1. Grammatical Categories of the verb
The verb is part of the speech denoting action, process or state. The meaning of the verb is combination between its semantic and grammatical structure. Compared to the other parts of the speech the verb has the largest number of grammatical categories: person, number, tense, aspect, voice, mood and modality. modality. Person and number : There is only ‘s’ for third person singular in present simple tense. All others have zero morphemes. !.: ", #ou, #ou, $e $e,, They % play
&e, 'he, "t % plays
Tense: This is grammatical term with which we denote time. Tense Tense and time are different. Tense bears the morphological and grammatical concept and time( real time, astrological.
)ast tense
*uture tense
((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( +ow real timeAT) very tense may have different time reference. There are two tenses( present and past. $e don’t spea about future tense but only about the way of e!pressing futurity. present 'imple( wor wors( /rd sgContinuous( is0are woring )erfect( have0has wored )erfect continuous( have0has been woring
past 'imple( wored Continuous( was0were woring )erfect( had wored )erfect continuous( had been woring
Futurity 'imple- will wor Continuous( will be woring )erfect( will have wored wored )erfect continuous( will have been woring
The clear tenses are present simple and past simple. All other tenses have aspects. Aspect: "t refers to the manner in which the verb action is regarded or e!perienced. The choice of aspect is matter of a particular view of the doer. There are two aspects( perfective and imperfective. They are opposed to verbs that are not mared for aspect. )resent simple and past simple are not mared for aspect. !.: At the beginning " was really surprised to see her and " dropped my glasses. The choice of aspect depends on the semantics of the verb and basically verbs are divided into stative and dynamic verbs. 'tative verbs: that present or mean e!istence( go, become, get, come related to mental process( now, remember, thin emotional states( love, lie, hate have, be( they can be used as stative or dynamicThe basic difference is that stative verbs do not present process and cannot tae progressive aspect while dynamic verbs can tae both. 1erbs 1erbs which present a process of development have progressive aspect and have continuous tenses. !.: 2ohn loves 3ary. 'he is playing basetball at the moment.
There are e!clusions of this rule. There is possibility for stative verbs to be used in continuous tenses but in such case they bear different meaning.
oice: 1oice is grammatical category of the verb which maes it possible to view the action in a sentence in two different ways regarding the participant in the situation- without changing the reported facts. nglish has two voices( active and passive. !.: &e wrote a letter. activeA letter was written by him-. passive)assive voice e!presses the point of view of the speaer to rearrange the information in the sentence-. $hen we are taling about passive voice we should distinguish transitive and intransitive verbs. "ntransitive verbs do not need an ob4ect and they don’t have passive aspect. !.: &e 4umped. Transitive verbs need ob4ect and they form passive. !.: 2ohn built these houses. activesub4.
predicate
These houses sub4.
direct ob4ect
were built by 2ohn. passivepredicate predicate
prep. 5b4ect
6itransitive verbs have two ob4ects and they can form two sentences in passive. !: 2ohn gave 3ary a iss. 3ary was given a iss by 2ohn-. A iss was given to 3ary by 2ohn-. $hat is important for active and passive verb sentences is that in passive we are changing only the surface structure but the deep structure remains the same, we change the syntactic roles but there is no change in the semantic roles. agent
theme
2ohn wrote a letter. sub4. pred.
d. ob4ect
theme
agent
A letter was written by 2ohn. sub4.
pred.
prep. ob4ect
"n these sentences we have one and the same prop. content. $ith the sentences in passive voice we show our interest towards the result and that is why we often omit the by(phrase. $e use the passive voice in order to sound impersonal. There are three characteristics in passive voice: 7. noun(phras noun(phrasee movement movement sub4ect sub4ect (8ob4ect (8ob4ect and ob4ect(8 ob4ect(8sub4ec sub4ectt9. verb verb movem movement ent active active(8pa (8passiv ssivee/. topicalizatio topicalization n new information information(8old (8old informationinformation3iddle verbs( they appear to be transitive as the basic structure is the same but they cannot form passive. !: This suit suits you well. )seudo passive( clauses that loo lie passive but they are not. !: The door was opened. The door was open. rgative constructions: active form but passive meaning !: The cheese cuts easily. et passive: in spoen language when something is not all right, it shows irritation. !: They were awarded a +obel prize.0They got awarded a +obel prize.
