UNIVERSITATEA UNIVERSITATEA DE ŞTIINŢE AGRONOMICE ŞI MEDICINĂ VETERINARĂ BUCUREŞTI Facultatea de Îmbunătăţiri Funciare şi Ingineria Mediului
CURS BAZELE GEOMETRICE ALE FOTO FOTOGR GRA AMMET MMETR RIEI IEI ( BGF ) DR. ING. GABRIEL POPESCU
BUCU BU CURE REŞT ŞTII 20 20008
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CUPRINS
Pag.
1 2 3 4 5
Intro Introduc ducere ere.. ...... ......... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... .......... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ... Elemen Elemente te de fotogr fotogramm ammetr etrie. ie.... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... Baze Baze optice optice şi fotogr fotografi afice ce... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ... Elemen Elemente te de sensi sensitom tometr etrie. ie.... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... Fotog Fotogram rama.. a..... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6
3 11 17 18 21
Elemente de orientare interioară............................. interioară............................................................. ................................ Elemente de orientare exterioară............................ exterioară............................................................. ................................. Clasificarea fotogramelor.......................................................... fotogramelor........................................................................ .............. Procedee de determinare a scării fotogramelor....................... fotogramelor...................................... ............... Deformări pe fotogramă.............................. fotogramă..................................................................... ............................................ ..... Fotointerpretarea................................................... Fotointerpretarea...................................................................................... ...................................
6 Ridică Ridicări ri fotogr fotogram ammet metric rice.. e..... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ....... ....... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... .......
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6.1 Proiectul de aerofotografiere................... aerofotografiere..................................................... ................................................ .............. 6.2 Reperajul fotogrammetric........................................................... fotogrammetric....................................................................... ............
7 Foto Fotogr gram amme metri triaa plani planime metr tric ică. ă........................................................................................................................................... 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4
Restituţia planimetrică.............................. planimetrică................................................................ .............................................. ............ Aparate de restituţie planimetrică ............................................... .......................................................... ........... Efectul reliefului terenului terenului asupra asupra redresării redresării .......................................... .......................................... Redresarea diferenţială. Ortofotoplanul ................................................. .................................................
8 Ster Stereo eofo fotog togra ramm mmet etria ria .... .............................................................................................................................................................. 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5
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Generalităţi ........................................................................... ............................................................................................. .................. Baza de fotografiere ............................................. ............................................................................... .................................. Orientarea stereogramelor ...................................................................... ...................................................................... Aerotriang Aerotriangulaţia. ulaţia...... .......... ........... ........... .......... .......... ........... ........... .......... .......... .......... ........... ........... .......... .......... .......... ........ ... Stereorest Stereorestituţia ituţia / aparate aparate de de stereores stereorestituţie tituţie ......... ............... ........... ........... ............ ........... .......... ........ ...
9 Reprezen Reprezentarea tarea pe calculator calculator a obiect obiectelor elor spatiale spatiale obţinute obţinute prin metode metode de fotogrammetrie analitică şi digitală......................................... digitală.............................................................. ..................... Bibliografie
48 53
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1.
INTRODUCERE.
O prezentare sintetica a stadiului actual de dezvoltare a fotogrametriei fotogramet riei si teledetectiei, teledetectiei, pe baza baza realizarilor realizarilor cunoscute cunoscute pâna în prezent, prezent, permite aprecierea aprecierea realistă realistă a pos posibil ibilităţ ităţilor ilor si limitel limitelor or acestu acestuii mijloc mijloc de investi investigare gare.. Revista Revista america americana na de specialitate "Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing" defineste fotogrametria astfel : "Fotogrametria este arta, stiinta si tehnologia de obtinere a informatiilor sigure despre obiectele fizice si mediul inconjurator prin prelucrarea inregistrarilor , masurarea si interpretarea imaginilor fotografice, a modelelor de energie radianta electromagnetica si alte fenomene" .
O aplicatie conventionala conventionala a fotogrametriei fotogrametriei este elaborarea elaborarea de harti topografice topografice cu curbe de nnivel, ivel, bazate pe masurator masuratorii si informatii informatii obtinute obtinute de pe fotografii fotografii aeriene si spatiale cu instrumente instrumente analogice analogice optice si/sau calculatoare calculatoare analitice. analitice. In mod similar, principiile principiile topografice topografice de masuratori masuratori de precizie precizie sint sint aplicate in fotogrametria fotogrametria la mica distant distantaa pen pentru tru repreze reprezentar ntarea ea obiecte obiectelor lor a caror caror studiere studiere pe alte căi întâmpi întâmpină nă dificultăţi dificultăţi pentru înregistrarea înregistrarea deformaţiilor deformaţiilor măsurabile măsurabile in modelele inginereşti, inginereşti, pentru studiere studiereaa medicală medicală a formelor formelor de viată, viată, etc. O alta aplicatie importanta a fotogrammetriei, de mare actualitate si mai ales de mare viitor, viitor, este utilizarea utilizarea laser scannerului scannerului , in care imaginile imaginile sint obtinute obtinute cu cu un alt sensor decât (sau pe lânga) camera fotogrammetrica conventionala, in care o imagine este inregistrata inregistrata ca o baleiere baleiere electronica electronica în vizibil sau folosind folosind radiatii radiatii din afara domeniului vizibil pe film, cu microunde, radar, in infrarosul termic sau ultraviolet. O imagine reprezinta in sens larg o distributie distributi e bidimensionala de câmp luminos. În această clasă intră atât imaginile fotografice fotografice cât si orice alte inregistrari inregistrari de functii functii bidimensionale bidimensionale sau monodimensiona monodimensionale le multicanal. multicanal. Distributia Distributia de cimp poate fi abtinuta prin iluminarea unei pelicule fotografice pe care este inregistrata aceasta imagine, dar acest procedeu nu este restrictiv. Prelucrarea unei imagini este o operatie efectuata asupra functiei bidimensionale reale f(x,y) ce reprezinta imaginea in scopul: - reconstituirii reconstituirii imaginii initiale; initiale; - scoaterea scoaterea sau accentu accentuarea area unor unor caracteri caracteristici stici particular particulare; e; - codificarea codificarea imaginii imaginii in scopul scopul transmiterii transmiterii sau stocarii ei ei in mod eficient. eficient. In procesul de transmitere si inregistrare a imaginilor, acestea sufera degradari determinate de imperfectiunile inerente sistemelor respective. Astfel, imaginea originala poate suferii transformari in procesul de propagare prin atmosfera, in sistemul sistemul optic de formare formare a unei imagini imagini secundare, secundare, in procesul procesul de expunere expunere si prelucrare prelucrare a placii fotografice, fotografice, etc. Se considera considera ca cele mai importante importante surse ce contribuie la degradarea imaginii sint limitarea benzii sistemului de formare si transmitere transmitere a imaginii, imaginii, aberatiile aberatiile lentilelor, lentilelor, miscarea miscarea relativa relativa a sistemului sistemului optic fata
