a job. People have to be trained to make products. People have to be instructed in safety procedures. People have to be coached in selling the product. The idea is this: People who know more are more effective. That's a good investment. In the motivational area, the problem is that someone may not want to Master your semester with Scribd do a job. Most recognize that people who want to work more Read Free Foron 30this Days Signare up to vote title productive and will work harder toward a solution to the problem. & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful Motivational problems can also involve prospective clients. The solution Cancel anytime.

Special offer forin students: Onlycan $4.99/month. this case usually be found i n the area of more effective advertising and sales promotion.

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"Organizations (business corporations, universities, churches, hospitals) have internal communications problems, such as training their employees, communicating government regulations and rules, motivating people, and creating a sense of community among their eople so they work as teams; those are common problems for any ki nd of organization."

Every company is a potential client. First, start with a list of companies in your area. Use the phone book, a Chamber of Commerce listing, or the Fortune 500 , trade listings. Some companies, because of size, will be obvious prospects. Of course, if those companies use film, they probably have many other filmmakers calling on them already. But you have nothing to lose by offering your services as well. It's true that you may not have anything to offer that they are not getting now, but you'll never know unless you contact them. "Trade journals will tell you what's going on and what kinds of films are being made and who's making them. Also, industries will address business problems in their annual reports . . . Read the business page in your newspaper; look to see where trends are happening."

There may be several people to contact in each company. Internal structures are easy enough to penetrate if you keep the cornmunication needs in mind. One way to get started is to call the switchboard or drop by the lobby, and ask questions: "Could I speak to the manager of the Training Department?" "Who is in charge of Sales Promotion?" "I'd like to talk to someone in Corporate Relations." . . . and so on. It may take a while, but most people are helpful once they understand that you are trying to find someone you can show your talents to. Within each company there may be several different departments that have a need for film. You will find that department names names vary greatly AV Services, Advertising and Sales Promotion, Media Services, Marketing Development-but Development-but their purposes are all the same: to solve communication problems. Somewhere in these departments you will find one or more prospects. They may deal directly with you; on the other hand, they may be required to request the work through a central medial department Don't forget, a company with one prospect for you probably has two.

Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title "To reach individuals in a company, you have to first work through the & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful 'corporate tree' and pick the branch that you feel needs a film." Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

Cancel anytime.

A second way to get potential clients is to offer them a solution to a

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Pag

And don't forget that your prospects may be working with cyclical budgets. For example, the textile industry will probably be most busy twice a year and will have to introduce new products-in the spring and fall. Car manufacturers come out with their new products in the spring and fall. Summer recreation has an obvious selling period, as does winter recreation. Budgets for producing work becomes available before those selling periods. So, your marketing efforts have to coincide with the budgets, not with the selling periods. Direct your efforts toward the future; if your prospect doesn't save money now, the money will come eventually. "What you have to get a litt le more aware of, and perhaps a heck of a lot more of, is corporate budgeting. Corporate budgets have certain approval cycles, certain processes, and there are times that you can get at the money and times that you can't. You don't want to do all your homework and then go in there and find that there's no water in the well."

Before you ever reach a potential client's desk, you have to decide why you are going to meet with that person. Certainly you want to introduce yourself and, if possible, show some samples of your work. But you should be trying to do more than that so that you can best define what you have to offer. Among other things, you will want to find out what communications communications needs exist in the company, how these needs are currently solved, and whether the person you are talking to has the power or influence to hire you. When you meet someone for the first time, you have the opportunity to begin a lasting business relationship. You know what you can do. Now is your chance to find out what you can do for your prospect. You can only do that by determining what your prospect needs. needs.




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KODAK: Client's Communication Requirements

Pag

Client's Communication Requirements "You have to find out first of all how they think, how they operate, what their business is like, and how they make decisions."

Student M

About the

Publicati

There are two ways to approach a communication problem. One way is to let the client take control; you do that by talking about yourself, your attitudes, your previous successes with other similar problems. This approach is not particularly successful. A more effective way is to take control yourself-define your meeting; you're there to get business. You can help yourself by paying attention to the problem. Listen to what the client has to say and ask questions that will reveal why your client thinks of the problem as unique.

