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Leon Festinger
Teoría de la disonancia cognoscitiva
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Título original: A Theory of Congnitive Dissonance Leon Festinger, 1957 Traducción: José Enrique Martín Daa
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PRÓLOGO Este prólogo incluye fundamentalmente una historia breve de cómo brotaron las ideas que forman el núcleo de este libro. Esta exposición en orden cronológico es la meor manera de agradecer debidamente la ayuda que he recibido de otros !ayuda que ha sido decisiva en momentos cruciales!" al mismo tiempo que explica los #nes que motivaron esta obra. Corr$a el #n del oto%o del a%o &'(& cuando )ernardo )erelson" director del Departamento Departamento de Ciencias Ciencias *ociales de la +undación +ord !en una conversación conversación conmigo conmigo !" me propuso emprender un trabao importante sobre ,las comunicaciones y la in-uencia social. /ay un extenso material literario de investigación relacionado con la materia" pero lo que nunca se ha intentado es hacer de 0l algo con articulación a nivel teórico. Abarca todos todos los los estudi estudios" os" tanto tanto los los refere referente ntess a los los medi medios os de difu difusi sión ón de masa masass como como los los relacionados con los efectos de la comunicación interpersonal. *i se pudiera aducir un conunto de proposiciones conceptuales que uniesen muchos de los hechos conocidos en este campo" ello ser$a un logro de un valor inestimable. 1a idea de intentar una aportación teórica as$" es siempre intelectualmente atractiva e importante" aunque a los interesados interesados nos parec$a evidente" en aquellos momentos" que ni aunque lleg2semos a alcan3ar un gran 0xito podr$amos llevar a cabo la tarea encomendada. 4n plan que promet$a dar resultados útiles era el de empe3ar con un tema que ya estuviese de#nido dentro del 2mbito general de ,las comunicaciones y de la in-uencial social" e intentar formular un conunto espec$#co de hipótesis o unas proposiciones que estuviesen de acuerdo con los datos. *i esto resultaba" entonces habr$a que considerar otro tema sin de#nir y al que la teor$a pod$a extenderse y completarse. Est2bamos seguros de que nos $bamos a encontrar continuamente con datos de los que no se podr$a deducir un progreso teóri teórico co.. *ab$ *ab$am amos os que que pront prontoo llega llegar$ r$am amos os a un punto punto muert muertoo y que que tendr$ tendr$am amos os que que abandonar aquella documentación y buscar otra. 1as aportaciones económicas proced$an del Departamento de Ciencias *ociales de la +undación +ord" e hicieron posible que colaboraran en nuestro trabao 5ay )rodbec6" Don 5artingale" 7ac6 )rehm y Alvin )oderman. 4na ve3 untos" empe3amos empe3a mos a estudiar cómo se divulga un rumor8 0ste iba a ser el primero de los problemas de#nidos que anali32bamos. El reunir una bibliograf$a extensa sobre la investigación de cómo se propaga un
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intelectual no nos llevar$a hacia delante. Tuvimos una primera cora3onada" que hi3o que entre algunos de nosotros brotase un primer entusiasmo entusiasmo cuando intent2bamos comprender comprender el sentido de algunos algunos datos sobre los que nos hab$a informado 9rasad" y que eran comentarios que hab$an corrido despu0s del temblor de tierra que asoló a la :ndia en &';<. El estudio que entonces hicimos se describe detalladamente en el cap$tulo =. El hecho que nos narraba 9rasad y que nos asombró era que" despu0s de haber tenido lugar el terremoto" la mayor$a de los rumores que corrieron predec$an cat2strofes cat2str ofes aún peores para un próximo futuro. 1a creencia de que iban a ocurrir desastres peores no es lo que se puede llamar una creencia agradable" y surgió la pregunta> ?por qu0 rumores que ,provocan la ansiedad surgieron y fueron aceptados por una amplia mayor$a@ Al #n se nos ocurrió la posible respuesta a esta pregunta" una respuesta que promet$a tener aplicación general> ge neral> qui32 estos es tos rumores que predec$an cat2strofes próximas no ,provocaban la ansiedad" sino que la ,usti#caban. sea" que uno de los resultados del temblor de tierra hab$a sido que hab$a in#ltrado el miedo en el pueblo" y los rumores serv$an ,para proporcionarles algo de que tener miedo. Bui32 estos comentarios se serv$an en bandea a las personas que eran de una manera o de otra miedosas" pero estos rumores hac$an correr una información de algo que encaaba con lo que sent$an. Desde el comien3o" y con la ayuda de amplias discusiones en las que intent2bamos intent2bamos formali3ar una idea y #arla" llegamos al concepto de la disonancia y a la hipótesis de la reducción de la disonancia. 