!ood: "t shows the attitude of the speaer0writer to the action or state described by the verb. "t is the way in which verb forms are used to show whether the clause is a statement, a command, a re;uest or ‘if’ clause. There are four types of mood: ( indicative ( imperative ( sub4unctive
( conditional "ndicative mood represent the verbal situation reported by the speaer as part of reality. They are used to mae a statement or a ;uestion. !: 2ohn often visits the pool. &as 3arry given you the boo< "mperative mood forms represent the verbal situation as imposed by the speaer upon the e!tralinguistic reality. These forms may e!press command or re;uest. !: Close the door, please= et out of my sight= nd "mperative mood has only one form for 9 person, plural. The sub4ect is covered. !: 5pen the door= #ou- 5pen the door= The sub4unctive is not an important category in contemporary nglish and it is normally replaced by other constructions. 'ub4. mood is optional and stylistically mared by other constructions. !: od bless you= >ong live the ing= ( clich? words Conditional mood( present conditional for present and future- and perfect conditional for past-. Conditional sentences: @(zero, 7 st, 9nd, /rd, mi!7, mi!9: ( @(zero( "f " have time " wal in the par. it is true all the time( 7st( $hen0"f " have money, " will buy a car. real condition for future moment( 9nd( "f " had money, " would buy a car. unreal condition for the present( /rd( "f " had had money, " would have bought a car. unreal condition for the past( 3i!7( "f she had married the *rench, she would be happy now. ( 3i!9( "f " didn’t have classes today, " would have met my friend. !odality: "t shows the attitude of the speaer towards the hearer, the situation or the content of the utterance mind of attitude( possibility, probability, obligation, necessity, permission-. There are two types of modality( deontic action modality- and epistemic belief modality-. !: " can swim. action m.-( physical ability &e may be a teacher. belief m.-( possibility The two types of modality are connected with tense system. 5nly the verb from deontic modality e!ists in present and past tenses. pistemic modality e!ists in present tense it is embodied in the features of intention, possibility, probability or necessity. Beontic modality deals with features of permission, obligation and re;uirement. The same modal can have both epistemic and deonic interpretation. !: " can swim. " could swim. &e can come. &e was able to come. 3odal verbs are: ( core modal( must, can0could, may0might, will0would, dare, need ( periphrastic( must (8 have to can (8 be able to may (8 be allowed to All modal verbs can be used to e!press degrees of certainty or probability. !: Certainty % will mast )ossibility % could may be at home. might Certainty % would can’t won’t 5bligation and advice: 3ust( strong obligation, the opinion of the speaer &ave to( general obligation, rules
3ustn’t( negative obligation Bon’t have to( absence of obligation 'hould, ought( mild obligation, advice )ermission( may, can, could, be able Ability( can, could e;uest( can, could, will, would efusal, willingness( will, won’t
". Grammatical Categories of the #oun
The noun is part of speech which denotes things, ob4ects and phenomena, concepts and abstracts. "n nglish we can distinguish the nouns as: 7. )roper nouns( they have one referent and are the nouns of uni;ue entities. 9. Common nouns( they have a group of referents: ( countable( they are common nouns that can tae a plural and can combine with numerals or ;uantifiers one, two, several- and can tae an indefinite article a, an-. They may be divided into: individual( a boo (8 boos collective( a family (8 families The family is there.0The family are there.- a class(8classes ( uncountable( they can tae plural or combine with number words or ;uantifiers they are: concrete( wool, mil, water refers to definite ob4ectsabstract( beauty, wor, history refers to ideas and conceptsCountable and uncountable( according to the meaning of the sentence 'hift: e!.- a cup of coffee two coffees There are words with dual characteristics: !: A glass is made of glass.0lasses are made of glass. #umber: As a grammatical category number reflects the e!tralinguistic fact of numerical ;uantity. "n nglish it is based on the functional opposition between two types of forms( singular and plural, which e!press two variants respectively ‘one’ and more than ‘one’- of the invariant meaning numeral ;uantity-. There are different means of plural formation. The basic pattern of plurality of nglish noun is affi!ation horse(8 horses-. !: maps DsE ribs DzE classes DisE The morpheme (en is synonymous with it. o!(8 o!en)lural is formed also through umlaut, i.e. change of the root vowel zero ending plus umlaut-. !: foot % feet goose % geese man % men There is a mi!ed type of plural formation( umlaut plus affi!ation e!: child % children-. 1oicing of the final consonant is the other way of plural e!: wolf % wolves wife % wives, but roof % roofs chief % chiefs-. 6y zero morphemes( the same form is for the plural and for the singular sheep % sheep deer % deer!: There is a sheep on the field. There are sheep on the field. 'uppletion is also a mean of forming the plural and it means a total change of the root as in man % people. *ruit, fish have ‘s’ when they mean different inds. !. " lie fruit. Apples and pears are different fruits. )luralia tantum 4eans, trousers, spectacles-. !: the trousers are on the shelf. 'ingularia tantum % money, information, education, furniture, accommodation.