Career Pr

Film Tech

Campus B

Speak Ou

Program M

News & E

Motion Pic

But it's not enough for you to discover your client's needs. You also have to help the client's needs. You also have to help the client really understand the needs and reach agreement on them. Only when you have reached that point can you begin to talk about solutions. You may have to hold several meetings before you begin to talk about film, which is just the medium for solving the problem. The importance of good communication skills in determining your client's needs cannot be overestimated. Remember, you are in marketing as well as filmmaking. Marketing requires certain skills that you may never have considered. Keep in mind that your job is to solve your client's problem. You may understand the problem one way; your client may understand the problem differently. You must learn to listen carefully and question your client skillfully so that you can both agree on a definite solution to the problem. You may be able to create a great film; but if your client isn't happy, it may be your last film.

Reaching Agreement on Need for Film

Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days At the end of your first meeting with a prospect, some action has to betitle Sign up to vote taken York if you are going to continue to work with the prospect perhap perhaps s & The New Times useful  Useful and  Not do a film. This, again, is continuing your control. In business, this point Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. in the action is called a close .

Cancel anytime.

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Pag

up, not yet. First take the t ime to find out why your prospect has said no. It may be that the proposal you have submitted doesn't clearly solve the problem. In that case, your job is easy; just write another proposal. Perhaps the client isn't convinced that you can do the job. In that case, you can ask the client if references from other people would be helpful. Whatever you do, don't let the word no stop you until you find out why. And when you find out why, close -that is, take an action that will get you a yes. At some point in the filmmaking process-before you begin production-you will have to communicate with people who hold the purse strings . . . you will have to get the proposal approved. Even though your client may understand the creative and technical aspects of filmmaking as well as you do, somewhere along the line you will have to talk to people who relate to costs differently than you. Keep in mind that your client's company doesn't need a film per see , it needs solutions to problems. The film you create will have t o solve those problems in cost -effective ways. It goes back to the three kinds of communication needs. Ask yourself a few questions: Will the company be able to sell more porducts? Will it be able to train people better? Will it now be able to communicate information to more people more effectively? Will employees be sufficiently motivated by the film to justify the cost of producing it? All of these questions are related in one way or another to profit. If the company can sell more goods and services, get more work done, disseminate more necessary information using audiovisuals, and if it can Reading a Preview get more in return than it spendsYou're on your film, then that is a gain for the company and the kind of "bottom line" that interests those who have Unlock full access with a free trial. final approval of the project.

Download Withfor? FreeATrial "What gives a company the results it's looking film may be y o u r end product, but it's not t h e i r end product . . . film is a medium you give them to help solve their internal or external communication problems." To summarize, finding and keeping clients is a sequential marketing process. Even though you are only marketing yourself, there is a logical order of steps to go through in order to get down to business of making a film.

Master your semester with Scribd Free For 30this Days Basically, it involves doing things one step at a time.Read First, you have totitle Sign up to vote on decideYork where Times the potential jobs are. Second, you have Useful outNot whom & The New useful  to fi nd  to talk to. Before you ever see that person, you have to do some Cancel anytime.

Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. homework in two areas. Find out as much as you can about your prospect's organizational setup and communication needs. Then, decide

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Pag

business advantages to the company as well as alternative proposals. And finally, you have to secure a contract before you begin production. At this point, your marketing job is not over. Even though you are now concentrating most of your efforts on making the film, you must still stay in close contact with your clients to keep them up -to-date on the progress of the film and secure the necessary approvals along the way. Marketing a film is very much like producing a film; every step must be considered in order to meet the client's needs as the client sees them. Don't let the term frighten you . . . it's simply a matter of taking care of business.

Filmmakers tend to think of themselves as artists, apart from the clutter of the business world. But no matter how alien the concept of marketing seems, it is still a skill that must be learned and developed. Why? Because marketing is a skill that will help you make the kind of films you want. "Take that next step beyond your filmmaking skills . . . business skills don't decrease your freedoms . . . a lot of people are afraid that, 'If I take on business skills, I'm going to spend all my time with tax accountants; you aren't . . . it means being a little more equipped, more astute, than the next person-doing more than the client expects."

Reading a Preview Home | Search | Service & Support | VisitYou're shop @ kodak , the online store | Careers Copyright © Eastman Kodak Company, 1994-2002 and Privacy Practices (updated 14 -Sep-2001). Unlock full access with a free trial.