4na ve3 que formulamos nuestros trabaos en t0rminos de disonancia y de reducción de la disonancia" se nos presentaron obvias coneturas. *eguir estudiando a fondo estas coneturas fue pronto la actividad principal del proyecto. Durante una una tempo temporad rada" a" aún aún conti continu nuam amos os persi persigu guie iendo ndo la idea idea orig origin inal al de un ,inv ,invent entari arioo proposicional" para luego explorar las deducciones que se siguen del concepto de dison disonan anci cia8 a8 pero pero la extrao extraord rdin inari ariaa di#c di#cul ultad tad de lo prim primero ero"" unido unido a nuest nuestro ro gran gran nerviosismo respecto a lo segundo" hi3o que enfoc2ramos meor y duplic2semos nuestros esfuer3os. 9or supuesto que el desarrollo de la teor$a no avan3ó en el orden en el que se presenta en este libro. /emos distribuido el material de forma que los primeros cap$tulos traten de situaciones relativamente simples y los últimos de problemas cada ve3 m2s comp compli lica cado dos. s. De hecho hecho"" las las prime primera rass deduc deducci cione oness de la teor$ teor$aa de la dison disonanc ancia ia que que exploramos fueron aquellas relacionadas con problemas de la exposición voluntaria" o involuntaria" a la información. Desde luego" lo hicimos as$ principalmente porque la
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deducciones de la teor$a que surgieron por s$ mismas" pronto se extendieron fuera de los l$mites de ,las comunicaciones y la in-uencia social. A pesar de todo" pensamos que ser$a m2s fruct$fero seguir con lo que ahora parec$a ser una teor$a prometedora" en lugar de atenernos r$gidamente a un plan previo y a un tema encomendado. Afortunadamente para la teor$a de la disonancia no nos limitamos a buscar los datos m2s importantes que existen actualmente en la bibliograf$a investigativa" sino que pudimos encaminar nuestros estudios a probar lo que se derivaba de la teor$a. Con los fondos que proven$an del 1aboratorio de :nvestigación de Ciencias *ociales de la 4niversidad de 5innesota y con la ayuda personal concedida por la +undación +ord" pudimos recoger la información que necesit2bamos. o voy a nombrar en estas l$neas a todas las personas que me prestaron ayuda" pero en las p2ginas del libro donde aparecen sus trabaos les agrade3co su colaboración. *egún la forma de pensar de algunos colaboradores" se deb$a haber esperado cuatro o cinco a%os antes de escribir este libro" porque durante este per$odo de tiempo se hab$an podido llevar a cabo estudios importantes para la teor$a" y algunos puntos oscuros se habr$an eliminado. 9ero publicar estos datos en art$culos de periódicos nos parec$a una manera poco adecuada de presentar la teor$a y las deducciones que se derivaban de su estudio. 4n punto importante de la teor$a de la disonancia es su capacidad para integrar datos de 3onas aparentemente distintas" y esto se hubiera perdido en gran manera si no hubi0semos publicado un texto único. Creo que ya hay su#cientes datos relativos a la teor$a de la disonancia que revisten la debida garant$a como para comunic2rselos a otros y que corroboran corroboran ampliamente ampliamente la teor$a como para esperar a otras investigacion investigaciones es que sigan a la m$a. 9or último" una palabra de gratitud a quienes me han ayudado a escribir y a corregir los cap$tulos de este libro" en especial a 7udson 5ills" obert . *ears" Ernest . /ilgar /ilgard" d" /erbert /erbert 5cClos 5cClos6y" 6y" Daniel Daniel 5iller 5iller"" 7ames 7ames Colema Coleman" n" 5artin 5artin 1ipset" 1ipset" aymond aymond )auaer" 7ac6 )rehm y 5ay )rodbec6. *u colaboración en esta obra fue posible porque" en la 0poca 0poca en que que se escr escrib ib$a $a este este libro libro"" todo todoss 0ramo 0ramoss miem miembro bross del Cent Centro ro de Estud Estudio ioss *uperiores de Ciencias del Comportamiento. 9alo Alto" California. 5ar3o &'(.