Collective nouns( family, team, class singular and plural-. !: Their family is very rich. as one wholeTheir family are very rich. different members of the family)eople, cattle, police are singular but the verb is in plural. 'ciences are always in plural but the verb is in singular. !: )honetics is a branch of linguistics. $hat is the news< The words from >atin and ree origin form plural in different ways: >atin ree sg. pl. sg. pl. formula formulae, formulas crisis crises datum data basis bases erratum errata thesis theses radius radii phenomenon phenomena Compound nouns !: classrooms, fathers(in(law The main word in compound nouns taes ‘s’. Gender is the grammatical term of the e!tralinguistic fact of se! or no(se! and how it is reflected in the language. The linguistic e!ponent of se! has the meaning of masculine, feminine and neuter. 3asculine reflects ‘male’, feminine( ‘female’ and neuter( no se!. The nglish noun has no mars for gender and that is why it is not possible to guess the gender of a noun by its form. ender is a semantic category. "n nglish it is natural mared. "t is not grammatical category. ( 3ost of the nouns are not mared for gender teacher, des, window( >e!ically mared words suppletion-( people, animals wife % husband son % daughter boy % girl man % woman ( A small group of animals has morphological suffi!es definition for maring gender. tiger % tigress lion % lioness but hero ( heroine actor % actress Fsually when we want to mar gender we add other words( he, she, girl, boy, woman, lady, maid, male: a boy friend a girl friend a doctor a lady woman- doctor a male elephant a female elephant a he cat a she cat a 6illy goat a +anny goat "n some cases there are different words semantically mared for gender: father, mother, husband, wife, bull, cow, fo!, calf, filly. Child and baby( feminine, masculine and neuter. 'ome inanimate nouns in poetry are: 'un( he moon( she death( he ship0boat0steamer( she !: After the rain the sun came out with all his glory. The names of the countries have dual: ( as geographical place( neuter ( as political notion( she !: 6ulgaria is a small country. "t is situated on the 6alans. 6ulgaria sent her representatives to the conference. Things that are worshipped by people( she. !: 3y boat is called ‘Cristina’. 'he is an e!cellent boat. Case:
Case is a grammatical category which mars the functions of nouns in sentences and in noun phrases. The case which relates a noun to another noun and denotes possessing, belonging or origin is called genitive. "t is signaled by an apostrophe ‘- plus ‘s’ or only the apostrophe alone. The ‘s- sign is selected by singular nouns and irregular plurals not ending in ‘s’. !: Gate’s boo. 2ohn’s sister. "f the word ends in ‘s’ and it is in plural, we add only apostrophe students’ boos-. "f we have a proper noun which ends in ‘s’ or ‘ch’0‘sh’, we add apostrophe and ‘s’ 't. 2ames’s DizE )ar , *ish’s DizE house-. To more uncommon and ancient names which end in ‘s’ we add only apostrophe Archimedes’ law, Geats’ poems-. $hen the noun is compound we add ‘s- DzE at the end my mother(in(law’s house-. There are different ways of e!pressing genitive: 7. synthetical: +7’s +9 % 3ary’s boo 9. analytical: +9 of +7 % boo of 3ary /. double: the- +9 of +7’s % a friend of 2ohn’s meaning ‘HIJK LM NOJPMQRJMQ KS ULK( QIJK LM VKLUQWMXLML’Types of Genitive Case: 7. )ossessive: 3y son’s wife. my son has a wife9. 'ub4ective: The boy’s application arrived. the boy applies for smth./. 5b4ective: The boy’s release from the prison. the boy was released by sb.Y. Bescriptive: a women’s college a college for womenZ. >ocative place-: go to the grocer’s0chemist’s [. Time: in two wee’s time\ in two wee time ]. Bouble: a friend of mine ^. roup: my mother and my father’s house _. )artitive: a cat’s tail part of a whole7@. enitive of origin: a general’s letter he is a receiver or a sender-
$. %ord &rder in !odern 'nglish
Traditionally the word has been defined as a unit covering a single meaning or e!pressing a single thought. 'ingle meaning however can be conveyed not only by single words but also by word se;uences. *or e!ample phrasal verbs and idioms: 3ary winds him around her little finger. ach word can cover two or more ‘bits’ of meaning. $ords are certainly the largest units which resist rearrangement, interruption and insertion of additional material between their constituent parts. $ords have different combinatory power. *rom syntactic point of view they fall into: ( open clauses( le!ical items that are the head of phrases( +, 1, A, Adv. ( closed clauses( prepositions )-, comp., con4., etc. ( uni;ue function clauses( inter4unctions All words have fi!ed position in the sentences and they have different combinatory power. $ord order plays an important role in nglish. The analytic character of the language has contributed for some fi!ed syntactic patterns some of which have not only grammatical but also emotional meaning. The position of any element is of primary importance because of the lac of many morphological mars. The usual word order in nglish is '(1(5 which is the seleton of the simple sentence. "n such structure the most important rule is that the sub4ect should stand in front of the verb. !: )eter beats 2ohn. ' 1 5