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KODAK: Distribution and Promotion

Pag

Distribution and Promotion l

l

l

l l l

l

General Market Considerations ¡ Educational ¡ Special Interest ¡ Broadcast Television ¡ Cable Television ¡ Vacation Resorts Film Ingredients ¡ Running Time ¡ ProfessionaI Versus Industrial Talent ¡ Film Content Distributor Services ¡ Promotional Ideas ¡ Print Inventory ¡ Supporting Materials ¡ Film Maintenance

Student M

About the

Publicati

Career Pr

Film Tech

Campus B

Speak Ou

Program M

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Your creative work is of little value unless you have an audience. If you don't have a plan, it will stay in the can. When you target your audience, you target your potential for payback. There are as many outlets You're for good films as there are good films. A Reading a Preview good film is one that is aimed at a particular audience. You must give the audience a chanceUnlock to see by making visible with full it access with a free it trial. promotion, available with distribution, and usable with support materials and proper maintenance.


The distribution and promotion phase is, many times, a matter of rote. Many companies have predetermined distribution channels, especially with materials created for internal use (training outlets or salespeople) or for well- established clients (dealers or distributors). You may, however, be able to help your client choose the distribution format. Will the film be shot in 16 mm and converted to 35 mm, then converted back to 16 mm for television use? Will it be shot in 35 mm and converted to 16 mm for distribution? Will the same film have several uses in several formats? Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd & The New Yorkanswers Timeswill help you determine both the Useful  Not useful Your client's format  original Cancel anytime.

the distribution format, determine costs for the total needs of your Special offer forand students: Only $4.99/month. client, and avoid serious mistakes when choosing production techniques.

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KODAK: Distribution and Promotion

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getting a general-interest film production to its target audience. Whether you are aiming at a large, single audience or widely diversified audiences, a distribution service is an excellent vehicle for publicizing and communicating your film's message. This part covers general considerations for distribution planning, the potential distribution channels for reaching mass audiences, important film ingredients influencing distribution methods, and the many services offered by the distributor (including promotional pieces, print inventory, supporting materials, film maintenance).






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KODAK: General Market Considerations

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General Market Considerations "We have just made a new film. Coul d you come over and take a look at it and give us some suggestions for distribution?" This type of request (which originates from film producers or from the sponsors of a producer's film) is too often heard by professional fil m distributors. The above question should be answered at the planning stage, not after the film is in the can. Early in the game, consider not only why the film, but also where the film.

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Unfortunately, film producers are often not well-equipped to communicate to their clients all of the effective distribution alternatives. If you feel at all uncomfortable with any of the distribution areas, get in touch with a film distributor who can answer your questions and handle your specific needs.

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Not all industrial films are suitable for mass distribution, nor are their target a mass audience. Films are often produced to sell a client's product, point of view, or service to an extremely narrow market (e. g., medical films, military films). These films are carefully aimed at the target audience and usually delivered directly by the sponsor or his or her sales personnel. Professional distribution is normally not required for this type of film. This part is really addressed films that are made You're Readingtoa the Preview for unclassified or general audiences. Unlock full access with a free trial.

Non-theatrical films are generally directed to one or more of the five potential channels of distribution: Download With Free Trial l l l l l

Educational Special-interest groups Broadcast TV Cable TV Vacation resorts

Schools and special-interest groups account for the greatest utilization of Master your semester with Scribd sponsored films. Your films can also receive considerable visibility Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title through the other four distribution channels. If you want to target your & The New York Times Not useful  Useful films at these areas most effectively, you should really contact a Special offer forprofessional students: Only $4.99/month. distributor.

Cancel anytime.

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KODAK: General Market Considerations l l l l l

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Health Social Studies Business and Economics Vocational Guidance Arts and Crafts

Also within this age range are various non -school youth organizations such as: Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, Little League, and other sports groups, YMCA, YWCA, etc.

Special -Interest The special-interest grouping encompasses business and professional organizations, religious groups, civic and social clubs, etc,. Listed below are many of the areas that make up this large and diverse category: l

l l l

l

l

l l

Business and Industry (e.g., oil companies, computer companies, electronics factories, automobile companies) Service and Fraternal organizations (Rotary, Kiwanis, Masons) Church groups (Finance Committees, Pastor-Parish Relations) Sports groups-hunting, fishing, automobile clubs (NASCAR, SCCA), ski clubs, hiking clubs Federal Govemment agencies (Internal Revenue Service, Health, Education, and Welfare Department) State agencies (Department of Motor Vehicles, Transportation Department) Military branches (Army, Navy, Air Force, Marines) You're Reading a Preview Hospitals Unlock full access with a free trial.

