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Guerra Total en lla as Empresas as Empresas “Conviértete en el General de tu Negocio” Jorge Ignacio Mata Arribas Consultor de Empresas Formador de Emprendedores
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Índice:
Acerca del Autor
INTRODUCCIÓN: Aplicando los Principios Militares en la Empresa
CAPÍTULO 1: La Guerra y los Negocios 1.1 Introducción 1.2 Los Filósofos de la Guerra 1.3 Teoría de la Empresa-Ejército Empresa-Ejército
CAPÍTULO 2: Intendencia y Logística, Log ística, las Finanzas Militares 2.1 Introducción 2.2 Intendencia en la Empresa: El Departamento Depa rtamento Financiero 2.3 La “Guerra Interna” en la Empresa. Finanzas VS Marketing
CAPÍTULO 3: Cualquier Ejército Necesita Héroes. Marketing Interno 3.1 ¿Qué es un General-Empresario? Gen eral-Empresario? 3.2 El Reclutamiento del Soldado-Trabajador Soldado-Trabajador 3.3 Formación del Soldado-Trabajador 3.4 Recompensas y Motivación de la Plantilla
CAPÍTULO 4: Marketing de Guerra. 4.1 Principios de Estrategia Militar 4.2 Análisis Estratégico DAFO 4.3 Principios de Marketing de Guerra Defensiva 4.4 Principios de Marketing de Guerra Ofensiva 4.5 Principios de Marketing de Guerra de Flanqueo 4.6 Principios de Marketing de Guerra de Guerrillas 4.7 Desarrollo Estratégico según nuestra Posición P osición Competitiva 4.8 Sistemas Tácticos de Defensa 4.9 Sistemas Tácticos de Ataque
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CAPÍTULO 5: Lecciones de Historia Militar para Empresarios 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12
Leónidas, el guerrero Alejandro Magno, el único Aníbal, el imprevisible Julio César, el estadista Guillermo, el conquistador Napoleón, el revolucionario Wellington, el disciplinado Custer, la leyenda Fuller, el desconocido Guderian y Rommel, los innovadores Montgomery, el conservador Patton, el osado
CAPÍTULO 6: Gane su propia batalla 6.1 Introducción 6.2 Importancia de un Plan Estratégico de Negocio Nego cio 6.3 Primeras Inversiones
CAPÍTULO 7: Forjando su propia leyenda 7.1 El Uso Superior de la Ciencia Militar: “Evitar el Conflicto” 7.2 La Importancia de los Aliados y Colaboradores 7.3 ¿Cómo Convertir a un Enemigo en Aliado? 7.4 Conclusiones Finales
DESPEDIDA
AGRADECIMIENTOS
BIBLIOGRAFÍA RECOMENDADA
EMPRESAS Y ASOCIACIONES COLABORADORAS
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ACERCA DE JORGE IGNACIO MATA ARRIBAS Jorge es un joven emprendedor y consultor de empresas que se especializa en crear servicios y sistemas para que emprendedores y microempresas mejoren sus resultados empresariales. Habiéndose formado en primer lugar como técnico financiero, descubrió su pasión por el marketing y el emprendimiento de negocios. Después de trabajar en su idea y de colaborar con otras consultorías para financiar su proyecto, Jorge lanzó en 2010 su principal proyecto empresarial: JMA Asesores, consultoría de empresas que se especializa en la creación de nuevos negocios. Además de gestionar este negocio, participa activamente en la gestión de otros proyectos empresariales destinados principalmente a la enseñanza y al mundo de la inversión. Tras un período de consolidación de negocio, a principios de 2011 es elegido para preparar un proyecto de Delegación de AEMME (Asociación Española Multisectorial de Microempresas) en Aragón que se lanzará a mediados del mismo año. Actualmente compagina su labor directiva en AEMME y la gestión de sus negocios, con la labor de formador independiente en Centros de Estudios y Asociaciones en materias de creación de empresas y gestión empresarial.
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Introducción: Aplicando los principios militares en la empresa “La Guerra pertenece a la esfera de la competencia empresarial, que es también un conflicto de intereses y actividades humanas” hu manas”
KARL VON CLAUSEWITZ
Tenemos que asumirlo. A pesar de que son cada día más los directivos y empresarios que deciden leer el libro de Sun Tzu, “El Arte de la Guerra” y de que este libro comience a ser una lectura obligada en Universidades y Escuelas de Negocios, todavía estamos muy lejos de ser capaces de aplicar los principios de la estrategia y la táctica militar a la empresa. Por otra parte, no debe sorprendernos. La ciencia militar es una disciplina de muy reducido ámbito de aplicación que se estudia principalmente en las academias militares como Sandhurst o West Point. Incluso, estos estudiantes, que se convertirán en los dirigentes militares del futuro no han tenido ocasión de aplicar la teoría a la práctica, ya que, afortunadamente, el número de guerras es menor que qu e hace apenas dos o tres siglos. No obstante, resulta curioso a los ojos del profano en la materia el que uno de los mejores libros de gestión empresarial no lo escribiera un famoso catedrático de Harvard o Yale, o uno de los directivos más influyentes de cualquier multinacional norteamericana como Coca-Cola, General Motors o Procter&Gamble, sino un militar prusiano del siglo XIX casi desconocido para muchos llamado Karl Von Clausewitz. Este general que, entre otras cosas, tuvo un pequeño papel en la batalla de Waterloo, donde Napoleón fue derrotado, es considerado por los historiadores militares como “el Sun Tzu occidental”, es decir, uno de los grandes filósofos de la guerra. La guerra, al igual que las empresas, han cambiado drásticamente en los últimos 200 años, pero los principios generales contenidos en su obra “De la Guerra” (publicada en 1832) siguen vigentes hoy en día para los futuros generales y generales-empresarios del nuevo milenio.