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reconstituire reconstituire este aceea de a forma o imagine imagine f^(x,y) f^(x,y) "cit mai mai apropiata" apropiata" de imaginea originala. In cazul in care sistemul sistemul ce ce a produs produs degradarea degradarea imaginei imaginei este descris descris de o functie de pondere pondere h(x,y), h(x,y), raspunsul la o intrare f(x,y) f(x,y) este dat de relatia : g(x,y) = f(x,y)*h(x,y) = { F(u,v)*H(u,v) } in care H(u,v)= { h(x,y) } este functia de transfer a sistemului prin care s -a format imaginea. In consecinta prelucrarea printr-un sistem avind o functie de transfer H (u,v) va reconstitui imaginea originala. f^(x,y) = { F^(u,v) F^(u,v) } = { [ F(u,v)*H(u,v) F(u,v)*H(u,v) ]*H (u,v) } = f(x,y) Aceasta prelucrare, prelucrare, experimenta experimentata ta in mod intensiv de fizicianul Stroke, a fost denumita convolutie. convolutie. Convolutia Convolutia si corelatia corelatia sint operatii operatii de baza in calculatoarele calculatoarele optice, derivate din doua transformari Fourier, ele fiind folosite in special in prelucrarea prelucrarea video-informatiilo video-informatiilorr (de televizi televiziune) une) obtinute prin metode metode de teledetectie. teledetectie. Fotogrammetria este o disciplină a ştiinţei măsurătorilor terestre. Fotogrammetria cuprinde un ansamblu de metode matematice, tehnici şi tehnologii de utilizare a fotografiei în domeniul măsurătorilor terestre. Pe lângă aplicaţiile în domeniul măsurătorilor terestre, fotogrammetria poate fi aplicată şi în alte domenii: arhitectură, geologie, geofizică, meteorologie, agricultură şi nu în ultimul rând îmbunătăţiri funciare şi ingineria mediului. Din punct de vedere tehnologic, procesul fotogrammetriei şi teledetecţiei se desfăşoară desfăşoară conform etapelor cunoscute. cunoscute. Astfel, prima etapa a procesului procesului tehnologic tehnologic o reprezintă ansamblul operatiunilor de înregistrare a datelor. Pentru inregistrari se folosesc camere speciale terestre sau aeriene montate montate pe platforme aeriene sau spatiale purtatoare ale sensorilor de înregistrare. Pornind de la schema spectrului electromagnetic al luminii naturale, prezentată în figura de mai jos, în principiu, categoriile de sensori care se folosesc sunt aceleasi şi anume anume sensori care inregistreaza în diferite zone ale spectrului electromagnetic dar ei difera din punctul de vedere al conceptiei de construcţie, corespunzător specificului inregistrarilor la diferite distante sau inaltimi, în diferite conditii aeriene şi spatiale. Se folosesc camere camere fotografice normale, metrice, multispectrale, sensori de baleiere cu înregistrare simultana în diferite benzi spectrale în domeniul vizibil şi infrarosu, sensori de înregistrare cu microunde, în sistem de televiziune,
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Scurt istoric Între Între anii anii 1480 1480 – 149 14922 , Leonard Leonardoo da Vinci Vinci a introd introdus us noţiun noţiunile ile de de proiecţ proiecţie ie şi perspectivă perspectivă centrală. centrală. În 1525, Albrecht Albrecht Durer şi mai târziu în 1759 Johan Heinrich Heinrich Lambert au continuat munca lui Leonardo dezvoltând principiile matematice ale imaginii perspectiv perspectivee preluate dintr-un dintr-un punct din spatiu. spatiu. Primele ridicări fotogrammetrice datează de la mijlocul secolului trecut, fiind condiţionate de apariţia şi dezvoltarea fotografiei. Odată cu publicarea, în 1851, de către Skott Archer a modului de obţinere a imaginii fotografice fotografice prin procedeul procedeul coloidului coloidului umed (stratul (stratul fotosensibil fotosensibil se prepară şi se întinde pe placa de sticlă înainte de fotografiere, iar expunerea şi developarea se face în timpul cât stratul sensibil este umed) s-a deschis posibilitatea de aplicare a fotografiei în numeroase ramuri ale ştiinţei şi tehnicii, inclusiv în domeniul măsurătorilor terestre. Relaţia dintre geometria proiectivă şi fotogrammetrie a fost dezvoltată de R. Sturms şi Guido Hauck în anul 1883 în Germania. Legile perspectivei fotogrammetrice ale lui Hauck sunt sunt prezentate prezentate în imaginea următoare. următoare.
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La început s-au făcut experienţe pentru aplicarea fotografiei la ridicări terestre cu fototeodolitul, iar după aceea la ridicări fotoaeriene. Inginerul militar francez Aim é Laussedat Laussedat este primul care care în 1851 a folosit un aparat fotografic anume construit (fototeodolit), făcând experienţe de folosire a fotografiei în scopuri topografice, folosind o nouă metodă de ridicare terestră pe care a denu de nuni nitt-oo "met "metro rofo foto togr graf afie ie". ". Aim Aim é Laussedat este considerat părintele fotogrammetriei, existând şi o medalie care-i poartă numele.
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Ideea folosirii fotografiilor aeriene ale suprafeţei terestre în scopuri topografice aparţine fotografului francez Gaspar Felix Tournachon, denumit şi Nadar, care în anul 1858 obţine prima fotografie aeriană dintr-un balon captiv de la înălţimea de 80 de metri deasupra deasupra Parisului Parisului (imaginea (imaginea de mai jos).
Folosirea acestui procedeu în aer s-a dovedit mai complicată decât pe pământ şi de aceea dezvoltarea aerofotogrammetriei s-a produs abia după o jumătate de secol. În timp se dezvoltă tehnicile şi tehnologiile fotografice atât pe linia fixării imaginii cât şi a opticii fotografice. În 1871 se descoperă metoda de fabricaţie a emulsiei sensibile cu strat uscat de bromură de argint şi gelatină. gelatină. Aceasta putea fi folosită pentru fotografii fotografii instantanee instantanee şi nu necesita o expunere îndelungată, lucru important în cazul fotografiei aeriene. În 1887 - 1889 s-au s-au crerat posibilităţi posibilităţi ca suportul suportul emulsiei emulsiei să nu mai fie sticla ci peliculele peliculele de celuloid, celuloid, cu impact direct asupra dezvoltării fotografiei fotografiei aeriene aeriene şi a aerofotogrammetriei.
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rândul său construirea unor obiectivi cu luminozitate mare, lipsiţi pe cât posibil de distorsie, cu obturatoare care să funcţioneze rapid şi sigur, precum şi a unor dispozitive mecanice de acţionare a camerei în timpul lucrului. Dintre principalele camere aeriene construite şi folosite, cele mai importante sunt RMK, MRB (Germania), RC-5 (Elveţia), AFA (U.R.S.S.), Santoni (Italia), T 11 (S.U.A.) şi SOM (Franţa). Aceste aparate construite în prezent în variante moderne, reflectă orientarea către folosirea tehnicilor şi tehnologiilor moderne digitale pentru determinarea determinarea pe cale automată automată a datelor necesare prelucrării prelucrării fotogramelor, fotogramelor, precum precum şi realizarea unor mecanisme automate de transmisie şi comandă. Printre pionierii fotogrametriei analitice, cu contribuţii esenţiale în dezvoltarea acestui domeniu, îi putem menţiona:
Otto Otto vo vonn Gru Grube berr (18 (1884 84–1 –194 942) 2),,
Dr. Hellmut Schmid
Prof Prof.. Ear Earll Chu Churh rh (189 (1890– 0–19 1956 56), ),
Prof. Mahmoud (Sam) Karara (1928-1992)