The above is not intended to limit the possibilities, but merely to point out the broad range of potential target audiences within the specialDownload With Free Trial interest category.

Broadcast Television Broadcast television (commercial and educational) provides the quickest method of exposing many thousands of viewers to your film at one time and at a surprisingly moderate cost. Your film should be original and aesthetically pleasing to be accepted for TV broadcast; it should also be appropriate for an audience of varying ages, educational backgrounds, Read Free For 30this Days Sign up to vote on and interests. A couple of points to remember are that running times oftitle Useful either 13 1/2 or 27 1/2 minutes are most suitable for average TVuseful the  Not Cancel anytime. less prevalent film lengths include 3 to 5 minutes and 7 to Special offer forstation, students: and Only $4.99/month. 10 minutes for use as fill material (full-length film or sports event


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Vacation Resorts Vacation resorts are another excellent area for promoting your films. You have the opportunity to reach many community adult groups that do not normally meet in the summertime. Movies are frequently offered for evening entertainment by the management for resort hotels, motels, camps, or other similar vacation habitats. This approach enables you to communicate with a wide range of relatively affluent viewers (with the appropriate type of film -skiing, fishing culture) in a leisurely and relaxed atmosphere.






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KODAK: Film Ingredients

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Film Ingredients In addition to considering the categories of audiences and potential distribution channels, you should also examine some of the important parts of a successfully designed film: the running time, the advantages and disadvantages of using professional talent versus industrial talent, and the film content.

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The running time of your film will have a significant effect on the way it is distributed.

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Generally, educators are looking for appropriate films running from 15 to 30 minutes. In fact, many will avoid the use of extremely short films simply because the time required to obtain and set up a movie projector cannot be justified for a few minutes of screen time. Adult organizations, on the other hand, will normally shy away from film this long, preferring presentations that run less than 15 minutes. Therefore, you should carefully evaluate the length of your film based on You're Reading a Preview the target audience. You might even want to produce two different lengths (different versions) of the filmfull toaccess maximize usage Unlock with a free trial. for both the adult and the school audiences.

Download With Free Trial Professional Versus "Industrial" Talent One of your responsibilities is to decide whether to use recognized (name) talent or unrecognized talent. There are advantages to using either type of talent (cost considerations and film impact). The use of good industrial performers in place of name talent can result in an excellent film; for the most part, viewers are primarily concerned with the film's message. Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd & The New Times Useful useful  Not(yet If youYork decide to go with recognized talent, consider  these potential Cancel anytime.

Special offer forremote) students: Only $4.99/month. conditions. An actor involved in your production could possibly do a film for a competitive company and create credibility problems. Or,

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KODAK: Film Ingredients

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conceivable that the client's/sponsor's original purpose for the film has been somewhat misdirected. The real objective is to meet all of your client's expectations.






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KODAK: Distributor Services

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Distributor Services The actual elements of film distribution are simple in theory but vastly more complex in practice. You might think that to successfully market your film you need only an audience and a method of getting the film to the viewers. However, distribution is really a more complex science .

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Mass audiences, such as classroom students (kindergarten to college level), are fairly easy to locate. Other target audiences (skiers belonging to ski clubs and members of hunting and fishing Rod and Gun clubs) are not particularly hard to reach because they belong to well-known organizations. However, certain desired target audiences are difficult to find and perhaps not as easily influenced toward using your film.

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This section, then, covers t he advantages of using film distributors and the techniques they use to help you and your sponsor determine less obvious target audiences.

Promotional Ideas Efficient promotion can heavily affect overall film distribution. To assist the sponsor , supplemental promo literature (ranging from a single Reading can a Preview handout to a series of brochures You're and catalogs) be prepared by the distributor. Regardless of the format chosen and the cost of producing Unlock full access with a free trial. such a promotional unit , there will be an extra expense in getting materials to the audiences.


Obviously, a direct-mail system will play a vital role in getting promotional media to the film users; to help you, distributors have the latest comprehensive mailing lists of nationwide business and educational institutions. The handling of promotional materials can range from self-mailers to elaborate catalogs. Costs for an outside vendor's services (layout and printing) are only part of the expenses that must be factored in; you Read Free Foron 30this Days may also be charged for mailing lists, handling, and postage. Sign up to vote title


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Useful  Not useful Cancel anytime. Self-promotion by a sponsor who has a single film would cost more than Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. any other unit listing several films for which promotional expenses could

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