ach element determines in a way the ne!t one and this is called linear structure. 'entences are produced and received in linear se;uence. The se;uence of the elements carries the meaning of the sentence. The directionality is from left to right. This reflects the basic word order which is '(1(5. !: 2ohn illed 6ill. 6ill illed 2ohn. the rearrangement causes ill(formednessnglish is a sub4ect constrained language. The sub4ect is always an obligatory overt constituent. "t doesn’t leave its position. "f omitted the sentence turns to be ungrammatical. As the basic word order is '15 the sub4ect is always in the initial position which means it functions as topic. very sentence possesses: ( syntactic form: word classes( head, le!ical categories, phrasal categories !: 2ohn ordered a cup of tea. ' +) 1) 2ohn 1 +) ordered a cup of tea ( syntactic function: sub4ect, predicate, operator ' 'ub4. )redicate 2ohn )redication 1erb 5b4ect``. ordered a cup of tea 2ohn will bring a cup of tea. ' +) 1) 2ohn 5per. 1 1) will bring a cup of tea (istribution is the set of possible appearance for an element. The two basic procedures used in syntactic test are substitution and combination. 6asic test operation is substitution. "f an element can be substituted by another one in the sentence structure then both elements belong to one and the same word class. "f an element can be combined with another one then each of them belongs to a different word class as they tae different syntactic position, which reflects the syntagmatic relation between the elements in the syntactic structure " saw 2im.0" saw him.-. very sentence presents a multilevel structure in which each individual element at the lowest level belongs to either on its own or together ad4acent element at the ne!t higher level and further to the highest level, which in synta! is the category sentence. The elements are referred to as constituents. Constituent is a linguistic unit which is an element of a larger construction. !: The police e!pelled Dthe teachers Dfrom 'ofiaEE. According to their formal feature sentences are: 7. 3inor( not '() structure, allow substitution of elements, cannot be transformed into passive &appy Christmas=, Bown with 2ohn=9. 3a4or( fully developed '() structure, substituted by other elements turn into passive, can e!pand by addition of other elements. 3a4or sentences fall into four sub types according to their function: (eclaratives )*& "n the declarative word order the sub4ect of the sentence appears first followed by the predicate. !: " saw your dog in the par. 'ometimes some elements of the complete predicate may be placed at the beginning of the sentence in front of the sub4ect. *ronting shifts emphasis from the sub4ect to the fronted element. !: At the beach " always feel content. The sentence begins with the adverbial ‘at the beach’. Though the phrase precedes the sub4ect ‘"’ it is still part of the complete predicate. The adverbial ‘at the beach’ modifies the verb ‘to feel’. Biagrams of declarative sentences are very straight forward. !: Those four small dogs dug the holes.
' 1 5 dogs dug holes those four small +nterrogative ) &perator *& There is no inversion. They as ;uestions. They are divided into three types: general ;uestions yes( no ;uestions-, special ;uestions wh(- and tag ;uestions. !: &e is crazy. declarative"s he crazy< general$hat is he< special&e is crazy, isn’t he< tag ;uestionThe difference between declaratives and interrogatives is in the surface structure and it is a result of a movement called ‘operator fronting’. The operator is the only element of the compl. predicate which can move, the sub4ect never leaves its position. &e is playing football.0< 1@ 17 19 1/ 1Y operator au!. au!. au!. verb eneral ;uestions( #es(+o ;uestions The formation is a one(step(operation( operator fronting. The operator leaves its position and goes in compl. slot, leaving a trace in the deep structure. ' Comp.
' +) &e
1) 5p. +) is reading a boo.