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Astfel primele lucrări de ridicare fotoaeriană din avion s-au făcut în aprilie 1916, de către serviciul fotoaerian creat în cadrul flotilei de aviaţie de la Cotroceni, utilizând la început camere fotoaeriene simple, construite din lemn, de formatul 9x12 cm. În august 1916 acest serviciu s-a dezvoltat prin înfiinţarea a 6 secţii fotoaeriene afectate escadrilelor de aviaţie care erau dislocate la Tâlmaci, Braşov, Murfatlar, Piatra Neamţ, Cotroceni şi una mobilă. La început început nu s-au obţinut rezultate rezultate notabile datorită lipsei de experienţă. Ulterior, în timpul refacerii trupelor din Moldova, s-au adus aparate şi materiale fotografice noi, precum şi un laborator cu care au fost înzestrate secţiile fotoaeriene. S-a început o activitate intensă al cărei randament a fost apreciat în luptele de la Mărăşeşti, când s-au cunoscut înainte de începerea luptelor tipul şi felul organizării inamice. În timpul Primului Război Mondial, Serviciul Geografic al Armatei şi celelalte secţii fotoaeriene trimiteau pe front hărţile topografice completate cu date despre inamic folosind în acest scop fotografiile aeriene. În urma experienţei căpătate, ofiţerii în rezervă (ingineri silvici) Aurel Cernătescu şi Victor Ivănceanu întocmesc în 1918 un "Studiu asupra restituirii fotografiilor aeriene" în care se prezentau mijloacele folosite în exploatarea conţinutului fotografiilor aeriene. Prin conferinţe şi publicaţii este propagată ideea aplicării ridicărilor fotoaeriene în întocmirea de planuri şi hărţi. În unele instituţii superioare de învăţământ sunt introduse noţiuni de fotografie aeriană. În mod sporadic s-au făcut încercări de aplicare a ridicărilor fotoaeriene şi în scopuri civile. Astfel în 1924 s-a creat o "Diviziune de cadastru aerian" pe lângă Direcţiunea Aviaţiei Civile, care pentru prima dată în ţara noastră utilizează fotografia aeriană în lucrări de măsurători terestre pentru nevoi civile. Primele lucrări ale acestui serviciu au fost executarea unor fotoasamblaje pentru întocmirea planului de sistematizare a oraşelor Bacău şi Curtea de Argeş. Aceiaşi specialişti au executat ulterior planul fotografic al Aeroportului Băneasa, prima lucrare la noi în ţară întocmită întocmită pe baza premarcajului premarcajului pe tren a punctelor punctelor de triangulaţie şi a reperilor fotogrammetrici. Public Publicaţ aţiil iil de ialit ialitat at în rioad rioadaa 1924 1924 19266 192 t:
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Începând cu anul 1927 s-au depus eforturi pentru a se procura aparatura necesară trecerii la exploatarea riguroasă a fotogramelor aeriene cât şi pentru a se face cunoscute avantajele noii metode de ridicare. În anul 1928 se înfiinţează o secţie de fotogrammetrie în cadrul Institutului Geografic al Armatei, care este dotată cu un autocartograf şi alte aparate de laborator de strictă necesitate. Acestă secţie şi-a orintat activitatea în scopul întocmirii hărţii ţării prin procedee procedee aerofot aerofotogramme ogrammetrice. trice. În anul 1929 s-a înfiinţat o secţie fotogrammetrică pe lângă Direcţia Superioară a Aeronauticii şi o secţie fotogrammetrică pe lângă Direcţia Cadastrului Minier. Personalul angajat a fost pregătit teoretic şi practic pentru lucrări de restituţie timp de un an de către specialişti aduşi din străinătate, iar după aceea o parte din ingineri au fost trimişi în străinătate pentru perfecţionare la Dresda, Berlin, şi Jena (Zeiss). Secţiile de fotogrammetrie din cadrul Direcţiei Cadastrului Minier şi din cadrul Direcţiei Aeronauticii Aeronauticii au executat executat în perioada perioada 1929 - 1937 o serie de lucrări lucrări care au demonstrat avantajele metodei. În perioad perioadaa anilor anilor 1939 1939 - 1941 serv serviciu iciull fotogram fotogramme metric tric din din cadrul cadrul Direcţi Direcţiei ei Aeronauticii, denumit ulterior "Oficiul Hidrografic şi Aerofotogrammetric" este dotat cu stereoplanigrafe C5, fotoredresatoare SEG IV, aeroproiectoare multiplex, camere aerofotogrammetrice, cât şi cu avioane special amenajate în scopul ridicărilor aerofotogrammetrice. Cu toate toate că în în perioa perioada da 1928 1928 - 194 19400 s-au s-au obţinu obţinutt unele unele realiză realizări, ri, ridic ridicăril ărilee aeriene nu s-au dezvoltat la nivelul capacităţii şi importanţei reale datorită lipsei organizării şi coordonării la nivel naţional a unor programe concrete şi apariţiei antreprenorilor topografi privaţi. Realizăr Realizările ile tehnicotehnico-ştii ştiinţif nţifice ice şi practice practice din din perioada perioada 1929 1929 - 1940 sunt sunt legate legate în mare măsură de munca depusă de prof. I. Gh. Vidraşcu şi prof. Alexandru Ivănceanu. În afară de folosirea ridicărilor fotoaeriene la întocmirea hărţii ţării, în responsabilitatea Institutului Geografic Militar, o altă latură a fost încercarea de aplicare a acesteia în geologie şi cadastrul minier. Preocupările în aplicarea ridicărilor fotogrammetrice cresc, iar specialiştii din domeniul măsurătorilor terestre încep să-şi dea seama că avantajele folosirii fotografiei aeriene sunt de necontestat. După 1950, cerinţele impuse iniţial de aderarea la Tratatul de la Varşovia şi apoi
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întocmi întocmirea rea hărţ hărţii ii de bază la scara scara 1:50.00 1:50.000, 0, şi din din perio perioada ada 1970 1970 - 197 19744 pen pentru tru întocmirea hărţii de bază la scara 1:25.000. Începând cu 1980 s-au executat aerofotografieri pentru realizarea planurilor localităţilor la scara 1:5.000 şi 1:10.000 şi din 1985 pentru actualizarea periodică, la interval de 5 ani, a hărţii de bază la scara 1:50.000 pe întreg teritoriul ţării. Totodată, în anul 1949 ia fiinţă o secţie fotogrammetrică în cadrul "Comitetului geologic" dotată cu camere fotoaeriene şi aparatură modernă de exploatare a fotogramelor. Cu acestă ocazie apar noi preocupări legate de aplicaţia fotografiilor aeriene şi terestre în geologie, sistematizări urbane etc. Cooperativizarea Cooperativizarea agricultur agriculturii, ii, mai mult decât celelalte celelalte sectoare ale economiei economiei a ridicat problema reorganizării procesului tehnologic de întocmire a bazei topografice din unităţile de producţie ale Direcţiei Generale Geotopografice şi Organizarea Teritoriului din Ministerul Agriculturii. În cadrul acestei direcţii ia fiinţă în anul 1958 o întreprindere fotogrammetrică de mare capacitate care are ca obiectiv întocmirea planurilor topografice şi cadastrale la scara 1:10.000, 1:5.000 şi 1:2.000 pentru întreg teritoriul, necesare întocmirii şi ţinerii la zi a evidenţei funciare, organizării teritoriului, lucrărilor de îmbunătăţiri funciare etc. (fostul I.G.F.C.O.T.). De asemenea în 1960 s-a înfiinţat un serviciu fotogrammetric la "Institutul de Studii Studii şi Proiec Proiectări tări Fores Forestier tiere", e", iar iar în 1970 1970 şi la alte insti institut tutee printre printre care care menţio menţionăm năm Institut Institutul ul de Studii Studii şi Proiect Proiectări ări pen pentru tru Îmbunăt Îmbunătăţir ăţirii Func Funciare iare (ISPIF) (ISPIF),, ISPCF, ISPCF, IPTANA, dotate cu aparatur aparaturăă de prelucrare prelucrare a fotografiilor fotografiilor aeriene aeriene şi terestre. terestre. Odată cu crearea acestor unităţi de specialitate, fotogrammetria a devenit principala principala metodă de ridicare topografică topografică şi de realizare realizare a planurilor planurilor şi hărţilor hărţilor topografice sau tematice în principalele sectoare ale economiei naţionale. Lipsa unui cadru organizatoric şi legislativ adecvat şi a unei strategii la nivel naţiona naţionall a determin determinat at în perioad perioadaa 1950 1950 - 199 19900 o dezvolta dezvoltare re necoo necoordo rdonată nată a cestor cestor instituţii de specialitate, funcţie de conjuncturi politice şi de obiectivele planurilor cincinale, ineficientă economic, mare consumatoare de resurse, cu numeroase suprapuneri de competenţe şi lipsită de perspectiva continuităţii pe termen mediu şi lung. După 1990, lipsa unei instituţii responsabile de organizare la nivel naţional şi a unei politici şi strategii unitare de utilizare a tehnicilor şi tehnologiilor de
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geodezie, fotogrammetrie, teledetectie, cartografie si cadastru la nivelul intregii tari. In subordinea Oficiului National de Cadastru, Geodezie si Cartografie functioneaza Institutul de Geodezie, Fotogrammetrie, Cartografie si Cadastru precum si 42 Oficii de Cadastru, Geodezie si Cartografie judetene si cel al municipiului Bucuresti. În 2002 - ONCGC trece in subordinea subordinea Ministeru Ministerului lui Administratiei Administratiei si Internelor Internelor iar din 2004 se infiinteaza infiinteaza Agentia Nationala de Cadastru Cadastru si Publicitate Publicitate Imobiliara Imobiliara (ANCPI) prin reorganizarea reorganizarea ONCGC si preluarea preluarea activitatii activitatii de publicitate publicitate imobiliara imobiliara de la Ministerul Justitiei. 2.