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El entorno empresarial actual es una guerra permanente Por mucho que a los “gurús” empresariales que predican la cooperación y el mutuo entendimiento les cueste aceptarlo, el mercado actual al que tiene que enfrentarse un empresario se parece mucho más a un campo de batalla que a la utopía de “buen rollito” que podemos encontrar en muchos de sus libros y manuales de Management. Esto no quiere decir que quiera defender una visión “belicista” de la estrategia empresarial, de hecho, querer destruir a cualquier precio a nuestra competencia suele ser una medida contraproducente si queremos mantener nuestra posición a largo plazo. No obstante, la expresión latina “ si vis pacem para bellum” (si quieres la paz, prepárate para la guerra) sigue teniendo plena validez en el entorno actual. Estoy seguro de que el lector dispone de su propia lista de experiencias, en las que su posición fue perjudicada por un competidor, cliente, proveedor… que, a juzgar por las apariencias, no tenía demasiado interés en conseguir las tan deseadas colaboraciones empresariales a pesar de que el acuerdo hubiera sido más beneficioso que la confrontación. Afortunadamente, también hay que admitir que el número de empresarios y emprendedores que tienen una mentalidad abierta a los tratos crece diariamente a un buen ritmo, hecho que garantiza que los principios bélicos que queremos exponer tengan una aplicación esencialmente preventiva. Este principio tiene plena validez en el ámbito de la negociación donde se dice que “uno ha de ser flexible con las personas y duro con los problemas”. Orientación al Consumidor y Orientación al Competidor
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Las empresas realmente exitosas han conseguido ganar una batalla en la mente del consumidor (que viene a ser lo mismo que decir que han conseguido una posición o posicionamiento en el mercado). A partir de ese momento, los esfuerzos de esa empresa se concentran en defender su posición conquistada, por lo que el esfuerzo de la empresa acaba concentrándose en las acciones de la competencia más que en la satisfacción del consumidor. Esta etapa es crucial para ver si la empresa consolida su éxito o, por el contrario, fracasa en su empeño, ya que muchos negocios empiezan a centrar más atención en su competencia que en el cliente, lo que hace que estos últimos, decepcionados cambien su lealtad hacia nuestra empresa por cualquier otro competidor. Se dice que la verdadera virtud no se encuentra en los extremos, sino en un sano punto medio, por tanto un General-Empresario debe conocer a su competencia y a su cliente (que si usamos una terminología militar podríamos comparar con el enemigo y el terreno, respectivamente, pues son factores que no podemos controlar directamente y en la mente del cliente se produce la batalla diaria d iaria entre la competencia y nuestra empresa). Se ha escrito mucho sobre satisfacción al cliente, por lo que el lector interesado en ese aspecto podrá encontrar textos de autores reconocidos en la materia que le servirán perfectamente para incrementar sus conocimientos. Nuestro objetivo es que el lector conozca la otra cara de la moneda, de la cual se ha escrito comparativamente mucho menos, es decir, un mundo empresarial en el que no solo tienen cabida las buenas intenciones, sino también las zancadillas, las jugarretas y el egoísmo.
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No obstante, soy de la opinión de que, en algo tan arriesgado como emprender un negocio, donde muchas personas ponen en juego un capital, su reputación como profesionales y su futuro, es inteligente prepararnos al máximo y ser conocedores, como mínimo, de los principios que rigen los conflictos humanos. Mi experiencia, como consultor de empresas y formador de emprendedores, es que no está en nuestra mano cambiar el modo en que actúan los demás, pero sí podemos esforzarnos en conducirnos de manera caballerosa en los negocios, del mismo modo en que muchos militares demostraron gran caballerosidad incluso con sus enemigos. Seamos amables, caballerosos y justos en nuestra vida personal y en nuestra vida profesional, sin dejar de aprender los principios y las técnicas que nos permitan defender legítimamente nuestros intereses y los de nuestros Soldados-Trabajadores. Me sentiré muy honrado si con este modesto trabajo, eres capaz de convertirte en un mejor empresario y en una mejor persona. Conclusiones Y ese es el objetivo de este ebook, amigo/a… Ahora está en tu mano poder aprender a aplicar los principios militares básicos y contribuir con ello al éxito de tu negocio. Pero el conocimiento por sí sólo no sirve. Tienes que actuar. Ten por seguro que cometerás errores, pero tómalos como una parte importante de tu aprendizaje. Cuanto antes empieces y más te equivoques, más rápido llegarás a la cima de los negocios y de la vida. ¡Atrévete a dar el primer paso! ¡Comienza ya! Por tu éxito empresarial☺
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Capítulo 1: La Guerra y los Negocios “ Los cimientos indispensables a todos los Estados, nuevos, antiguos o mixtos, son las buenas leyes y las buenas tropas, y como aquéllas nada pueden donde faltan éstas, y como allí donde hay buenas tropas por fuerza ha de haber buenas leyes, pasaré por alto las leyes y hablaré de las tropas”
NICOLÁS MAQUIAVELO 1.1 Introducción La verdad es que nunca me imagine a mí mismo escribiendo un libro sobre estrategia militar, y mucho menos un libro de estrategia militar aplicada a la empresa. No obstante, la afición por estas dos disciplinas me viene de lejos. Mi abuelo siempre contaba que, de pequeño, me quedaba embobado mirando los desfiles militares y las banderas hasta el punto de que llego a decir en una ocasión: oca sión: “puede que este niño acabe siendo militar”. No se equivocó del todo, pues conforme fui creciendo pasaba mi tiempo jugando a juegos de estrategia, aprendiendo sobre la historia (me fascinaban las grandes campañas de César y Napoleón sobre todo) y también disfrutaba de lo lindo, con las aventuras de mi héroe juvenil, el coronel Aníbal Smith y su Equipo A interpretado por el genial George Peppard diciendo su célebre frase: “me encanta que los planes salgan bien”. Y aunque no haya dedicado mi vida al oficio de las armas, mi profesión me hace que tenga que librar todos los días una dura batalla: la de la
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Copyright. Jorge Ignacio Mata Arribas. Todos los Derechos Reservados www.jma-asesores.com –
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1.2 Los Filósofos de la Guerra En este libro, hablaremos principalmente sobre las teorías de los tres grandes filósofos históricos que han basado sus estudios en el ámbito militar: Sun Tzu, Nicolás Maquiavelo y Karl Von Clausewitz. Por eso, en este apartado, veremos sus biografías y los puntos básicos de sus teorías que desarrollaremos en capítulos posteriores. Comenzaremos por Sun Tzu. SUN TZU
Sun Tzu fue un general chino que vivió alrededor del siglo V antes de Cristo. La colección de ensayos sobre el arte de la guerra atribuida a Sun Tzu es el tratado más antiguo que se conoce sobre el tema. A pesar de su antigüedad, los consejos de Sun Tzu siguen siendo vigentes hoy en día. “El Arte de la Guerra” es el mejor libro de estrategia de todos los tiempos. Inspiró a Napoleón, Maquiavelo, Mao Tse-Tung y muchas otras figuras históricas. Este libro de dos mil quinientos años de antigüedad es uno de
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No es, por tanto, un libro sobre la guerra, es una obra para comprender las raíces de un conflicto y buscar una solución. “La mejor victoria es vencer sin combatir” nos dice Sun Tzu, “y ésa es la distinción entre el hombre prudente y el ignorante”. La obra de Sun Tzu llegó por primera vez a Europa en el período anterior a la Revolución Francesa, en forma de una breve traducción realizada por el sacerdote jesuita J.J.M Amito. En las diversas traducciones que se han hecho desde entonces se nombra ocasionalmente al autor como Sun Wu o Sun Tzi. Las ideas de Sun Tzu se extendieron por el resto de Asia hasta llegar a Japón. Los japoneses adoptaron rápidamente estas enseñanzas y, posiblemente, añadieron algunas de su propia cosecha. Hay constancia de que el principal libro japonés sobre el tema, “El Libro de los Cinco Anillos”, está influido por la filosofía de Sun Tzu, ya que su autor Miyamoto Musashi, estudió el tratado de “El Arte de la Guerra” durante su formación como guerrero samurai. Habitualmente se hace referencia a las culturas orientales como “culturas de estrategia” y no es pequeña la influencia de Sun Tzu en este desarrollo cultural. Hoy en día, la filosofía de Sun Tzu ha ido más allá de los límites estrictamente militares, aplicándose a los negocios, los deportes, la diplomacia e incluso, el comportamiento personal.