'pecial ;uestions $h( ;uestionsThey begin with an interrogative word. There are several steps in forming: ( replacement of part of the preposition in declarative sentence with wh(word substitution( movement of wh(word ( movement of the operator There are two traces in the deep structure because there are two movements. ' Comp. ' +) 1) 5p. +) &e is reading a boo. what< $hat is he reading< "nverted ;uestions reported!: 'he ased if she is reading a boo. ‘"f’ is in compl. slot and that is why there is no operator fronting. $hen the compl. slot is occupied by complementizer the fronting cannot tae place. +egative ;uestions The contracted n’t becomes part of the operator and then it is fronted. !: "sn’t a famous actor< Tag ;uestions They are final position( operator fronting. They do not contain +). !: #ou spea nglish, don’t you< #ou don’t spea nglish, do you< !clamatory sentences &ow0what +)!: $hat a lovely day it is= They are fre;uently reduced to the single e!clamatory element no verb-. !: &ow wonderful=
"mperative sentences 15The sub4ect is not spoen or written but it doesn’t mean that it is absent. "t is indirect. As a command or re;uest the imperative sentence is always in second person. Therefore we are allowed to assume the sub4ect of the imperative sentence to be you. !: D#ouE 'hut the door= All simple sentences are independent clauses. "nd. clauses can be transitive, intransitive, ditransitive and copular depending on how many argument +)s or clauses the verb re;uires and there are seven basic clauses in nglish: ( '1: &e died. ( '15: 2ohn loves 3ary. ( '15A: " put the boo on the table. ( '1C: 'he is a beautiful girl. ( '1A: 2ohn is in the building. ( '15C: They painted the house blue. ( '155: 'he gave me a iss. ,. The Temporal *ystem of !odern 'nglish
*irst we must e!plain some terms as ‘time’, ‘tense’ and ‘aspect’. ‘Tense’ is a grammatical term with which we denote time reference-. Tense and time are different: tense(morphological, grammatical category time: real time, astrological. very tense may have different time reference. All tenses are oriented to AT), e!cept two present simple and present perfect-. There are two tenses( )resent and )ast. )ast *uture +ow AT)-( real time $e don’t spea about future tense but only about the ways of e!pressing futurity. present 'imple( wor wors( /rd sgContinuous( is0are woring )erfect( have0has wored )erfect continuous( have0has been woring
past 'imple( wored Continuous( was0were woring )erfect( had wored )erfect continuous( had been woring
Futurity 'imple- will wor Continuous( will be woring )erfect( will have wored )erfect continuous( will have been woring The operator is mared for tense. Aspect:
Aspect refers to the manner in which the verb action is regarded or e!perienced. The choice of aspect is a matter of the particular view of the doer. There are two aspects in nglish: perfective and imperfective. The choice of aspect depends on the semantics of the verb and basically verbs are divided into stative and dynamic. 'tative verbs do net present progress do not tae progressive aspect( love, hate-. Bynamic verbs can tae both. Present *imple: "t e!presses an activity in general or a rule, regular or habitual. The only morpheme that maes )resent simple is %s in /rd person, singular. ! ! ! ! " ! ! ! ! ( no time reference there is no ;uestion when +ow !: " go to wor by car. habitual actionThe arth belongs to the 'olar 'ystem. universal truthBo( operator. "t is covered, it appears in negative forms and ;uestions. !: " don’t go to wor by car.
&ow do you go to wor< Fsage: general present timetables, calendars, schedules truth actions, characterized by the verb " do go to bed at 7@ o’cloc.!: The train arrives at Z o’cloc. &e arrives tomorrow. futurePresent Continuous "t presents uncompleted activity that taes place now, but not only now, it includes past and future. )ast *uture +ow )resent continuous has imperfective aspect. "t is formed with the present form of the au!iliary ‘be’ present participle ing of the notional verb. The operator is ‘be’ and it is overt. !: They are woring. now- Are they woring< This month " am going to school by bus. ( $e use present continuous to e!press futurity as the most real certain future tense. !: " am having lunch with my parents. now0tomorrow( very action which is happening at the moment of speaing &e is watching T1 now.( An action or a statement in a short time including the moment of speaing $hat is your father doing now<( &e is woring in a factory.( *uture action with verbs which e!press a move The train is leaving in half an hour.( An activity that is happening for a limited period at or near the present but it is not necessarily happening at the moment " ma reading a lot these days.Present Perfect: "t is formed with the present tense of the au!iliary ‘have’ past participle of the main verb. ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( since now "t e!presses something happened in indefinite moment in the past, no time reference. "t is the point of view, the relation between the past and the future. $e don’t tal about results. !: "’ve lost my ey. There is no ;uestion when, we tal about life e!perience. The period is since beginning- % for. *or unfinished action " have read twenty pages today.!: " wored for them for two years. past simple-( finished " have wored for them for two years. present perfect-( unfinished Present Perfect Continuous "t is formed with the present perfect of the au!iliary ‘be’ and the present participle of the notional verb ing: have been verb ing. for ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( have( operator since now "t presents a result of past action or duration and activity in progress since and for are typical fro this tense-. ( the result of finished action in the past which we see now. !: " have been cleaning the house. it is clean now( unfinished action( we mention its duration !: " have been cleaning the house. it isn’t finished yetPast *imple "t e!presses completed action in the past. "t is the most unmared tense in nglish. There is time reference when-. did operator (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( +ow
egular verbs: (ed \ played "rregular verbs: 9nd form \ write( wrote )ast tense is not mared for aspect. "t e!presses: ( an action which happened at a specific time in the past that has nothing in common with the present moment " went to the cinema yesterday.( past events in a chronicle order " got up and had breafast.( habitual action in the past( would, used to infinitive $hen " was young " used to play football.( in narrative sentences 5nce there was a girl`‘Fsed to’ can be used with all verbs and ‘would’ only with dynamic verbs. Past Progressive "t is formed by the past form of ‘be’ verb(ing present participle-. "t e!presses an action as a bacground of another completed action in the past. "t is in imperfective aspect. "t can be used only in combination with past progressive or past simple. "t is used to e!press: ( while, when: 'he was cooing, while " was listening to music " was reading a boo when the telephone rang. interrupted action( to e!press an activity happening in a particular time in the past: #esterday at Z o’cloc " was reading a boo. ( for descriptions: The birds were singing, the sun was shining. Past Perfect "t is formed by ‘had’ verb in past participle form. "t e!presses an action which happened before another action in the past. There is no connection wit now.