ELEMENTE DE DE FO FOTOGRAMMETRIE
a) Imaginea Imaginea fotografică fotografică a unui obiect sau a unei suprafeţ suprafeţee de teren teren este este o piesă piesă de mare valoare deoarece este o înregistrare obiectivă a imaginii respective. Pentru ca fotografia să fie un element de plecare în măsurători şi reprezentări exacte este necesar ca ea să îndeplinească nişte condiţii speciale metrice. O astfel de fotografie este fotograma, care sub raport matematic este o proiecţie centrală. Deci primul principiu şi prima condiţie în măsurătorile fotogrammetrice propriuzise este aceea ca fotografiile să fie proiecţii centrale cu caracteristici perfect cunoscute, adică să fie fotograme. b) Făcând referire la ridicări, ridicări, se înţelege că fotogrammetria fotogrammetria trebuie să se supună legilor de bază ale topografiei, de unde rezultă că plecând de la proiecţii centrale (fotograme) trebuie să se ajungă la proiecţii paralele (planuri, hărţi). Într-adevăr, fotograma şi harta sunt proiecţii plane ale suprafeţelor de teren însă pe câtă vreme fotograma este o proiecţie centrală, harta este o proiecţie paralelă ortogonală.
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În cazul reprezentării reprezentării teritoriilor, teritoriilor, proiecţiile proiecţiile ce interesează interesează a se obţine şi care pot fi obţinute pe baza celor două proiecţii centrale, sunt cele specifice topografiei generale, adică o proiecţie paralelă ortogonală pentru obţinerea planimetriei şi o proiecţie proiecţie paralelă orizontală orizontală (perpendicular (perpendicularăă pe prima) pentru obţinerea obţinerea altimetriei. altimetriei. Matematic pot fi determinate poziţiile în x, y, z ale tuturor punctelor ce dau imagini pe câte două fotograme. Poziţiile spaţiale ale punctelor pot fi obţinute prin construcţii grafice, pe cale analogică şi pe cale analitică.
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Fig. 4 – stereoc stereocame ameră ră terest terestră ră cu bază bază fixă fixă
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Construcţiile grafice sunt greoaie, nu asigură precizie şi nici randament satisfăcător însă reprezintă o posibilitate de determinare de puncte izolate atunci când nu se dispune de aparataj fotogrammetric. Calea analogică presupune utilaj fotogrammetric specializat cu ajutorul căruia se redă terenul sub formă grafică convenţională (planimetric şi altimetric) prin restituţia restituţia modelului modelului optic punct punct cu punct, linie cu linie, direct, direct, fără fără interpolări interpolări.. Prin model optic (stereomodel) se înţelege imaginea spaţială (în relief) proprie vederii vederii binoculare, binoculare, ce se obţine atunci când cele două fotograme fotograme ale cuplului sunt privite separat şi anume cea din stânga cu ochiul stâng iar cea din dreapta cu ochiul drept. Pentru ca imaginea în relief (nimită şi stereoscopică) să reprezinte efectiv modelul optic propriu-zis este necesar ca fotogramele să se găsească una faţă de cealaltă în poziţii relative practic identice cu cele din momentul de priză. În acest caz, la intersecţia razelor omoloage se obţine efectiv modelul optic şi se spune că fotogramele sunt orientate relativ. Pentru ca modelul optic să poată fi restituit este necesar ca el să fie orientat şi absolut, adică să fie adus la o anumită scară şi într-o astfel de poziţie încât încât prin restituţia lui lui să se obţină direct planimetria planimetria şi altimetria altimetria terenului. Calea analogică este specific fotogrammetrică asigurând o precizie satisfăcătoare şi fiind de mare randament. În figura 5 se prezintă formarea modelului optic la intersecţia razelor omoloage şi restituţia modelului optic cu ajutorul unui punct marcă fixat pe o măsuţă deplasabilă şi de înălţime variabilă. La verticala mărcii se găseşte un creion care desenează traseele urmate cu marca.
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Calea analitică presupune măsurarea pe fotograme a poziţiilor punctelor (coordonate plane fortogammetrice) funcţie de care se ajunge la poziţia lor spaţială prin calcule. calcule. Dacă se folosesc mijloace mijloace specializate, specializate, precise de măsurare, măsurare, se pot obţine rezultate de mare precizie. Această cale cale este folosită folosită în lucrări lucrări specializate specializate pentru pentru a se determina determina cu precizie sporită reţele de puncte precum şi în unele ridicări ridicări la lucrări mari sau în determinări cu caracter special şi presupun în general programe şi mijloace moderne de calcul. Se concluzionează deci că după două proiecţii centrale ale aceluiaşi obiect (teren) se pot obţine riguros proiecţii paralele cerute de pricipiile reprezentării teritoriilor, oricare ar fi relieful, atât în ceeace priveşte planimetria cât şi în ceeace priveşte altimetria. Aceasta este fotogrammetria stereografică şi corespunde dublei intersecţii spaţiale. e) Măsurătorile fotogrammetrice de precizie necesită întotdeauna o legătură topografică cu terenul de ridicat pentru a se putea determina cu precizie scara. Acest lucru este valabil atât pentru fotogrammetria planimetrică cât şi pentru cea
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3
BAZE OPTICE ŞI FOTOGRAFICE
Potrivit celor prezentate, fotograma trebuie să fie o proiecţie centrală a regiunii fotografiate. Practic o astfel de proiecţie se realizează cu atât mai greu cu cât mai riguros se cere îndeplinită condiţia de centricitate a proiecţiei. Cauzele generale care produc abateri ale imaginii de la perspectiva matematică sunt: eroarea de formare a imaginii produsă de obiectiv, refracţia atmosferică, construcţia neregulată a filmului fotografic şi rezoluţia emulsiei fotografice. I. Obiectivi fotogrammetrici a. Claritate, metricitate, luminozitate
Imaginea formată de obiectivi trebuie să fie clară, metrică şi cu o distribuţie a luminii egală în planul imaginii. Claritatea. Claritatea. Principalele Principalele erori de claritate, claritate, numite şi aberaţii aberaţii ale imaginii ca: aberaţia de sfericitate, aberaţiile cromatice, coma, astigmatismul şi erorile de curbură ale imaginii sunt astăzi controlate. Prin asocierea mai multor lentile de
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4
ELEMENTE DE SENSITOMETRIE
Claritatea Claritatea imaginii depinde depinde nu numai de calitatea imaginii imaginii proiectate proiectate ci şi de calităţile emulsiei fotografice şi de condiţiile fotografierii şi copierii (în cazul pozitivării). pozitivării). Caracteristici ca granulaţia, claritatea şi contrastul determină microcalitatea şi posibilitatea de a lucra la scări mici. Principalele Principalele caracte caracteristici ristici ale emulsiei emulsiei fotografice fotografice sunt sensibilit sensibilitatea atea şi şi puterea de rezoluţie. rezoluţie. Iluminarea imagini = E ∙ t (E - intensi intensitate tateaa flux fluxulu uluii lumi luminos, nos, t - timpul timpul de exp expune unere). re). Pe curba de înnegrire a unei imagini se disting trei intervale (fig. 6): AB - su sube bexp xpun uner erea ea,, BC - ex expu pune nere reaa no norm rmal ală, ă, CD - su supr prae aexp xpun uner erea ea..