LE!" FE#T$"%E&
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CAPÍTULO I INTRODUCCIÓN A LA TEORÍA DE LA DIONANCIA #e 'a co()ro*ado a (enudo, + a eces se 'a se-alado, que el indiiduo )rocura lograr la consistencia dentro de sí (is(o. #us o)iniones + actitudes, )or e/e()lo, suelen e0istir en gru)os que son interior(ente consistentes. laro est2 que 'a+ sus e0ce)ciones )ro*a*le(ente. 3na )ersona )uede )ensar que los negros son iguales que los *lancos +, sin e(*argo, no querer iir en la co()a-ía de ellos4 o )uede o)inar que los ni-os de*en estar callados + sin (olestar, )ero al (is(o tie()o estar (u+ orgullosa de que sus 'i/os se )orten de (anera agresia + de que ca)ten así la atención de sus 'ués)edes, que son )ersonas (a+ores. ue se den tales inco'erencias )uede )arece(os 'asta algo teatral. En )ri(er lugar, )orque atraen nuestro interés +, en segundo lugar, )orque se alan en agudo contraste contra el telón de 6ondo de la consistencia. Lo que es una erdad innega*le es que las o)iniones + las actitudes de una )ersona son consonantes las unas con las otras. Estudio tras estudio nos conr(a la realidad de una consistencia o cone0ión entre las actitudes )olíticas, sociales + otras (uc'as de una )ersona. 8a+ el (is(o ti)o de consistencia entre lo que una )ersona sa*e o cree + lo que que 'a 'ace ce.. 3n su/eto /eto que cree cree que la edu educaci cación ón unier iersi sita tari riaa es *u *uen ena, a, )ro*a*le(ente alentar2 a sus 'i/os a educarse en la uniersidad4 un c'ico que sa*e que a a ser seera(ente castigado )or una 6alta, tratar2 de no co(eterla o, )or lo (enos, de que no lo descu*ran. Ello no de*e sor)rendernos4 es una regla tan general, que +a la da(os )or sa*ida. 3na e (2s, lo que atrae nuestro interés son las e0ce)ciones + no la conducta nor(al. 3na )ersona )uede sa*er que el 6u(ar es (alo )ara su salud +, sin e(*argo, contina 6u(ando4 (uc'os 'a+ que co(eten delitos, aunque sa*en que 'a+ una gran )ro*a*ilidad de que se descu*ran + que el
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que el 6u(ar, des)ués de todo, es lo (2s co'erente con sus ideas. >ero 'a+ )ersonas que no sie()re tienen la (is(a suerte en racionaliar sus inconsistencias. >or una o )or otra raón, los intentos )ara conseguir la consis consisten tencia cia )ueden )ueden 6racas 6racasar. ar. Entonc Entonces, es, sencil sencilla( la(ent ente, e, lo que que )asa )asa es que que la incons inconsist istenc encia ia sigue sigue e0isti e0istiend endo. o. En estas estas circun circunsta stanci ncias as es decir, decir, ante ante una inco'erencia así, 'a+ una inco(odidad )sicológica. Las 'i)ótesis *2sicas, cu+as ra(icaciones e i()licaciones e0a(inare(os en lo que nos queda de este li*ro, se )ueden 6or(ular desde a'ora. En )ri(er lugar lugar sust sustit itu+ u+oo la )a )ala la*r *raa ?inc ?incon onsi sist sten enci cia@ a@ )or un tér( tér(in inoo que que tien tienee un unaa connot connotaci ación ón (enos (enos lógica lógica,, la )al )ala*r a*raa ?dison ?disonanc ancia@ ia@.. $gual( $gual(ent entee sustit sustituir uiréé la )ala*ra ?consistencia@ )or un tér(ino (2s neutral, que es ?consonancia@. >ronto dare(os una denición (2s 6or(al de estos tér(inos4 de (o(ento a(os a continuar con el sentido +a adquirido i()lícita(ente co(o resultado de esta discusión. Las 'i)ótesis *2sicas que quiero 6or(ular son las siguientes: 1A La e0istencia de la disonancia, siendo así que es )sicológica(ente incó(oda, 'ace que la )ersona trate de reducirla + de lograr la consonancia. BA uando la disonancia est2 )resente, ade(2s de intentar reducirla, la )ersona eita actia(ente las situaciones e in6or(aciones que )odrían )ro*a*le(ente au(entarla. =ntes de seguir con esta teoría de la disonancia + de las )resiones )ara reducirla, *ueno ser2 aclarar la naturalea de la disonancia, qué clase de conce)to es el que la dene + adonde nos llea la teoría que esta(os tratando. Las dos 'i)ótesis 6or(uladas (2s arri*a nos dan un *uen )unto de )artida )ara esta aclaración. =unque se reeren es)ecíca(ente a la disonancia, de 'ec'o son