(((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( 7 9 +ow ( by: 'he had finished her wor by 7@ o’cloc in the morning. ( when: $hen " reached the station, " realized that " had forgotten the documents. ( because chronologically-: " didn’t have dinner, because " had eaten. Past Perfect Continuous "t e!presses an action in progress that taes place before another action in the past.
((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( T) +ow "mperfective aspect !: 6y 7@ o’cloc last night "’ve been woring for eight hours. Futurity There is no future tense, only means of e!pressing futurity. < will verb (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( future simple now *uture simple (((((((((((((((((((((((((( future continuous now (((((((((((((((((((((((((( future perfect now by(phase
All future e!presses modality. will( modal verb, the action will happen ( will( prediction ( decision at the moment0 in this situation, it is the opposite of ‘going to’for intention!: The supermaret is open, " will go and buy something.
( ( (
‘going to’( intention: " am going to visit my grandparents. ‘going to’( by life e!perience: >oo= The child is going to fall. "t is going to rain. &e is going to buy a car ne!t year.( carefully planned ‘going to’( for an action in the near future we are certain about
*uture Continuous "t is about an event which will tae place at a definite moment in the future imperative aspectwill be verb ing when<( there is limit in the time !: At Z o’cloc " will be watching the film on the T1. This time ne!t 'unday " will be playing tennis. because " play tennis every 'unday at definite time"n this situation ‘will’ is opposite to ‘going to’. *uture )erfect % will have done "t is e!pressing a finished action by the definite time in the future. !: $e will have finished by [ o’cloc. *uture )erfect Continuous % will have been doing "t e!presses an action which will continue by the deadline in the future. !: 6y [ o’cloc we will have been woring for ^ hours. )resent 'imple with future reference ( about regular action which continue to happen in the future !: The school year starts on 7Zth of 'eptember. ( schedules !: The train starts `. )resent Continuous with future reference ( for arrangements !: " am seeing the doctor on 3ay Z th. 3odal ways of e!pressing futurity ( to be about to for near future!: " am about to watch the football match. ( to be to obligation!: " am to go to 'ofia.