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egalizeze egalizeze contrastele, contrastele, să se elimine efectele reflectanţei reflectanţei obiectelor. obiectelor. Aceste procedee procedee presupun presupun aparatură aparatură suplimenta suplimentară ră cât şi timp şi şi materiale materiale suplimentare. suplimentare. Sensibilitatea emulsiilor faţă de culori Emulsiile fotografice redau culorile în alb-negru sau color. În timp ce vederea umană se se întinde întinde asupra asupra radiaţiilo radiaţiilorr în intervalul intervalul 400 - 750 m lungime de undă, emulsiile fotografice obişnuite nu sunt sensibile decât pentru radiaţiile din inte interv rval alul ul 300 300 - 50 5000 m. (fig. 7). De aceea a fost necesar să se producă emulsii cu alte sensibilităţi spectrale. Emulsiile ortocromatice au sensibilitate extinsă asupra culorilor verde şi galben, iar emulsiile pancromatice sunt sensibile la toate culorile. În scopuri metrice se folosesc în general emulsiile pancromatice. Un loc important îl ocupă emulsiile infracromatice, sensibile la spectrul infraroşu. Ele sunt indicate pentru fotografii pe timp de noapte şi la mare distanţă, precum şi în cazul cazul vizibilităţii vizibilităţii reduse reduse din cauza cauza suspensiilor suspensiilor atmosfer atmosferice. ice. Pentru a atenua acţiunea diverşilor factori atmosferici (raze violete, ultraviolete ultraviolete etc.) asupra emulsiilor emulsiilor fotografice se folosesc folosesc filtre de lumină. Acestea Acestea reţin lungimile de undă mai mici decât culoarea lor şi lasă să treacă raze de
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Funcţia de transfer a contrastului Date fiind multiplele cauze de erori ce afectează calitatea imaginii fotografice s-a introdus un nou criteriu de apreciere care să înlocuiască sau să completeze criteriul clasic al puterii de rezoluţie. Puterea de rezoluţie se referă la redarea detaliilor imaginii la limita puterii de identificare şi recunoaştere, dar nu se referă la reducerea contrastului. Astfel s-a ajuns să se introducă, oarecum artificial, ideile lui Fourier şi teoria informaţiei pentru a se analiza performanţele sistemului obiectiv-cameră-emulsiecondiţii condiţii atmosferice şi de prelucrare prelucrare a fotogramelor în totalitatea totalitatea lor sau pe canale. În fond este vorba de transformarea imaginilor în frecvenţe spaţiale şi analiza undelor sinusoidale. Metoda concretizată sub denumirea de funcţie de transfer a contrastului (analog cu funcţia de transfer a informaţiei folosită în tehnica transmisiunilor) permite cercetarea cercetarea şi caracterizarea caracterizarea efectului efectului de reducere reducere a contrastului contrastului datorat datorat fiecărui canal de transmisie a imaginii fotografice ca: atmosfera, trenarea, suspensia camerei, expunerea, obiectivii, emulsia. Metoda prezintă avantajul că prin simpla simpla înmulţire înmulţire a transferu transferurilor rilor tuturor tuturor canalelor canalelor rezultă rezultă transferul transferul total. total. În figura 8 se arată schema redării imaginii unui obiect cu contraste în unghiuri
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(fineţea structurilor regulate ale obiectului, măsurate în linii/mm) ce se dă în abscisă. ' = f(F) C = K K Prin metoda transferului de contrast a fost posibil să se stabilească mai precis raportul raportul dintre însuşirile însuşirile obiectivului obiectivului şi ale emulsiei emulsiei pentru asigurarea unei imagini de calitate şi pierderile de contrast pe fiecare canal de transmisie. Filme, plăci Dau erori de deformaţie neuniformă şi de planietate. Planietatea filmului se realizează de obicei prin vacuum în spatele filmului.
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l şi L sc
-latura fotogramei fotogramei cu corespondentul corespondentul ei ei pe teren; -scara fotogramei Scara fotogramei este variabilă funcţie de înclinarea axei de fotografiere şi de gradul de accidentare a terenului. 5.3 5.3
Clas lasific ificar areea foto otogr graamelor lor Fotogramele pot fi folosite atît ca documente topografice cât şi ca documente de cercetare. După locul de obţinere, fotogramele pot fi: terestre, aeriene şi cosmice. După înclinarea axei de fotografiere, fotogramele pot fi nadirale sau
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Cu ajutorul fotogramelor aeriene se pot realiza fotodocumente topogeodezice în scopul obţinerii imaginii fotografice a unei porţiuni cât mai mari de teren, prelucrată pentru a asigura redarea unui volum cât mai mare de informaţii. 5.4
Proce Procede deee de deter determi minar naree a scăr scării ii foto fotogr gram amelo elorr În cadrul aceleiaşi fotograme sau al unui grup de fotograme din aceeaşi zonă, scara de fotografiere poate să varieze datorită diferenţelor de nivel ale terenului sau înclinărilor axei de fotografiere. Pentru a mări mări precizia precizia determinării determinării scări scări fotogramelor, fotogramelor, este este necesar necesar să
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Eliminarea deformărilor datorită înclinării axei de fotografiere şi aducerea la o anumită scară se face prin operaţiunea fotogrammetrică numită fotoredresare. De regulă se redresează fotogramele din zonele de şes sau zonele mai puţin accidentate, accidentate, pentru pentru care care deformarea deformarea datorită datorită diferenţe diferenţelor lor de nivel este este mică.
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5.6
Fotointerpretarea
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Fotointerpretarea ce se referă la domenii de specialitate poartă denumirea domenilui respectiv ca : fotointerpretare geologică, fotointerpretare forestieră. În
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acoperirile longitudinale şi transversale proiectate şi dacă întreaga suprafaţă a fost acoperită.
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7
FOTOGRAMMETRIA PLANIMETRICĂ
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7.2
Efectu Efectull relie reliefu fulu luii terenu terenulu luii asupr asupraa redr redres esăr ării ii
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Figura Figura 4. Utilizarea polarizării polarizării în fotogrammetrie fotogrammetrie
O altă posibilitate de obţinere a efectului stereoscopic se bazează pe principiul alternanţei (scintilaţiilor) imaginilor. Separarea imaginilor este generată prin proiectarea proiectarea lor, succesiv, succesiv, cu o frecvenţă frecvenţă de cel puţin 15 imagini pe secundă. secundă. Succesiunea imaginilor este privită printr-un dispozitiv de obturare succesivă a celor doi ochi sincron sincron cu proiectarea proiectarea fotogramelor. fotogramelor. Această Această soluţie a fost adoptată pentru a construi construi aparate de stereores stereorestituţie, tituţie, dar care care nu au avut o utilizare pe scară scară largă. 1.2.4 Autostere Autostereogram ogramele ele
O autostereogramă este o imagine stereoscopică pentru vizualizarea căreia nu este nevoie să se utilizeze instrumente speciale din categoria stereoscopului sau ochelarilor stereoscopici. Printre cele mai cunoscute produse de acest fel pot fi enumerate imaginile lenticulare, hologramele, dar şi imaginile generate pe computer prin aşa numitele procedee 3-D. 1.2.5 Imagini Imagini lenticular lenticularee
Tehnologia lenticulară a fost folosită în anii 1960 pentru a produce imagini tridimensionale cu scene religioase sau vederi. Această tehnologie este utilizată şi pentru realiza iluzia mişcării imagini plane. O imagine lenticulară lenticulară este
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3-D sau de mişcare este obţinut prin întreţeserea a două secvenţe ale mişcării unui obiect în mişcare. Imaginea compozit este acoperită cu un strat (ecran) lenticular din plastic care îndreaptă fiecare imagine sursă către un ochi, aşa încât observatorul să schimbe unghiul de vedere prin bascularea videogramei. Filmul în culori naturale şi filmele fals color în infraroşu au permis diversificarea aplicaţiilor fotografiei aeriene. Având sensibilitatea în afara sensibilităţii ochiului uman, filmul infraroşu produce imagini ale energiei invizibile reflectate care este foarte utilă pentru obţinerea de informaţii despre viaţa plantelor. Utilizarea computerelor a permis un nou mod de exploatare a fotogramelor aeriene, procesarea procesarea digitală digitală permiţând permiţând extindere extindereaa plajei plajei de informaţii informaţii pe care le pot furniza. furniza. Oamenii de ştiinţă utilizează camere digitale pentru a înregistra imagini aeriene pe suport magnetic. magnetic. Deasemenea, sunt utilizate camere video pentru a înregistra imagini. În comparaţie cu fotografiile convenţionale (analogice), înregistrările digitale şi video pot sa reproducă imaginile fără alte procesări suplimentare.