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NICOLÁS MAQUIAVELO
Nicolás Maquiavelo (1469-1527) fue un historiador y filósofo político italiano, cuyos escritos sobre habilidades políticas, amorales pero influyentes, convirtieron su nombre en un sinónimo de astucia y duplicidad. Nacido en Florencia el 3 de mayo de 1469, Maquiavelo comenzó trabajando como funcionario y empezó a destacar cuando se proclamó la república de Florencia en 1498. Fue secretario de la segunda cancillería encargada de los Asuntos Exteriores y Guerra de la república. Maquiavelo
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Después de su liberación, se retiró a sus propiedades cercanas a Florencia, donde escribió sus obras más importantes. A pesar de sus intentos por ganarse el favor de los Medici, nunca volvió a ocupar un cargo destacado en el gobierno. Cuando la república volvió a ser temporalmente reestablecida en 1527, muchos republicanos sospecharon de sus tendencias a favor de los Medici. Murió en Florencia, el 21 de junio de d e ese mismo año. Durante toda su carrera, Maquiavelo trató de crear un Estado capaz de rechazar ataques extranjeros y afianzar su soberanía. Sus escritos tratan sobre los principios en los que se basa un Estado de este tipo y los medios para reforzarlos y mantenerlos. En su obra más famosa, “El Príncipe” (escrita en 1513 y publicada en 1532), describe el método por el cual un gobernante puede adquirir y mantener el poder po der político. Este estudio, que con frecuencia ha sido considerado una defensa del despotismo y la tiranía de dirigentes como César Borgia, está basado en la creencia de Maquiavelo de que un gobernante no está atado por las normas éticas: “¿Es mejor ser amado que temido, o al revés? La respuesta es que sería deseable ser ambas cosas, pero como es difícil que las dos se den al mismo tiempo, es mucho más seguro para un príncipe ser temido que ser amado, en caso de tener que renunciar a una de las dos”. Desde su punto de vista, el gobernante debería preocuparse solamente del poder y sólo debería rodearse de aquellos que le garantizaran el éxito en sus
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KARL VON CLAUSEWITZ
Karl Von Clausewitz (1780-1831) fue un general y teórico militar prusiano, nacido en Buró, cerca de Magdeburgo. Clausewitz participó en las campañas de Renania de 1793 y 1794 durante la Revolución Francesa. Posteriormente, estudió en una academia militar para jóvenes oficiales en Berlín. En 1806 –el período de las Guerras Napoleónicas-, Clausewitz fue capturado por los franceses en la campaña de Jena. Tras ser canjeado como prisionero dos años después, regresó a Prusia, donde consiguió el cargo de instructor militar del príncipe heredero y el de jefe de sección del Ministerio de Guerra. Asimismo, colaboró en la
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1.3Teoría 1.3 Teoría de la Empresa-Ejército En este apartado, enunciaremos la principal teoría en la que se basa este libro: “La Teoría de la Empresa-Ejército”. ¿En qué consiste esta teoría? Veámoslo. En primer lugar, podríamos definir la empresa como un conjunto de factores y recursos productivos (que podemos dividir en recursos de capital, recursos humanos, recursos de imagen corporativa o de marca y recursos de producción) que buscan conseguir unos objetivos de rentabilidad económica marcados por sus propietarios. Tomando como punto de partida esta definición, ¿qué es un ejército sino un conjunto de recursos económicos, recursos humanos, recursos de reputación y recursos materiales de aprovisionamiento que buscan unos objetivos políticos de defensa o agresión marcados por sus propietarios (el Estado)? Como vemos, incluso la propia terminología bélica se refiere a algunas acciones militares como “grandes empresas” usando este término como sinónimo de objetivo o logro a conseguir. Pero ahí no terminan las similitudes de la empresa con el ejército. Observemos este esquema: EMPRESARIO
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Como vemos, los diferentes cuerpos y especialidades del ejército acaban siendo muy similares a los diferentes departamentos de la empresa. Vamos a analizar esto con mayor detalle: En primer lugar, a la cabeza de un ejército tenemos a un general y a la cabeza de una empresa tenemos a un empresario. Al igual que ha sucedido en la historia, al principio los reyes o gobernantes de un Estado tenían, como parte de sus obligaciones, la jefatura del ejército, pero posteriormente la han ido delegando en subordinados profesionales de su confianza. Lo mismo pasa en la empresa, al inicio de la historia empresarial, todos los empresarios eran los responsables de la gestión de su negocio, actualmente en las grandes empresas, no es extraño contratar a consejos de administración externos que se encarguen de la gestión cotidiana del negocio liberando al propietario de la empresa de esa tarea. No obstante, en las empresas pequeñas, el propietario y administrador suelen ser la misma
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El departamento de marketing se encarga de “la lucha diaria” de la empresa. Son los vendedores y otros trabajadores de atención al cliente los que están en la vanguardia de nuestro ejército. El marketing no solo incluye el apartado de ventas y atención al cliente, sino que también debe encargarse de aspectos como la investigación comercial (que podríamos asimilarla con la “inteligencia militar” de nuestra empresa), y la planificación de marketing (esto incluye planificar nuestras acciones ofensivas y defensivas con respecto a nuestros competidores, siempre en función de nuestras capacidades). De aquí podemos sacar la primera conclusión importante de nuestro libro: “la empresa debe luchar como un equipo”. De nada sirve, si nuestros especialistas financieros y de marketing están más preocupados por luchar entre ellos que contra la competencia. Estudiaremos más a fondo estas luchas internas en el capítulo siguiente.
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Capítulo 2: Intendencia y logística: las finanzas militares “ La dificultad de la lucha armada es hacer cercanas las distancias largas y convertir los problemas en ventajas. Así pues, un ejército perece si no está equipado, si no tiene provisiones o si no tiene dinero”
SUN TZU
Los aspectos de intendencia y logística siempre han sido considerados como “actividades de segundo orden” en la historia militar en detrimento de las acciones tácticas magistrales. No obstante, incluso grandes genios tácticos como Aníbal o Rommel fueron derrotados por cuestiones logísticas.
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Al fin y al cabo, seguro que eres capaz de nombrar por lo menos a cinco generales famosos por sus acciones de combate, pero también es seguro que no conocerás los nombres de las personas que se encargaron de las acciones logísticas necesarias que permitieron tales acciones heroicas en combate. No debe sorprendernos, pues resulta mucho más heroico imaginarnos a un soldado cargando contra una posición enemiga que imaginarnos al mismo soldado conduciendo un camión que lleve las tropas al frente, ¿no te parece? No obstante, nos guste o no, ambas funciones son vitales en un ejército y, como no, también en la empresa. 2.2 Intendencia en la empresa: el departamento financiero Pasemos ahora a analizar la estructura de la empresa que ya hemos visto en el capítulo anterior. El esquema de nuestra nu estra Empresa-Ejército Empresa-Ejército sería algo así:
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Como descubrimos en el esquema, es el Departamento Financiero el responsable de la intendencia y la logística de nuestra Empresa-Ejército. El lector más avezado ya habrá descubierto una diferencia vital entre el planteamiento militar y el planteamiento empresarial. Si te das cuenta, hemos hablado de que en el ámbito militar, la sección operativa que realiza acciones sobre el terreno tradicionalmente ha cobrado más importancia que la sección de intendencia y logística ¿cierto? Entonces… ¿por qué en el mundo empresarial sucede todo lo contrario, siendo el departamento financiero quién toma la mayor parte de las decisiones dejando de lado al departamento de marketing? Se me ocurren algunas ideas para explicarlo. No se trata tanto de una posible diferencia irreconciliable entre posturas que tiren por tierra toda nuestra teoría de la Empresa-Ejército, sino, más bien, se debe a una diferencia en las circunstancias que han motivado históricamente ambas
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Un fuerte departamento financiero es vital hoy en día, y aún más importante es disponer de una visión estratégica aplicada a las finanzas, que es la parte de nuestra empresa que nos permite optimizar nuestros recursos de la forma más eficiente posible para conseguir el resto de objetivos del negocio. Un consejo que siempre doy a mis clientes es: “aprende a invertir por ti mismo”. Y aquí debo hacer una aclaración, invertir no es hacer apuestas
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La otra gran aplicación de esta estrategia es que tienes que aprender a invertir en aquello que se encuentre en lo que Warren Buffet denomina “su círculo de competencia”, es decir, invertir en activos que entiendas y en los que puedas ser especialista. Si decides invertir en cosas que no eres capaz de entender, es lo mismo que si estuvieras jugando en un casino, puedes tener suerte y ganar de vez en cuando, pero esa no es una estrategia ganadora.