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(u+ distinta de lo que los )sicólogos est2n acostu(*rados a tratar, )ero co(o ere(os en lo que queda del li*ro, no es (enos )oderosa. =-ada(os una )ala*ra (2s so*re el resto de esta o*ra. En ella se inestigan en una serie de as)ectos (u+ ariados las consecuencias de la disonancia cognoscitia + los intentos )or )arte de los seres 'u(anos de reducirla. #i alguien escri*iese un li*ro so*re la 6uera del 'a(*re en los seres 'u(anos, resultaría ser de naturalea si(ilar a este olu(en. Dedicare(os unos ca)ítulos a analiar los intentos )ara reducir el 'a(*re en una ariedad de conte0tos, +endo desde un ni-o en su silla alta, al gru)o de 6or(an las )ersonas (a+ores que asisten a un *anquete. De (anera an2loga, este tra*a/o descri*e diersos as)ectos, que an desde la decisión que se 6or(a en una )ersona, 'asta los 6enó(enos de (asas. o(o la reducción de la disonancia es un )roceso *2sico en los seres 'u(anos, no 'a de sor) sor)re rend nder erno noss que que sus sus (ani (ani6e 6est staci acion ones es sean sean o* o*se ser rad adas as en tan tan gran gran ariedad de conte0tos. 1a aparición y la persistencia de la disonancia
;>or qué + có(o *rota la disonancia< ;ó(o )uede ser que unas )ersonas sostengan o)iniones o acten co(o no es 'a*itual en ellas< La res)uesta a esta )regunta la )ode(os encontrar tratando las dos situaciones (2s nor(ales en las que ocurre la disonancia. = una )ersona le )ueden acontecer cosas nueas o reci*ir in6or(ación nue nu eaa so*r so*ree algo, algo, cre2 cre2nd ndos ose, e, al (eno (enoss de (o(en (o(ento to,, un unaa diso disona nanc ncia ia con el conoci(iento e0istente, con las o)iniones de la )ersona o con la cognición de una conducta conducta deter(inada. deter(inada. Dado que nadie tiene control control co()leto + )er6ecto )er6ecto so*re la in6or(ación que le llega + so*re los aconteci(ientos que suceden en torno su+o, es
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)asa todos los días. 8a+ )ocas cosas que sean co()leta(ente *lancas o negras4 )ocas )o cas situ situaci acion ones es tien tienen en )er )erle less suc sucie ient nte( e(en ente te clar claros os co(o co(o )a )ara ra que que las las o)in o) iniiones ones + las con conduct ductas as no sean sean,, 'asta asta cier cierto to )u )unt nto, o, una (ec (eclla de contradicciones. >or e/e()lo, un gran/ero del (edio !este de los Estados 3nidos, que es re)u*licano, qui2 se o)onga a la )olítica de su )artido en cuestiones de có(o (antener los )recios del )roducto agrícola. 3na )ersona que se co()ra un auto(óil nueo es (u+ )ro*a*le que )reera la econo(ía de un (odelo + el dise-o de otro. 3n su/eto que 'a de decidir có(o inertir su dinero es )ro*a*le que tenga conciencia de que el resultado de su inersión de)ende de condiciones econó(icas que se esca)an de su control. Donde se 'a de 6or(ar una o)inión + donde 'a+ que ado)tar una decisión es casi ineita*le que sur/a una disonancia entre la cognición de la acción que se llea a ca*o + las o)iniones + conoci(ientos que se-alan una acción di6erente. 