1.3 Obţine Obţinerea rea foto fotogra gramel melor or 1.3.1 Materialel Materialelee fotosensibile fotosensibile
Materialele fotografice sunt constituite dintr-un strat fotosensibil depus pe un suport oarecare. Practica fotografiei a impus utilizarea următoarelor categorii de materiale fotosensibile :
negative, pozitive , reversibile (care permit obţinerea imaginii pozitive pe acelaşi material pe care s-a făcut fotografia).
Sensibilitatea Sensibilitatea spectrală spectrală a materialelor materialelor fotografic fotograficee poate fi diferenţiata diferenţiata după cum urmează :
nesensibilizate nesensibilizate - folosite numai pentru pentru fotografiere fotografiere în alb-negru, alb-negru, a obiectelor obiectelor necolorate (alb-negru) şi albastre; izoortocroma izoortocromatice tice - utilizate utilizate pentru pentru fotografier fotografierea ea oricăror oricăror obiecte cu excepţia excepţia acelora a căror colorit include nuanţe de roşu; izocrom izocromatic aticee - sensibil sensibilee pentru pentru orice zonă zonă a spectrulu spectrului,i, care pot fi folosite folosite
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infracromatic infracromatic - (infraroşu) (infraroşu) posedă posedă o sensibilizar sensibilizaree în afară afară domeniului domeniului razelor razelor vizibil vizibile: e: 400-5 400-500nm 00nm şi 680-860 680-860nm; nm; tricrom tricromatic aticee - sensib sensibile ile la culorile culorile de bază bază ale spectrul spectrului ui vizibil: vizibil: albast albastru, ru, roşu, verde, folosit la fotografia îin culori ; spectro spectrozon zonale ale - având având două două stratur straturii sensibi sensibile le pancrom pancromatic atic şi infra infracrom cromatic atic folosite în fotografia spectrală.
1.3.2 Filme pentru pentru fotografierea fotografierea aeriană. aeriană.
Pentru fotografierea aeriană se folosesc filme diferite în funcţie de misiunea de îndeplinit. În general se produc următoarele feluri de filme aeriene :
pancromatice, pancromatice, izocromatice infracromatice
Filmele utilizate în fotogrammetrie sunt produse sub forma de benzi bobinate şi au formate standard standard cu o lăţime lăţime 19,24,32 cm şi lungimea lungimea de 9,35,60 m. Filmele fotogrammetrice sunt caracterizate prin sensibilitate, coeficient de contrast, puterea de separaţie separaţie (număr de de linii pe milimetru) milimetru) şi granulaţie. granulaţie.
1.4 Obţinerea Obţinerea fotograme fotogramelor lor aeriene. aeriene. Zborul fotogramm fotogrammetric etric O fotografie aeriană, indiferent de modul cum a fost obţinută, fie prin mijloace aeropurtate, aeropurtate, fie de pe o platforma platforma spaţială, reprezintă reprezintă un model redus redus al suprafeţei de teren fotografiate. Dacă fotografia respectivă are proprietatea de a conserva caracteristicile metrice ale obiectelor avem de-a face cu o fotograma. Din punct de vedere matematic fotograma fotograma este o proiecţie conică centrală având ca elemente principale principale distanţa focală a camerei camerei fotografice fotografice (f), axa de fotografiere fotografiere (Nn), înălţimea înălţimea de fotograf fotografiere iere (H).
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Figura Figura 5. Proiecţia Proiecţia conică conică nadirală nadirală şi oblică oblică
În practică se utilizează mai multe formate ale fotogramelor 6x9 cm,13x18 cm, 18x18 cm, 23x23 cm, 30x30 cm, 32x32 cm. Fotogramele conţin şi alte elemente ajută ajutăto toare are pe lâng lângăă imagi imagine ne în în sine: sine:
indicii de referinţă cu ajutorul cărora se poate determina centrul fotogramei, distanţa focală a obiectivului camerei fotogrammetrice, imaginea nivelei sferice (necesară pentru determinarea înclinării aproximative a camerei fotogrammetrice la momentul preluării fotogramei), ora fotografierii (informaţie foarte utilă în procesul de fotointerpretare), înălţimea înălţimea de zbor, regiunea fotografiată, fotografiată, scara de aerofotografie aerofotografiere. re.
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Aerofotogramele sunt folosite pentru stabilirea caracteristicilor şi destinaţiei obiectelor de pe suprafaţa de teren fotografiată, prin intermediul operaţiilor de fotointerpretare şi descifrare.
Figura Figura 7. Zborul Zborul fotogrammetric fotogrammetric
Pentru ca aceste operaţiuni să corespundă unor standarde acceptate scara de fotografiere trebuie să răspundă unor cerinţe bine stabilite : scara planului care trebuie întocmit (în general mai mare de 3-4 ori decât scara de fotografiere), precizia precizia solicitată, solicitată, necesitatea necesitatea descifrării descifrării pe fotograme fotograme a unor detalii detalii de dimensiuni dimensiuni mici, etc. Zborurile fotogrammetrice pot fi clasificate astfel :
la scară mare (scara de aerofotografiere mai mare de 1:10 000. În majoritatea cazurilor, pentru întocmirea planurilor centrelor populate, zborurile se realizează la scări cuprinse între 1:2 000 şi 1:10 000, la scară mică (scara de fotografiere cuprinsă între 1:10 000 şi 1:30 000), la o scară foarte mică (scara de fotografiere mai mică de 1:30 000).
În scopul întocmirii planurilor topografice pentru centrele populate aerofotografier aerofotografierea ea se execută numai numai ziua, între orele orele 11 şi 14, timp în care umbrele sunt reduse ca dimensiuni.
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Figura Figura 8. Zborul Zborul fotogrammetric fotogrammetric
Claritatea imaginii fotografice depinde la rândul ei de: aberaţiile obiectivului aparatului fotoaerian, difuzia luminii în stratul de emulsie (halo), trenarea imaginii (datorită translaţiei avionului în timpul expunerii, vibraţiilor produse de motorul avionului, etc.). 1.4.1 Factori şi parametri care influenţează calitatea fotogramelor
Cei mai importanţi parametri care influenţează achiziţia fotogramelor aeriene pot fi inventariaţi după cum urmează : selectarea tipului de avion pentru aerofotografiere ; condiţiile atmosferice ; alegerea anotimpului şi a orei pentru aerofotografiere ; poziţia soarelui soarelui (elevaţia) (elevaţia) la momentul momentul fotografierii fotografierii ; alegerea alegerea direcţiei direcţiei de zbor zbor ; selectarea tipului de emulsie fotosensibilă ; folosirea filtrelor optice adecvate ;
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Figura Figura 9. Umb Umbra ra provocat provocată ă de nori nori izolaţ izolaţii
Coeficientul de difuzie al luminii depinde de unghiul dintre direcţia luminii incidente şi a celei difuzate. Lumina difuzată este polarizată parţial (sau în întregime) în funcţie de direcţie. În practica fotogrammetrică, pentru a combate valul atmosferic, se folosesc filtre de lumină cu polarizare. Transparenţa spectrală a aerului, este de asemenea o caracteristică care trebuie cunoscută în procesul de aerofotografiere. Coeficientul de transparenţă variază dupa sezon şi în funcţie de diferitele lungimi de undă. Vara, coeficientul de transparenţă scade semnificativ pentru peliculele cu sensibilitate în domeniul vizibil, pentru infraroşu variaţiile fiind mult mai mici. În afară de scăderea luminozităţii obiectelor în cazul fotografierii prin stratul de atmosferă, se petrece şi o mărire a luminozităţii generale datorită difuzării luminii în atmosferă. Valoarea
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formarea imaginii datorită reflexiei şi difuzării lor de către atmosfera este necesară utilizarea filtrelor optice compensatoare colorate sau a peliculelor adecvate .