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Por último, dejemos clara una cosa: aunque en tu contabilidad todas las inversiones que realices aparecerán en tu balance como activos, cualitativamente esto no necesariamente es así. Invertir acaba siendo algo tan fácil como decir que un activo es algo que pone dinero en nuestros bolsillos y un pasivo es algo que no solo no pone dinero en nuestros bolsillos, sino que lo quita. Pongo un ejemplo: comprarse un gran coche para tu empresa… ¿es un
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2.3La 2.3 La “Guerra Interna” en la Empresa: Finanzas VS Marketing La “Guerra Interna” es un fenómeno tan antiguo como las propias empresas. Por sorprendente que te parezca, la mayor parte del tiempo de trabajo de los ejecutivos en las grandes empresas consiste en favorecer a su propio departamento en detrimento de los demás. d emás. No es sorprendente encontrarnos también con “camarillas” en los propios
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Pero ahora vamos a analizar las diferentes visiones que existen del marketing en las empresas. Debemos decir, que un cambio de visión hacia la filosofía marketing no es sencillo porque al resto de departamentos de la empresa, con frecuencia producción, finanzas, I+D… no les gusta ver amenazada su posición privilegiada dentro de la empresa. Veamos mediante la Figura nº 1 la evolución natural de la visión marketing dentro de la empresa:
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Copyright. Jorge Ignacio Mata Arribas. Todos los Derechos Reservados www.jma-asesores.com –
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4.5 Principios de marketing de guerra de flanqueo “ La persecución es un segundo acto de la victoria, en muchos casos más importante que el primero” KARL VON CLAUSEWITZ Los principios de marketing de guerra de flanqueo son tres: PRINCIPIO Nº 1 UN BUEN FLANQUEO SE EFECTUA HACIA UN ÁREA QUE NO ESTÉ EN DISPUTA Un buen movimiento de flanqueo no requiere necesariamente un producto totalmente innovador. Pero sí que debe poseer algo de exclusividad y novedad para el consumidor, pues de lo contrario, no sería un movimiento de flanqueo sino de un ataque frontal contra la competencia. La teoría tradicional del marketing ha dado mucha importancia a este tipo de movimientos, llamándolo segmentación, es decir la búsqueda de segmentos o nichos de mercado importantes y de fácil ocupación. Pero para que sea considerado un verdadero flanqueo, nuestra empresa debe ser la primera que ocupe dicha posición. Se requiere una gran visión estratégica para lanzar flanqueos exitosos. Esto se consigue a través de un análisis exhaustivo de las posiciones de la competencia y algo de buen sentido a la hora de predecir los futuros movimientos de los consumidores, es decir, adelantarse a sus gustos incluso antes de que se produzcan. Puede ser complicado intentar vender un producto sin mercado. Sin embargo, esto es precisamente lo que es un ataque de flanqueo y, si esta bien ejecutado, empezará a atraer a consumidores de los segmentos más débiles de las posiciones competidoras. Una vez que esto sucede, puede crearse un gran impulso difícil de detener. Las más grandes victorias de marketing se han producido tras un exitoso ataque de flanqueo. Para llevar a cabo este tipo de ataque, debemos destinar gran parte de nuestros recursos a la innovación de nuestros productos y servicios y también a realizar constantes investigaciones de mercado que nos permitan esbozar, en líneas generales, la tendencia del mercado. También
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PRINCIPIO Nº 2: LA SORPRESA TÁCTICA ES PARTE IMPORTANTE DEL PLAN Por su propia naturaleza, un flanqueo es un ataque sorpresa. En este sentido, son totalmente diferentes de la lucha ofensiva y defensiva, en donde la naturaleza y direcciones de los ataques son previsibles. Sin embargo, los flanqueos exitosos son inesperados. Cuanto mayor es la sorpresa, más tiempo le lleva al competidor reaccionar y tratar de recuperarse. La sorpresa también tiene un efecto desmoralizador. Sus vendedores no saben qué decir hasta que reciben instrucciones del alto mando de la empresa. El gran enemigo del flanqueo son las acciones en mercados de prueba y el exceso de investigación, cosas que alertan a la competencia y la predisponen a defender el nuevo frente. ¿Qué sucede si la competencia no reacciona al conocer el éxito de una prueba de mercado? En ese caso, habrás tenido mucha suerte. Pero no olvidemos que jugar con la suerte no es inteligente. Si hacemos esto violamos un principio fundamental de la planificación militar: basar la estrategia en lo que el enemigo es capaz de hacer y no en lo que tal vez podría hacer. PRINCIPIO Nº 3 LA PERSECUCIÓN ES TAN IMPORTANTE COMO EL ATAQUE Una vez lanzado el ataque, no se debe dar un paso atrás. Después de tan increíble esfuerzo hay que intentar “machacar” la posición enemiga. Sin embargo, la gran mayoría de empresas dirigen su atención a otros frentes cuando el ataque ha sido exitoso. ¿No te has fijado nunca en que si una empresa tiene varios productos, los que reciben la atención son los perdedores y no los ganadores? Esto es debido a razones de tipo emocional, muchos directivos no saben manejar el éxito y emplean todos sus recursos en tratar de recuperarse de errores estratégicos pasados en lugar de destinar más recursos a los ganadores. El objetivo debe ser ganar y ganar a lo grande. Si tienes un producto que qu e no está dando los resultados planeados, no centres tu atención en él,
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Tan pronto como tengas tiempo, analiza que sucede con el producto perdedor, y si no hay solución posible, retíralo del mercado. No tiene sentido, mantener frentes en los que no podemos ganar. 4.6 Principios de marketing de guerra de guerrillas “ El enemigo avanza, nosotros retrocedemos. El enemigo acampa, nosotros merodeamos. El enemigo se cansa, nosotros atacamos. El enemigo retrocede, nosotros acosamos”
MAO TSE-TUNG
Los principios de marketing de guerra de guerrillas son tres: PRINCIPIO Nº 1: HALLAR UN SEGMENTO DEL MERCADO LO SUFICIENTEMENTE PEQUEÑO PARA DEFENDERLO En resumen, cualquier aspecto difícil de atacar por una empresa mayor es susceptible de convertirse en una buena base de operaciones para el marketing de guerrilla. Puede ser un ámbito geográfico, o un ámbito de volumen o cualquier otro fácilmente defendible. El fundamento de la guerra de guerrillas g uerrillas es reducir al mínimo indispensable el campo de batalla para conseguir tener a su favor la superioridad numérica. En otras palabras, uno tiene que hacerse un “pez grande” dentro de un “estanque pequeño”. La geografía ha sido la forma tradicional de lograr este objetivo. Los detallistas locales adaptan la mercancía o los servicios ofrecidos a los gustos locales. Este concepto no es nuevo. De hecho, se espera esto del detallista local de forma casi automática. La guerrilla, de hecho, debe pensar de esta forma en otras situaciones, donde los segmentos no estén bien definidos. En ciertos aspectos, una campaña de guerrillas se asemeja a un ataque de flanqueo. Sin embargo, hay una diferencia crítica entre ambas. El flanqueo se lanza deliberadamente cerca de la posición enemiga. El ataque de guerrillas se usa para debilitar o sangrar la participación del líder allí donde su presencia no es fuerte.