8a+, )or tanto, una a()lia ga(a de ariedades + situaciones en las que la disonancia es casi ineita*le. "os queda )or e0a(inar las otras circunstancias en que la disonancia, una e creada, )erdura. ! sea, ;de qué de)ende que la disonancia disonancia no se trate de un suceso (o(ent2neo< (o(ent2neo< #i las 'i)ótesis 'i)ótesis 6or(uladas 6or(uladas son correctas, en cuanto 'ace su a)arición la disonancia *rota una 6uera igual + de signo contrario )ara reducirla. >ara contestar adecuada(ente a esta cuestión es con conen enie ient ntee ec'a ec'arr )ri( )ri(er eroo un unaa o/ea o/eada da a las las 6or(as 6or(as )o )osi si*l *les es de redu reducir cir la disonancia. Dado que so*re este te(a 'e(os de oler + (u+ )ronto, a(os a e0a(inar a'ora en este ca)ítulo có(o se )uede reducir la disonancia. 3sare(os co(o e/e()lo el del 6u(ador 'a*itual que +a sa*e que el 6u(ar es nocio )ara la salud. Esta in6or(ación le 'a )odido llegar a traés de un )eriódico o de una reista (édica, de unos a(igos e incluso de algn (édico. El conoci(iento que tiene es
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e6ectos )erniciosos lleguen a ser negligi*les. #i )uede arregl2rselas )ara ca(*iar su cono conoci ci(i (ien ento to de un unaa de esta estass dos dos (ane (anera rass )osi* )osi*le les, s, 'a 'a*r *r22 redu reduci cido do o au aunn eli(inado la disonancia entre lo que 'ace + lo que sa*e. >ero ero en el e/e( e/e()l )loo del del 6u(a 6u(ado dorr )a )are rece ce clar claroo que que la )ers )erson onaa )u )ued edee encontrarse con grandes dicultades al intentar ca(*iar, +a sea su conducta, +a sea su conoci(iento. C ésta + no otra es la raón de que la disonancia, una e creada, )ueda )er(anecer. "o 'a+ garantía de que la )ersona )odr2 reducir o eli(inar la disonancia. El 6u(ador 'i)otético )uede o)inar que el )roceso de de/ar de 6u(ar es de(a de(asi siad adoo )eno )enoso so )a )ara ra él. él. >u >ued edee trat tratar ar de enco encont ntra rarr )u )unt ntos os de ist istaa + o)iniones distintas )ara re6orar la o)inión de que el 6u(ar no 'ace (uc'o da-o, )ero )ero )u )ued edee ocur ocurri rirr que que todo todoss esto estoss inte intent ntos os 6raca 6racase sen. n. Enton Entonce cess conti continu nuar ar22 6u(ando aun teniendo conciencia de que el 6u(ar le )er/udica. En este caso, sus intentos es6orados )ara reducir la disonancia no cesar2n. >or su)uesto que 'a+ algunas onas de la cognición en donde la e0istencia de la disonancia es (2s 'a*itual. Esto )uede ocurrir cuando dos o (2s alores o creencias esta*lecidas, todas releantes de la ona de cognición en cuestión son inconsistentes. ! sea, que no 'a+ o)inión que se (antenga ni conducta que se siga que no sea disonante, al (enos con una de las creencias esta*lecidas. M+rdal 1A, en el a)éndice de su li*ro cl2sico, 6or(ula esto (u+ *ien en relación con las actitudes + con la conducta res)ecto a los negros. =l tratar de la e0istencia si(ult si(ult2ne 2neaa de o)i o)inio niones nes + de alor alores es concer concernie niente ntess a los seres 'u 'u(an (anos os en general, a ciertos gru)os es)ecícos de negros + a otros, dice M+rdal te0tual(ente: ?La )ersona o el gru)o cu+as inconsistencias en las aloraciones se e0)onen )*lic )* lica(e a(ente nte,, sentir sentir2n 2n la necesi necesidad dad de encont encontrar rar el (edio (edio de reconc reconcili iliar ar las inconsistencias El senti(iento de necesidad de consistencia lógica dentro de la
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(2s )ró0i(as a (i teoría. 8eider B5A, en un (anuscrito todaía no )u*licado, trata de las relaciones entre la gente + sus senti(ientos. Dice 8eider: ?