. The Category of oice/ in !odern 'nglish
1oice is a grammatical category which maes it possible to view the action of a sentence in either of the ways without allowing in the reported facts. These two ways are called active and passive voice. They are characterized with different relations correspondences, constraints and classifications. The active(passive relation involves two grammatical levels: the verbal phrase and the clause. The voice is a way of organizing the information in the sentences: !: &e writes a letter. activeThe letter is written by him. passive-
)assive e!presses the point of view of the speaer to rearrange the information in the te!t, sentence-. $hen we are taling about passive voice we should distinguish between transitive and intransitive verbs. "ntransitive verbs can function on their own, they do not need an ob4ect &e 4umped-. Transitive verbs need an ob4ect direct, indirect-. !: 2ohn built this house. active voicesub4. predicate direct ob4ect This house was built by 2ohn. sub4. predicate prepos. ob4ect Bitransitive verbs have two ob4ects and they form sentences in passive. !: 2ohn gave 3ary a iss. 3ary was given a iss. by 2ohnA iss was given to 3ary. by 2ohn"n passive voice the ob4ect from the active sentence becomes sub4ect in the passive sentence. $e form passive voice using the verb ‘be’ past participle of the notional verb in the active voice sentence in spoen language we can use ‘get’ in stead of ‘be’-. )assive has one function to put the thing we are going to spea about. $e use the preposition ‘by’ to point the doer of the action. $hat is important with the active and passive voice sentences is that in passive sentences there is a change on the surface structure but nothing changes in the deep structure. $e preserve one and the same propositional content core meaning-. !: doer sufferer sufferer doer 2ohn built these houses. These houses were built by 2ohn. sub4. predicate direct ob4. sub4. predicate prep. ob4. &ere we have a change in the syntactic roles but there is no change in the semantic roles in the deep structure-. The prepositional ob4ect can be a sub4ect in passive too. !: They sent for the doctor. The doctor was sent for. $ith the passive voice sentences we are interested in the result and that is why very often we omit the by(phrase. $e use the passive voice in order to sound impersonal: ( when we don’t now the doer of the action 'ome people were in4ured during the strie.( when we are interested in the result, not the doer of the action 3any plants have built recently.Characteristic features of passive voice: ( +) movement: active ob4ect passive sub4ect ( verb movement: active passive ( topicalization: new information old information 3iddle verbs: they appear to be transitive as the basic structure is the same but cannot form passive. !: 2ohn resembles his mother. This suit suits you well. rgative verbs constructions-( active form but passive meaning. There is no passive synta! as they do not allow the by(phrase to be attached. !: Cheese cuts easily. )seudo passive: clauses that loo lie passive but they are not. !: The door was opened.0 The door was open. the third form of the verb and the ad4ectiveThe door was shut. ambiguouset passive: They were awarded a +obel prize.0 They got awarded a +obel prize. negative connotation-
et passive is used in spoen nglish. ‘et’ is much more common as a resulting copular verb in sentences lie ‘3y mother is getting old’. Also with ‘get bored’, ‘get e!cited’, ‘get lost’, etc. The get(passive often reflects an unfavourable attitude towards the active. !: &ow did that door get opened< meaning that it should have been left shut-
0. Types of Clauses and *entences
According to their formal features sentences are divided into minor which do not have a well( formed0developed sub4ect(predicate structure- and ma4or which have fully(developed sub4ect( predicate structure-. According to their basic function the ma4or sentences fall into four subtypes: declarative, interrogative, e!clamatory and imperatives. According to the number of predicates we distinguish two subdivisions: simple one predication- and multiple more than one predication-. The clause has only one predication. According to the type of relation between the multiple sentences they are divided into comple! and compound. All simple sentences are independent clauses. enerally there are two types of clauses( main independent- and dependent clauses. The dependent clauses fall into two groups: embedded finite and non(finite- and subordinate. 3ain clauses can be copular, intransitive, transitive and ditransitive depending on how many argument +) or clauses the verb re;uires. The division of sentences to ma4or and minor is based on their sub4ect(predicate structure. 3inor sentences do not have a well(developed '() structure, they are more or less lie utterances, lie set(phrases, clich?s. They do do not allow substitution of elements, nor any ind of movement 3erry Christmas=, &appy +ew #ear=-. They can’t be transformed into passive voice. They are not ob4ect of syntactic description. 3a4or sentences have fully(developed '() structure and allow substitution of elements as well as insertion and e!traction of elements and they can also be turned into passive voice. According to their basic function they are: (eclarative sentences- *& "t offers information, it e!presses a statement which can be positive or negative. !: " played tennis last night. " didn’t play tennis. +nterrogative sentences- &perator-*--& They as about missing information to be provided. They are divided into three types: general ;uestions yes(no ;uestions-, special ;uestions wh(;uestions- and tag ;uestions. The Tag ;uestions and general ;uestions form one and the same group the e!pected answer is yes or no-. !: &e is an actor. declarative"s he an actor< general ;uestion$hat is he< special ;uestionThe difference between declaratives and interrogatives is in the surface structure and it is a result a result of a movement called operator fronting. There is no inversion. The operator is the only element of the comple! predicate which can move, the sub4ect never leaves its position. eneral ;uestions They re;uire the answer #es or +o. They have a rising intonation. Their formation is a one(step operation( operator fronting. !: 2ohn will call 3ary tonight. $ill 2ohn call 3ary tonight< The operator will get into complemetizer slot leaving a trace in the deep structure. 'pecial ;uestions $h(They begin with an interrogative word. They have falling intonation. There are several steps in forming them: replacing of part of the preposition in the declarative sentence with a wh( word substitution-, movement of the wh(word, movement of the operator. !: 2ohn will call 6illy tonight. $ho will 2ohn call tonight< who "n wh(;uestions there are two movements so there are two traces in the deep structure.