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PRINCIPIO Nº 2: NO IMPORTA EL ÉXITO QUE OBTENGAMOS, NUNCA HAY QUE ACTUAR COMO EL LÍDER El día que el empresario de una empresa guerrillera se compra una limusina, es el día en que su compañía comienza a derrumbarse. ¿Por qué? Porque a partir de ese momento, comenzará a hacer las mismas cosas que sus competidores, con la diferencia, de que los competidores tienen infinitamente muchos más recursos que el guerrillero. Esa es la semilla de su derrota. Las guerrillas prósperas operan con una organización y un horario diferentes. En una gran empresa, más de la mitad de los empleados proporcionan servicios a los otros. Solo una pequeña parte de la EmpresaEjército pelea realmente contra el enemigo, el departamento comercial y todas las actividades de atención al cliente. Las guerrillas, pueden explotar esta debilidad colocando la mayor cantidad de su personal en la línea principal de batalla, no adoptando organigramas complejos o cualquiera del resto de adornos de una gran empresa. Siempre que sea posible, todo el personal debe estar en primera línea y sin equipos asesores propios. La organización reducida no sólo es una táctica para conseguir la superioridad numérica en la batalla, sino que también mejora en gran medida las reacciones rápidas ante los cambios del mercado. Esto significa que la guerrilla tiene la iniciativa gracias a su estructura más flexible. PRINCIPIO Nº 3: ESTAR PREPARADO PARA UNA RÁPIDA RETIRADA SI LAS COSAS SE PONEN EN NUESTRA CONTRA. Una guerrilla no puede desaprovechar sus valiosos recursos en causas perdidas. Si el ataque previsto no tiene las consecuencias deseadas, hay que huir y preparar otro ataque. Esta es la verdadera v erdadera ventaja de su flexibilidad. Una compañía grande no puede cambiar su posición de manera rápida sin crear traumas y tensiones internas entre sus hombres. En una empresa grande tendrán que producirse muchas luchas internas antes de que las cosas logren cambiar.
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En una empresa pequeña basta una buena idea de una persona para lanzar un nuevo producto o servicio, hacer lo mismo en una gran compañía requerirá meses de presentaciones y reuniones directivas antes de tomar alguna decisión. 4.7 Desarrollo estratégico en función de nuestra posición competitiva “ El estadista que, viendo que la guerra es inevitable, vacila en atacar primero es culpable de un crimen contra su país” KARL VON CLAUSEWITZ Según la teoría tradicional del marketing existen cuatro tipos fundamentales de posiciones competitivas que las empresas pueden usar para desarrollar sus planteamientos estratégicos: “Líder de Mercado”, “Retador”, “Seguidor” y “Especialista en Nichos”. Cada una de estas cuatro posiciones tiene varios desarrollos estratégicos que analizaremos a continuación. DESARROLLO ESTRÁTEGICO DEL LÍDER DE MERCADO Como ya vimos, la estrategia del líder debe ser eminentemente defensiva. Los profesores Hauser, Shugan y Gaskin han construido y probado un modelo llamado Defensor. El modelo asume que: 1. Los consumidores comparten las mismas percepciones acerca de un producto. 2. Los consumidores difieren en sus preferencias hacia las diferentes características de un producto. 3. El número de marcas que se conocen y se tienen en cuenta varía de un consumidor a otro. 4. Las elecciones de los consumidores dependen de las características del marketing mix elegido por la empresa. Este modelo podría ilustrarse a través del caso Datril, que lanzo un ataque contra Tylenol, el líder de mercado, basándose en el precio. Tylenol había ganado una gran cuota de mercado basándose en la delicadeza percibida de su producto (que no daña al estómago) y estaba consiguiendo unos beneficios extraordinarios.
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Llegó Bristol-Myers, que introdujo el mismo producto bajo el nombre de Datril y lo anunciaba como “tan bueno como el Tylenol pero más barato”. Si los consumidores llegaban a creérselo, Datril podía perjudicar gravemente la cuota de mercado de Tylenol. ¿Cómo debía defenderse Tylenol? Los investigadores examinaron las medidas defensivas más adecuadas para Tylenol utilizando el modelo Defensor y llegaron a las siguientes conclusiones: 1. Tylenol debía bajar sus precios si el mercado no estaba segmentado. Si lo estaba, podía elevar el precio en los segmentos menos vulnerables. (La mejor estrategia de precios es independiente de la distribución y de la publicidad que se debe llevar a cabo, una vez escogida, sin embargo, la estrategia de precios afectará a la distribución y a la publicidad). 2. Tylenol debía reducir los gastos de distribución. En concreto, debía olvidarse de aquellos detallistas marginales a los que no interesaba atender. 3. Era mucho más interesante para Tylenol mejorar sus propios puntos fuertes que mejorar en su producto los puntos fuertes de la competencia. 4. Tylenol debía invertir menos en una publicidad dirigida a conseguir notoriedad y dedicar más a una publicidad de reposicionamiento. Estas conclusiones podrían ser objeto de modificaciones futuras, dado el carácter restrictivo de las asunciones de este modelo. Por ejemplo, el precio y el posicionamiento están estratégicamente interrelacionados. En algunos casos, las reducciones de precios dan lugar a guerras relativas a los mismos. Para evitar esta destructiva competencia, suele ser mejor diferenciar los productos en base a los beneficios, que en base al precio. p recio.