1.4.1.1 Vălul atmosferic atmosferic şi influenţa lui lui asupra rezultatelor aerofotografierii
În fotografierea fotografierea aeriană aeriană a suprafeţei terestre, terestre, între aparatul fotoaerian fotoaerian şi suprafaţa suprafaţa terestră se află întotdeauna întotdeauna o pătură groasă groasă de aer care nu este niciodată complet complet transparentă. Aceasta este alterată într-un anumit grad de prezenţa anumitor particule, particule, fie solide fie produse prin condensarea condensarea vaporilor de apă, care provoacă provoacă difuzarea luminii în atmosfera condiţionând claritatea aerului. Mediul acesta tulbure imprimă şi obiectului de fotografiat aceeaşi caracteristică, adică reduce contrastul detaliilor obiectului de fotografiat. Acest mediu alterat poartă numele de văl atmosferic atmosferic şi se datorează prezenţei prezenţei în atmosferă a diferitelor diferitelor particule particule străine. Corpurile străine din atmosfera provoacă difuzarea razelor de lumină în mediul înconjurător. Difuzia luminii în atmosfera are două surse principale :
când aerul are relativ puţine impurităţi şi lumina solara este difuzate în special de către moleculele de gaze, predominând radiaţia albastră ; când aerul conţine multe impurităţi (praf, fum, ş.a.), iar razele corespunzătoare diferitelor zone ale spectrului sunt reflectate şi difuzate disproporţionat.
Pentru a putea utiliza în bune condiţiuni filtrele în fotografierea aeriană, trebuie să se cunoască nu numai sensibilitatea generală, a materialului, dar şi sensibilitatea lui la culori. Practic, Practic, la alegerea peliculei şi a filtrelor trebuie să să se ţină seama seama de mărirea timpului de expunere în vederea determinării momentului începerii şi terminării fotografierii, a duratei de expunere, funcţie de ora la care se fotografiază, stratul sensibil şi iluminarea generală din timpul zilei.
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ortorectificare se proiectează punctele de pe fotogramă a căror poziţie este afectată de distorsiunile datorate reliefului, geometriei camerei, unghiului de vedere, astfel încât să fie obţinute imagini corecte din punct de vedere geometric, în vederea exploatării lor cartografice. Avantajele oferite de utilizarea acestor produse pot fi argumentate prin :
obţinerea facilă a acoperirii cu imagini, posibilitatea posibilitatea transformării transformării fotogramelor fotogramelor aeriene şi satelitare satelitare analogice analogice în imagini digitale cu ajutorul scannerelor fotogrammetrice de înaltă rezoluţie, posibilitatea posibilitatea corelării corelării datelor MNT (Modelul (Modelul Numeric al Terenului) Terenului) cu datele imagine, punctele punctele de control control (de referinţă) pot fi achiziţionate achiziţionate în timp real cu ajutorul ajutorul sistemelor GPS, procesarea procesarea datelor poate fi realizată realizată cu ajutorul unor platforme platforme hard/soft hard/soft accesibile ca preţ.
Pentru realizarea ortofotogramelor se parcurg trei etape distincte de prelucrare a datelor brute :
orientarea interioară, bazată pe utilizarea parametrilor camerei, indicilor şi a punctelor punctelor de legătură legătură ; orientarea exterioară prin care se realizează legătura dintre imagine şi teren utilizând puncte de control măsurate prin metode topografice şi cartografice cartografi ce ; ortorectificare efectivă care permite corelarea elementelor de orientarea interioară şi exterioară cu modelul digital al terenului.
Atât în cazul aerofotografierii analogice clasice, cât şi în cazul utilizării camerelor aeriene digitale, costurile sunt ridicate, acestora adăugându-li-se şi costurile prelucrării prelucrării informaţiilor, informaţiilor, în cazul fotogrammetriei, fotogrammetriei, deasemenea, deasemenea, substanţiale. substanţiale. Se estimează că pentru realizarea unui Sistem Informaţional performant, circa 75 %
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special are şi un rol de filtrare permiţând numai trecerea radiaţiei electromagnetice în vizibil şi infraroşu. Principalele caracteristici tehnice ale avionului fotogrammetric sunt:
viteza de zbor, plafonul plafonul de zbor, zbor, raza de acţiune, greutatea.
În general sunt folosite avioane lente cu aripă înaltă. Viteza de zbor a avionului fotogrammetric nu trebuie să depăşească 300 km/oră iar altitudinea de zbor se calculează ţinând cont de distanţa focală a camerei utilizate. De exemplu, pentru fotografierea fotografierea centrelor centrelor populate populate care care se face face în vederea vederea întocmirii întocmirii planurilo planurilor r topografice la scări mari (1:2.000...1:5.000), scările fotogramelor sunt 1:4.0001:12.000. Aerofotografiere terenului în vederea întocmirii planurilor topografice se realizează realizează cu ajutorul ajutorul avioanelor avioanelor fotogrammetric fotogrammetricee care au o raza raza medie de de acţiune de circa 2500 km. La bord se monte montează ază apara aparate te speciale speciale den denumit umitee camere camere aerofo aerofotogr togramm ammetric etricee care, care, spre deosebire deosebire de alte aparate de înregistrar înregistraree fotografică uzuale, uzuale, au distanţa focală constantă. Principala destinaţie a camerelor fotoaeriene este furnizarea de fotograme (fotografii pe care se pot face măsurători).
Axa de derivã
Axa de tangaj
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1.4.4 Camerele Camerele aerofotogramm aerofotogrammetrice etrice clasice clasice
Aparatul fotoaerian (având un volum de aproximativ 50x70x50 cm) se poziţionează poziţionează în avion astfel încât să fie cât mai aproape de centrul centrul de greutate al acestuia. Acesta se compune din cameră, obiectiv, caseta pentru film, dispozitivul de comandă, comandă, sistemul de transmisie antrenat de un motor motor electric şi suportul giroscopic al aparatului. Camerele aerofotogrammetrice clasice funcţionează cu bobine de film (60...120 m lungime) sau, mai rar, cu plăci de sticla. Fotogramele pe plăci au avantajul că nu se deformează deformează asigurând asigurând în acest mod mod o mai mare precizie precizie a prelucrărilo prelucrărilor. r. La aparatele fotoaeriene moderne, toate procesele de fotografiere (bobinarea filmului, expunerea, păstrarea intervalului între expuneri etc.) sunt executate automat. Obturatorul şi caseta cu film sunt sincronizate electronic. În partea superioară a camerei se află aplicat un cadru situat în planul focal al obiectivului. Imaginea acestui cadru apare pe fotogramă, constituind sistemul de coordonate proprii fiecăre fiecăreii camere camere în parte. parte. Dispozit Dispozitivu ivull de comandă comandă acţione acţionează ază obturat obturatoru orull aparatului, aparatului, rolele rolele cu cu film etc. Cu ajutorul ajutorul unui unui monitor se poate poate urmări urmări modul modul de funcţionare a diferitelor mecanisme ale aparatului. Mecanismul de rulare şi derulare deplasează filmul, cadru cu cadru, în planul focal al obiectivului, asigurând planeitatea filmului (evitând erorile care pot altera informaţia restituită). În funcţie de mărimea distanţei focale a obiectivului, aparatele fotoaeriene pot fi clasificate după cum urmează:
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Formatul cliseului a t ã n l a a c t s f o i D
e r e i f a r g o t o f e d a x A
r o b z e d a e n i d u t i t l A
Distanta Distanta acoperitã la sol
Figura Figura 11. Altitu Altitudin dinea ea de zbor, zbor, dista distanţa nţa focală şi dimensiunea fotogramei
Dacă ne referim la dimensiunea fotogramelor obţinute şi la distanţa focală a obiectivului utilizat camerele fotogrammetrice pot fi grupate în următoarele categorii :
cu distanţa focală focală de f=88 mm, f=152 mm, f=305 mm pentru fotograme fotogramele le cu
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înregistrarea înregistrarea pe pe fotograme fotograme a tuturor tuturor punctelor punctelor terenului terenului din foaia de zbor a avionului este necesar ca fotografiile să fie aliniate şi să aibă o acoperire pe bandă de 66% şi între benzi de 33 %. Asigurarea automată a intervalul între expuneri expuneri în scopul acoperirilor longitudinale necesare între imaginile de pe fotograme se realizează cu ajutorul unui dispozitiv numit intervalometru cu care se poate măsura şi unghiul de derivă.