&esu(iendo esta discusión )reli(inar de los estados en equili*rio o que se ar(onian, )ode(os decir que son los estados que se caracterian )or dos o (2s rela relaci cion ones es que que cuad cuadra rann *ien *ien entr entree sí. sí. #i no e0is e0iste te un esta estado do de equi equili li*r *rio io,, a)arecer2n 6ueras dirigidas 'acia ello. ! *ien 'a*r2 tendencia a (odicar estos senti(ientos, o, de lo contrario, se tender2 a ca(*iar las relaciones unitarias (ediante acciones + reorganiaciones cognoscitias. #i no se )uede llear a e6ecto el ca(*io, entonces entonces el estado estado de desequili* desequili*rio rio )roducir2 tensión, tensión, + los estados en equili*rio ser2n )re6eridos a los de desequili*rio@ >arte $$A. #i se sustitu+e el tér(ino ?en equili*rio@ )or la )ala*ra ?consonante@ + el tér(ino ?en desequili*rio@ )or la )ala*ra ?disonancia@, la 6ór(ula de 8eider es casi igual que la nuestra, )or lo (enos 'asta donde 'e(os llegado. !sgood + Tannen*au( A )u*licaron 'ace )oco un artículo en el que da*an una idea + la )ro*a*an an2loga en lo re6erente a los ca(*ios en las o)iniones + en las actitudes. =l tratar del ?)rinci)io de la congruencia@ co(o lo lla(a*an sus autores, decían: ?Los ca(*ios en la aloración an sie()re en la
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en la aloración. 3n )unto i()ortante que se 'a de recordar es que 'a+ una )resión )ara )roduci )roducirr relaci relacione oness conson consonant antes es entre entre cognici cognicione oness + )ar )araa eitar eitar o reduci reducirr la disonancia. Muc'os otros escritores 'an reconocido este )unto4 )ero son )ocos los que lo 'an 6or(ulado tan sucinta(ente + tan concreta(ente co(o los autores (encionados. El )ro)ósito de este li*ro es 6or(ular la teoría de la disonancia en tér(inos )recisos que a la e sean a)lica*les, deducir unas conclusiones de una serie de conte0tos + )resentar datos i()ortantes )ara la teoría. De#niciones de ,disonancia y ,consonancia
El rest restoo de este este ca)í ca)ítu tulo lo )ret )reten ende de,, en su (a+or (a+or )ar )arte te,, )res )resen entar tar un unaa e0)osición (2s 6or(al de la teoría de la disonancia. $ntenta(os 6or(ular la teoría de la (anera (2s e0acta )osi*le + trata(os de eitar las a(*igKedades. >ero co(o las ideas que constitu+en esta teoría no son an (u+ )recisas, es ineita*le cierta aguedad. Los tér(inos ?disonancia@ ?disonancia@ + ?consonanc ?consonancia@ ia@ se reeren reeren a las relaciones relaciones que e0isten e0isten entre cada dos ?ele(entos@. ?ele(entos@. >or consiguiente, consiguiente, antes de aanar aanar (2s en la
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Leon Festinger
Teoría de la disonancia cognoscitiva
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se reere a estas deniciones, )ode(os decir que son todas ?ele(entos@ de cognición + que las relaciones de consonancia + disonancia )ueden e0istir entre cada dos ele(entos. 8a+ otras deniciones que querría e0)licar *ien. >or e/e()lo, cu2ndo un ?ele(ento de cognición@ es un ele(ento o un gru)o de ele(entos. El conoci(iento de que ?durante ?durante el inierno, inierno, en Minne2)oli Minne2)olis, s, 'ace (uc'o 6río@, ;es un ele(ento< ;! (2s (2s *ien *ien de*e de*e cons consid ider erar arse se un gru) gru)oo de ele( ele(en ento toss co() co()ue uest stoo de un conoci(iento (2s es)ecíco< En este (o(ento, ésta es una )regunta que no tiene solución. Ta(*ién )uede ser una )regunta que no necesita res)uesta. o(o se er2 en los ca)ítulos en los que )resenta(os + discuti(os datos, esta )regunta sin res)uesta no )resenta )ro*le(as en relación con la (edida. !tra )regunta i()ortante en relación con estos ?ele(entos@ es ;có(o est2n 6or(ados + qué es lo que deter(ina su contenido< En este )unto, 'e(os de su*ra+ar que el contenido singular (2s i()ortante de estos ele(entos es la ?realidad@. Estos ele(entos de cognición res)onden a ella. La realidad a lo largo + a lo anc'o se e re)resentada o reGe/ada en los ele(entos4 )uede ser 6ísica, social o )sicológica, )ero en cualquier caso, la cognición reGe/a (2s o (enos la realidad. Ello no de*e sor)rende(os. #ería i()ro*a*le que un organis(o )udiera
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