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DESARROLLO ESTRATÉGICO DEL RETADOR El retador es aquella empresa que, siendo importante dentro de su sector, decide entrar en confrontación directa con el líder de mercado para arrebatarle su posición. El retador de mercado puede escoger entre varios ataques estratégicos: 1. Estrategia de Descuento: El retador puede vender productos comparables en calidad a los del líder, pero a menor precio. Texas Instruments es un gran experto en esta estrategia. Ofrece un producto de calidad comparable y reduce sus precios progresivamente para conseguir incrementar su cuota de mercado y reducir los costes de producción. Para que una estrategia de descuentos sea efectiva existen tres requisitos que deben cumplirse: a. El retador debe ser capaz de convencer al consumidor de que su producto y servicio son comparables a los del líder. b. El consumidor debe ser muy sensible al factor precio y no muy leal a los proveedores rivales. c. El líder debe rechazar reducir sus precios a pesar p esar del ataque. 2. Estrategia basada en Productos Baratos: otra estrategia es la de ofrecer un producto de calidad media-baja a un precio muy inferior. Esta estrategia tiene sentido cuando existe un segmento grande, preocupado sólo por el precio. Sin embargo, las empresas que aplican esta estrategia pueden ser atacadas por especialistas, que pueden fijar precios incluso inferiores. Como defensa a este contraataque pueden tratar de incrementar la calidad de sus productos. 3. Estrategia basada en Productos de Prestigio: El retador puede también lanzar un producto de gran calidad y establecer para el mismo un precio superior al del líder. Mercedes superó a Cadillac en el mercado americano, ofreciendo un coche con mayor calidad y de mayor precio. Algunas empresas especialistas en esta estrategia
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6. Estrategia de Mejora de Servicios: El retador puede tratar de ofrecer nuevos o mejores servicios a sus clientes. El famoso ataque lanzado por Avis contra Hertz “Nosotros somos los segundos, nos esforzamos más”, se basó en prometer y ofrecer un coche más limpio y rápido así como un mejor servicio que q ue el ofrecido por Hertz. 7. Estrategia de Innovación en la Distribución: El retador puede descubrir y mejorar un nuevo canal de distribución. La compañía americana Time alcanzó un gran éxito al vender sus relojes Timex a través de canales de distribución masivos en vez v ez de joyerías. 8. Estrategia de Reducción de Costes Operativos: El retador puede conseguir reducir sus costes productivos a través de una más eficaz estrategia de aprovisionamiento, menores costes de personal o equipos productivos más modernos. Las empresas pueden aprovechar esa reducción de costes y fijar precios más baratos, a fin de conseguir incrementar su cuota de mercado. 9. Fuerte Inversión Publicitaria: Algunos retadores atacan al líder, incrementando su inversión en promoción y publicidad. Sin embargo, una inversión publicitaria fuerte no es efectiva cuando el producto o el mensaje publicitario lanzado por el retador no refleja una cierta superioridad sobre la competencia. El retador rara vez alcanza cuotas de mercado superiores tan sólo aplicando una estrategia. Su éxito depende de la combinación de una serie de principios, dirigidos a mejorar la posición de la empresa en el mercado a través del tiempo. DESARROLLO ESTRATÉGICO DEL SEGUIDOR Hace años, el Profesor Levitt escribió un artículo titulado “Innovative Imitation”, en el cual manifestaba que una estrategia de imitación de productos puede ser tan rentable como una estrategia de innovación.
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1. Estrategia Clónica: el clónico copia los productos de líder, la distribución, la publicidad… No es activo, simplemente vive de las inversiones realizadas por el líder. En su forma más radical, puede ser un imitador que produce copias, incluso ilegales, de los productos del líder. 2. Estrategia Imitadora: el imitador copia algunos aspectos del producto del líder, pero se diferencia en él en términos de envasado, publicidad, política de precios… El líder generalmente no se preocupa mucho por el imitador, siempre y cuando no ataque agresivamente. En ocasiones ayuda al líder a evitar la responsabilidad de un monopolio. 3. Estrategia de Imitación por Adaptación: este último se basa en los productos del líder, los adapta e incluso a veces los mejora. Debe atender a diferentes mercados a fin de evitar posibles confrontaciones con el líder. Muy a menudo, este tipo de imitador se acaba convirtiendo en retador. DESARROLLO ESTRATÉGICO DEL ESPECIALISTA EN NICHOS En la mayoría de las industrias existen empresas que se especializan en determinados nichos de mercado. En lugar de atender a todo el mercado, o incluso a segmentos amplios, buscan segmentos dentro de los segmentos, llamados nichos. Este fenómeno se da generalmente en pequeñas empresas con escasez de recursos, aunque las unidades de negocio de grandes empresas también han seguido este tipo de estrategia. Algunas estrategias del especialista en nichos son: 1. Especialista en Consumidores Finales: la empresa se especializa en servir a un determinado tipo de consumidor final. Por ejemplo, un despacho de abogados puede especializarse en el área penal, civil, mercantil… 2. Especialista a Nivel Vertical: la empresa se especializa en alguno de
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4. Especialista en un Consumidor concreto: la empresa se limita a vender a uno o, a lo sumo, a unos pocos clientes. Muchas sociedades venden la totalidad de su producción a una sola empresa. 5. Especialista en una Zona Geográfica: la empresa vende sus productos tan sólo en una cierta localidad, región o área geográfica. 6. Especialista en un Producto o en una Línea de Productos: la empresa produce únicamente un producto o una determinada línea de productos. En el mercado de equipos de laboratorio, existen empresas que tan sólo fabrican microscopios, o incluso aún más, sólo producen lentes de microscopios. 7. Especialista en Algún Beneficio Ofrecido por el Producto: la empresa se especializa en servir un determinado tipo de producto o servicio. Por ejemplo, una empresa que alquila limusinas o coches antiguos. 8. Especialista en Productos a Medida: la empresa comercializa los productos en la forma en la que el cliente los demanda. 9. Especialista en la Relación Precio/Calidad: la empresa atiende al segmento de alto o de bajo precio adquisitivo del mercado. Por ejemplo, Hewlett-Packard se ha especializado en el segmento de alta calidad alto precio en el mercado de calculadoras de mano. 10.Especialista 10.Especialista en el Servicio: la empresa ofrece uno o más servicios no ofrecidos por los demás. Un ejemplo sería un banco que permitiera solicitudes de créditos por teléfono y entregara el dinero en mano. 11.Especialista 11.Especialista en algún Canal de Distribución: la empresa se especializa en un solo canal de distribución. Por ejemplo, una empresa de refrescos que decide producir un refresco en envases de gran tamaño y lo distribuye tan sólo a través de gasolineras.