R I D A N
A L A C I T R E V
A A L M A A R C I
FO TO G RA MA O BLIC A
G T R O T E V O F
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ale punctului de preluare a fotogramei cu ajutorul GPS a schimbat în foarte mare măsură modul de preprocesare a datelor primare.
Fig. 13 Sistemul Sistemul modern de aerofotografiere aerofotografiere
Totuşi, deşi complexitatea şi costurile costurile de dezvoltare a unui nou tip de de camera aeriană bazat pe utilizarea senzorilor digitali, sunt extrem de ridicate, în acest an va fi lansată pe piaţă piaţă o camera digitală digitală produsă produsă de LH System (Elveţia, (Elveţia, SUA), Carl Zeiss Oberkopfhen (Germania) şi Intergraph (SUA) în colaborare cu Centrul Aerospaţial German (DLR). Aceasta are caracteristicile camerelor fotogrammetrice clasice dar oferă şi posibilitatea înregistrării de date multispectrale pentru aplicaţiile de teledetecţie. Se poate spune că se trece la o noua etapă de dezvoltare a tehnicilor fotogrammetrice şi de teledetecţie astfel încât acestea să devină
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Caracteristicile acestei camere digitale corespund solicitărilor în ceea ce priveşte câmpul de vedere, coerenţa între elementele constitutive ale imaginii (pixeli), rezoluţia ridicată, precizia geometrică şi radiometrică, rezoluţia spectrală (număr de canale) şi mai ales stereoscopia. În cazul camerelor camerelor digitale cercetările au dus la un compromis compromis între senzorii CCD liniari (utilizând un plan focal şi o singură lentilă) şi cei "matriciali" (mai multe lentile şi planuri planuri focale). focale). Camera produsă produsă de LH Systems, Systems, urmare a 30 de ani de cercetări, este dotată cu trei linii în pancromatic situate în planul focal şi linii multispectrale adiţionale. Conceptul celor trei linii conduce la eliminarea distorsiunilor geometrice generate de variaţiile de relief. Trebuie precizat că prelucrarea imaginilor digitale nu se mai supune regulilor perspectivării geometrice specifice proiecţiei centrale. Imperfecţiunile specifice senzorului sunt corectate prin mijloace digitale (codificarea (codificarea informaţiei informaţiei pe 12 biţi). biţi). Aceasta Aceasta se poate observa observa mai ales în zonele zonele foarte întunecate sau foarte strălucitoare.
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conţinut similar cu cel recepţionat de ochiul omenesc în vedere monoculară (totul reducându-se la detalii planimetrice). 1.5.1 Exploatarea fotogramelor individuale (fotoredresarea)
Pentru ca imaginea unui teren teren orizontal orizontal să fie obţinută obţinută la o scară omogenă omogenă pe fotogramă, este necesar ca planul clişeului să fie riguros orizontal în momentul aerofotografierii, dar acest lucru este aproape imposibil în practica aerofotografierii. Eliminarea distorsiunilor generate în acest mod se face prin metode de fotoredresare, adică prin reconstituirea poziţiei reciproce dintre planul clişeului şi teren în momentul preluării fotogramei. Prin redresarea fotogramelor se înţelege operaţiunea prin care se realizează orizontalizare orizontalizareaa fotogramelor fotogramelor aeriene şi aducerea lor într-o scară predefinită. predefinită. Astfel, se elimină distorsiunile provocate de înclinarea acestora faţă de orizontală. Atunci când este absolut necesar, fotoredresarea se poate realiza în mod aproximativ
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Fig. Fig. 14. Fotored Fotoredres resatoru atorull clasic clasic
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Stereofotogrammetria se bazează pe fotografierea aceleiaşi zone de teren pe două clişee preluate din două puncte de staţie diferite. Este evident faptul că fiecare punct al terenului terenului trebuie să fie vizibil vizibil în zona comună comună (de (de acoperire) acoperire) a celor două clişee. Condiţiile pe care trebuie să le îndeplinească două clişee pentru a constitui un cuplu stereoscopic:
Fotogra Fotografier fierea ea să fie paralelă paralelă sau sau foarte foarte puţin puţin conver convergent gentăă ; Baza de fotogr fotografie afiere re trebu trebuie ie să fie fie calcu calculată lată ţinând ţinând cont cont de depăr depărtar tarea ea faţă de subiec sub iectul tul de fotogra fotografiat fiat.. În general general se admite admite un raport raport de 1/5 din din distanţa distanţa faţă de structura fotografiată ; Depărtarea faţă faţă de subiectul de de fotografiat trebuie să fie corelată cu scara clişeelor (în cazul fotogrammetriei digitale corelată cu talia pixelului captorului captorului numeric). numeric). De De fapt, fapt, depărtarea depărtarea faţă de subiect şi scara sunt strâns corelate ; Acoperirea longitudinală şi transversală (pentru a putea fi restituit un obiect
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foarte mult timp, aparatura de stereorestituţie a apărut şi s-a perfecţionat în mod firesc. Trebuie amintite aici două momente importante: construirea primului stereoscop de către Helmholtz, în 1857, pe baza ideii lui Wheatstone din 1838 şi apariţia primului aparat de restituţie care face apel la viziunea stereoscopică, realizat realizat de Edouard Deville Deville în 1902. 1902. Totuşi, abia în 1911, 1911, firma Carl Carl Zeiss din Jena, a construit Stereautograful, primul aparat modern de stereorestituţie folosind ideile lui Pulfrich, Pfeiffer şi Von Orel. Cu ajutorul aparatelor de stereorestituţie obiectele fotografiate pot fi vizualizate nu numai ca reprezentări reprezentări plane ci şi ca dimensiune dimensiune spaţiala spaţiala (în relief). relief). Fiecare fotogramă este observată printr-un sistem optic independent aşa încât fiecare obiect fotografiat fotografiat cvasisimultan cvasisimultan din din două poziţii poziţii diferite diferite să fie perceput perceput concomitent concomitent de fiecare ochi în parte. Imaginile sunt combinate obţinându-se o imagine tridimensională virtuală. Aparatele de stereorestituţie permit trasarea mecanică în mod continuu a curbelor de nivel, reperul reperul spaţial de măsurare măsurare (marca), (marca), fiind ghidată ghidată stereoscopic stereoscopic de către către operator. În procesul de stereorestituţie, pentru a trece de la coordonate imagine la
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Evoluţia spectaculoasă spectaculoasă a informaticii informaticii a permis realizare realizareaa unor programelor programelor bazate pe teoria teoria corelaţiei corelaţiei matematice matematice care permit permit obţinerea obţinerea prin prin punerea punerea în coresponde corespondenţă nţă pe cale numerică numerică a două imagini stereoscopice stereoscopice în în vederea vederea reconstituiri reconstituiriii suprafeţelor suprafeţelor în trei dimensiuni. Programul Programul de corelare corelare este un instrument instrument care utilizează utilizează un algoritm adecvat adecvat de corespondenţă între elementele de pe fotograme. De fapt, structurile analizate prezintă superstructuri superstructuri caracteristice caracteristice reliefului reliefului foarte variat, care din punct de vedere stereoscopic se comportă în mod diferit şi sunt inadecvate procesării specifice acestei metode, pe când structurile simple, cu forme regulate, se pretează unei astfel de tratare în mod automat. 1.5.3 Instrumente Stereoscopul.
simple
de
restituţie
fotogrammetrică.
Stereoscopul este un aparat care serveşte la observarea stereoscopica a cuplelor de
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T r ansf or măr i
de coordonate în spa spaţiu ţiull 3D
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