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4.8 Sistemas Tácticos de Defensa
Esta figura nos muestra los seis tipos de defensa que existen en la táctica militar. Veamos en qué consisten: DEFENSA FORTIFICADA: Es la idea más básica de la defensa que
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PRE-DEFENSA: Este sistema se basa en el concepto de que “la mejor defensa es el ataque”. Cuando un competidor nos arrebata una pequeña cuota de mercado es hora de lanzar un ataque defensivo. Muchas veces estas maniobras tienen un efecto más psicológico que real. El líder de mercado busca disuadir a la competencia de que continué el ataque. Es especialmente adecuada para empresas que disponen de fuertes ventajas competitivas, pues incluso pueden dejar a la competencia agotar sus recursos lanzando ataques que no van a ser capaces de tener éxito. Esta estrategia requiere gran confianza en la superioridad de nuestra oferta. DEFENSA DE CONTRAOFENSIVA: La mayoría de los líderes de mercado responden con un contraataque cuando son atacados. Podemos elegir la forma de contraataque: frontal, maniobra a los flancos del atacante o contraataque contra su base de operaciones. Los líderes más cautos “esperan” a que el ataque enemigo se desarrolle por completo para identificar las debilidades del atacante, es decir, el segmento más débil por el que lanzar el contraataque. De tal forma, logramos que el ataque sea abortado al obligar al atacante a tener que destinar recursos para la defensa de su territorio. DEFENSA MÓVIL: Este método de defensa incluye defensa agresiva del territorio y ambiciones expansionistas hacia otros segmentos inexplorados
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4.9 Sistemas Tácticos de Ataque
Esta figura nos muestra los cinco tipos de ataque que existen en la táctica militar. Veamos en qué consisten: ATAQUE FRONTAL: FRONTAL: Consiste en lanzar un ataque directo hacia un objetivo definido, decisivo y alcanzable. El principal objetivo estratégico que podemos obtener es incrementar rápidamente nuestra cuota de mercado. Existen tres tipos de empresas a los que podemos atacar de
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b) Ataque a Empresas Retadoras con Recursos Limitados: Si en nuestra lucha contra el líder descubrimos que tenemos a terceras empresas implicadas que están en situación de competir con nosotros por “el segundo puesto”, es interesante descubrir debilidades en sus estructuras de negocio y no titubear en lanzar un ataque frontal si descubrimos que esta competencia posee recursos más limitados. De esta forma, sin competidores molestos, podremos concentrar nuestros recursos contra el líder del mercado. c) Ataque a Pequeñas Empresas con Recursos Limitados: Si carece de los recursos necesarios para atacar frontalmente al líder, puede elegir absorber a pequeñas empresas con problemas de financiación o de mercado para crecer en importancia. No obstante, esta política de crecimiento es arriesgada, debido a los altos costes que conlleva una política expansionista mediante fusiones. ATAQUE DE FLANQUEO: Normalmente nuestro competidor concentrará sus fuerzas donde espera ser atacado. Sus flancos y retaguardia son menos seguros y más débiles. Esta maniobra es mucho más efectiva si realizamos maniobras “de diversión” contra los puntos fuertes de la competencia para desorientarles, pero el ataque principal se debe lanzar contra los puntos débiles. Esta maniobra “de cambio” desorganiza al enemigo. Los mayores éxitos
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No obstante, debemos haber detectado un hueco antes de lanzar la ofensiva, porque de lo contrario, habremos hecho un ataque frontal sin usar el principio de concentración, lo que hará que tengamos que destinar una proporción de recursos muy superior a la prevista, con el riesgo previsible de que el ataque sea un fracaso. ATAQUE DE BYPASS: Este tipo de ataque es totalmente indirecto y supone abandonar cualquier planteamiento de ataque en el territorio actual del competidor. Busca principalmente conquistar varios mercados de escaso interés para el competidor, y de esta forma ampliar nuestro área de influencia, llegando finalmente a envolver completamente a nuestro competidor. Ese será el momento del ataque. Esta estrategia presenta tres líneas diferentes de actuación: diversificación hacia actividades no relacionadas con nuestros productos actuales, diversificación hacia nuevos mercados geográficos manteniendo los actuales o adopción de nuevas tecnologías para renovar nuestra gama de productos. ATAQUE DE GUERRILLAS: Es la mejor opción ofensiva cuando se tienen problemas de financiación o recursos. Consiste en lanzar pequeños e intermitentes ataques a diferentes partes del territorio enemigo, con el fin de que éste se desmoralice y se puedan conseguir pequeños pero seguros adelantos.
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Capítulo 5: Lecciones de historia militar para empresarios “ Los ejemplos históricos proporcionan la mejor clase de prueba a las ciencias empíricas. Esto es particularmente cierto en el arte de la gue rra” KARL VON CLAUSEWITZ Una de las frases más oídas acerca de la historia es que “quién no la conoce, está condenado a repetirla”. Desde luego, sin entrar a entablar un debate acerca de este tema, pensamos que uno de los principales fallos de los aprendices a Generales-Empresarios es precisamente este punto. Los autores de literatura bélica de todos los tiempos no han dejado de apuntar la gran importancia que tiene la historia militar a la hora a afrontar
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5.1 Leónidas, el guerrero
Leónidas I, rey de Esparta del 490 al 480 a.C. es uno de los personajes históricos más conocidos, gracias en buena parte a las adaptaciones
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2) Superioridad de un Equipo Organizado y Profesional: Muchos de los hombres de Jerjes eran esclavos reclutados a la fuerza, no soldados profesionales. Los espartanos llevaban varios siglos siendo los mejores soldados de toda Grecia, y además tenían organizado un plan contra la arrogancia de Jerjes. En el capítulo 3 estudiamos la importancia de una buena política de Marketing Interno. Una empresa pequeña pero bien organizada y cohesionada puede vencer, siempre que el terreno le sea favorable, a una empresa superior en recursos. 3) Los Perdedores Heroicos se convierten en Leyendas: A pesar de que Leónidas perdió la batalla, su estrategia tuvo buen resultado y fue capaz de convertir su propia muerte en una gran victoria. Fue la sombra de Leónidas la que permitió la victoria griega en la batalla de Platea. Del mismo modo, muchos grandes dirigentes de empresas dejan su huella en las organizaciones después de su retiro, haciendo que los competidores no se atrevan a lanzar lanz ar un ataque por miedo a destruir sus recursos.
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Alejandro comenzó su guerra contra Persia en la primavera del 334 a.C. al cruzar los Dardanelos con un ejército de 365.000 hombres de Macedonia y de toda Grecia. Continuó avanzando hacia el sur y se encontró con el ejército principal persa, bajo el mando de Darío III en Isos, en el noroeste de Siria. Esta batalla terminó en una gran victoria para Alejandro gracias a sus falanges, una formación militar basada en el uso de largas lanzas y que está a la altura de otras grandes formaciones militares como la legión romana o el tercio español. Después de Isos, conquistó el territorio de Gaza y entró en Egipto donde construyó la ciudad de Alejandría, que se convertiría en una de las más ciudades más influyentes del mundo antiguo. Tras consolidar su poderío en la zona, retorno al norte donde se dirigió hacia Babilonia donde se encontró de nuevo con Darío al que volvió a derrotar en la batalla de Gaugamela en el año 331 a.C. Debemos hacer constar que solo le llevó tres años dominar un territorio tan grande como el antiguo an tiguo Imperio Persa.
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5.3 Aníbal, el imprevisible
Aníbal, general y político cartaginés, hijo de Amilcar Barca, cuya marcha sobre Roma desde Hispania a través de los Alpes entre el 218 y 217 a.C.
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El curso de la guerra cambió gradualmente en contra de Aníbal. El gobierno cartaginés se negó a enviarle refuerzos. Marchó sobre Nápoles pero fracasó en la toma de la ciudad. En el 211 a.C. intento tomar Roma, pero los romanos mantuvieron con éxito sus posiciones. Tras cuatro años de lucha poco convincente, Aníbal pidió ayuda a su hermano Asdrúbal quien inmediatamente salió de Hispania. No obstante, Asdrúbal fue sorprendido, derrotado y asesinado en el 207 a.C. por el cónsul romano Cayo Claudio Nerón en la batalla del río Metauro.
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5.4 Julio César, el estadista
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La base del poder de César era su posición de dictador vitalicio. Según la constitución tradicional republicana este cargo solo podía desempeñarse durante seis meses en una situación de gravedad extrema y recibió la inviolabilidad de los tribunos. Además obtuvo honores que incrementaron su prestigio. Vistió la toga, la corona y el cetro de un general triunfante y usó el título de imperator. Es más, como sumo sacerdote, fue jefe de la religión del Estado, pero sobre todo tenía el mando de todos los ejércitos lo cual continuó siendo la principal fuente de su poder.
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5.5 Guillermo, el Conquistador
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Ordeno a sus mejores caballeros que se abrieran paso entre el ejército sajón para llegar a Harold y acabarán con él (en nuestra empresa mandaríamos a nuestros mejores ejecutivos al fragor de la batalla). Estos caballeros realizaron la misión y despacharon a Harold. Guillermo tenía razón. Cuando la defensa sajona vio que su rey había muerto, las líneas se derrumbaron y los normandos obtuvieron la victoria. Guillermo nos enseña que no hay mejor forma de destruir la moral de un ejército que destruir la reputación de su jefe. Si tu empresa tiene un
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Como recompensa por su acción, Bonaparte fue ascendido a general de
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Sus mariscales se negaron a continuar combatiendo en abril de 1814. Al ser
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5.7 Wellington, el disciplinado
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En 1814 se le otorgó el título británico de duque de Wellington. Tras
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5.8 Custer, la leyenda
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Copyright. Jorge Ignacio Mata Arribas. Todos los Derechos Reservados www.jma-asesores.com –
[email protected] [email protected]
Y hasta aquí llega mi parte. Ahora llega la tuya. Ha llegado el momento en que uses los conocimientos de este libro para mejorar la situación de tu negocio o proyecto empresarial. Si gracias a este libro, de alguna forma, he llegado a aportar una pequeña parte de lo que tu éxito personal requiere, me sentiré realmente feliz por ello.
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Copyright. Jorge Ignacio Mata Arribas. Todos los Derechos Reservados www.jma-asesores.com –
[email protected] [email protected]
Despedida: Ahora ya tienes una idea bastante más concreta sobre cómo se pueden aplicar los principios de la ciencia militar a la administración de negocios, pero recuerda que esto solo es el principio. Debes seguir leyendo, aprendiendo y desarrollando tus propias ideas y hacer tus propios experimentos para alcanzar el éxito. Al final del libro puedes encontrar un apartado con bibliografía recomendada que te permitirá seguir profundizando en el camino que has decidido empezar. Sigue con ello. En este libro puedes encontrar muchas de las recetas que me han permitido crear y hacer de JMA Asesores una realidad dentro del mundo de la consultoría empresarial. Espero sinceramente que te sirvan como guía y ejemplo para crear o mejorar tu negocio. Quiero invitarte a conocer la página web de AEMME www.asociacionmicroempresas.com donde podrás estar informado de eventos, cursos y material de interés para emprendedores y microempresarios, así como conocer todas las ventajas de ser asociado de AEMME. Del mismo modo, pongo a tu completa disposición la carta de servicios de JMA Asesores confiando en que resulten de tu interés. Puedes consultar nuestros servicios y tarifas visitando nuestra web www.jma-asesores.com o también puedes contactarme para mantener una conversación personal a través de
[email protected] de
[email protected].. Quiero informarte de que tienes a tu disposición una AUDITORÍA GRATUITA sobre el estado actual de tu negocio o proyecto empresarial, como agradecimiento por haber leído mi libro. Puedes pedirla contactando conmigo a través de las señas que te he facilitado. También te agradeceré enormemente cualquier comentario, duda u opinión que quieras plantearme con respecto al contenido de este ebook. Muchas gracias por tu interés en convertirte en un General-Empresario. Te deseo el mayor de los éxitos en todo lo que emprendas, Jorge Mata
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Copyright. Jorge Ignacio Mata Arribas. Todos los Derechos Reservados www.jma-asesores.com –
[email protected] [email protected]
Agradecimientos: Resulta difícil agradecer en un espacio tan limitado a todas las personas que han contribuido de una u otra forma a que este libro se haya convertido en una realidad. Pero hay que hacerlo. Agradezco a todos los miembros y asociados de AEMME, en especial a don Víctor Delgado por haberme dado la oportunidad de formar parte activa de la asociación, asociación, y por su constante apoyo y confianza. Agradezco a todos los los socios, clientes, colaboradores colaboradores y contactos de JMA Asesores, Vip Life Night, El Taller del Bit y Proyectar Música.com por su incansable trabajo y su amistad. Agradezco también a todos nuestros colegas y compañeros de profesión que han aportado generosamente sus comentarios y sugerencias, entre ellos cabe mencionar a Alberto Asiaín y Federico Forniccia. Agradezco a los diversos estudiantes de mis cursos, especialmente a los del curso de Creación de Empresas, el curso de Marketing y el curso de Habilidades Directivas por haberme puesto continuamente a prueba para que la visión del libro fuera lo más perfecta posible. Aunque son demasiado numerosos para citarlos, su influencia se deja sentir en todos y cada uno de los capítulos. Finalmente agradecer a Atticus González, David del Barrio, Óscar Gaspar, Ana Belén Martínez Martínez y Miguel Ángel Ángel Pizarro, su lectura desinteresada de los primeros borradores, así como sus sugerencias y su valiosa amistad. Mención especial merece Juan Diego Mora por haber dado forma al proyecto y hecho las correcciones de estilo necesarias. Por último, solo queda por hacer mi pequeño homenaje a todos esos valerosos hombres de guerra que quisieron dejar constancia de sus acciones, no tanto para que las admiremos como para que lleguemos a aprender de ellas y evitemos la guerra en el futuro. Recibe mis más cordiales saludos, Jorge Mata
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Copyright. Jorge Ignacio Mata Arribas. Todos los Derechos Reservados www.jma-asesores.com –
[email protected] [email protected]
Bibliografía Recomendada: Recomendada: Beevor, Anthony “El Día D. La Batalla de Normandía” Bradley, Omar N. “ A Soldier’s Story ” Chiavenato, Idalberto “ Administración de Recursos Humanos ” Drucker, Peter “Automanagement” y “La Gerencia en la Sociedad Futura” Goleman, Daniel “ Inteligencia Emocional ” Graham y Dodd “Security Analisis” Guderian, Heinz-Wilhelm “ Achtung Panzer ” Iniesta, Isabel “Manual del Consultor de Marketing” Irving, David “ El Rastro del Zorro ” Kenichi, Ohmae “ El Próximo Escenario Global ” Kotler, Philip “ Dirección de Marketing ” Liddel Hart, B.H “Memorias del Mariscal Rommel. Los años de Victoria ” Maquiavelo, Nicolás “ El Príncipe” Miyamoto, Musashi “ El Libro de los Cinco Anillos ” Montgomery, Bernard Law “Memorias del Mariscal de Campo Montgomery ” y “ Ruta hacia el Liderazgo ” O’Loughlin, James “Warren Buffet: Cómo Cómo Invertir
para generar generar riqueza ”
Patton, George S. “War as I knew It ” Ries y Trout “ Las 22 Leyes Inmutables del Marketing ” y “Marketing de Guerra ” Rommel, Erwin “ La Infantería al Ataque ” Sun Tzu “ El Arte de la Guerra ” Von Clausewitz, Karl “ De la Guerra ” Young, Desmond “ Rommel ”
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