There is also a type of ;uestions that resemble the general and the special ;uestions. They are called alternative ;uestions. They indicate choice, the e!pected answer is mentioned in the ;uestion $ould you lie voda or beer<-. Tag ;uestions They consist of a statement and a ;uestion. "f the statement is positive, the ;uestion part is negative and if the statement is negative, the ;uestion part is positive. !: #ou spea nglish, don’t you< #ou don’t spea nglish, do you< Two factors imply different interpretation of the tag ;uestions( grammar and intonation. !clamatory ;uestions They are ;uestions in their form but functionally are e!clamations e!: "sn’t it wonderful<-. The form is negative but the meaning is positive. "nverted ;uestions reported!: 'he ased if " was reading a boo. There is no operator(fronting because ‘if’ is in the complementizer slot. 'clamatory sentences 23o45 %hat 6 #P7 !: $hat a lovely day it is= !clamatory sentences are often reduced to a single e!clamatory element there is no verb-. !: &ow wonderful= +mperative sentences 2&7 They are used to urge the hearer to action. They may be done in the form of a re;uest or command. The verbs are in imperative mood and the tone is falling. The usual type of command has no overt sub4ect 'top taling=-. There is a type of command in which th sub4ect is overt #ou, close the door=( this usually e!presses irritation-. According to the number of predications the sentences fall into simple and multiple composite-. 'imple sentences contain only one '() unit and the composite sentences more than one. !: &e painted the house red. one predicate#ou can tell what you want but we all now the truth. / '()The multiple sentences are divided into compound and comple! ones. The compound sentences are based on the syntactic relation of coordination and the comple! sentences are based on relation of subordination. A compound sentence consists of two or more clauses which have e;ual rights. There is a paratactic relation between them, they are coordinated which means that these clauses can be used as independent sentences. 3orphologically the relation of parata!is is usually presented by ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘or’. "n a compound sentence the clauses may be connected syndetically or asyndetically. 'yndetically( the clauses are connected by means of coordinating con4unctions and, or, but, else, etc.-, con4unctive adverbs otherwise, however, yet, still, etc.- or fi!ed prepositional phrases. There are also correlative pairs either(or, neither(nor-. Asyndetical coordination( the coordinators are lacing entirely. !: The weather was bad and the rain was falling. The weather was bad, the rain was falling. Comple! sentences are based on the syntactic relation of subordination. The clauses in comple! sentences are not syntactically e;ual. 5ne of the clauses has the primary meaning and the other is dependent. !: 2ohn lies 6ill because he has remarable ;ualities. Clauses in a comple! sentence may be lined syndetically( by means of subordinating con4unctions or connectives. !: After all, she new that someone had visited the house. Con4unction All that had taen seemed useless. Connective Asyndetically( e!: " wish you had gone earlier. There are two general types of clauses: main and dependent. 3ain clauses are also nown as container clauses or independent clauses because they can stand alone as sentence 2ohn went to a
party-. All simple sentences are independent clauses. "ndependent clauses can be transitive, intransitive, ditransitive and copular depending on how many argument +)s or clauses the verb re;uires and there are seven basic clauses patterns in nglish: 7. '1( &e died. 9. '15: 2ohn loves 3ary. /. '15A: " put the boo on the table. Y. '1C: 'he is a beautiful girl. Z. '1A: 2ohn is in the building. [. '15C: They painted the house blue. ]. '155: 'he gave me a iss. Bepending clauses are clauses that cannot stand alone and need an introduction word called a complementizer. "n order to have a dependent clause the verbs should have at least two valences 2ohn told me`-. Bependent clauses fall into two groups: embedded and subordinate. mbedded are divided into finite and non(finite clauses. mbedded clauses are arguments of the verb in the container clause. They are either sub4ects or ob4ects of the verb in the container matri!- clause. *inite clauses are introduced by the complementizer ‘that’, non(finite by ‘for’. !: That 'haron’s car broe down was evident. *or 'haron’s car to brea down was evident. *inite clauses always contain either a model verb or a verb in present or past. They have overt sub4ect. The complementizer ‘that’ may be omitted. +on(finite clauses have covert sub4ects. They are introduced by the complementizer ‘for’ the omission of which doesn’t allow their functioning as independent clauses. The second type of dependent clauses is subordinate. They do not depend on the verb valency and thus are optional. They have complementizer slot filled by subordinators which are always overt category. These subordinators can e!press different perspectives such as time, reason, location, manner, etc.-. Therefore subordinate clauses are called adverbial clauses as they usually add additional information to the verbal predicate in the matri! clause( they function as modifier to the content of the verb in the matri! clause. The semantic relation between the superordinate and subordinate clause is nown as modal perspective of the sentence. !: " had breafast so " am not hungry. " am not hungry because " had breafast.
8. The *ystem of Pronouns in 'nglish
)ronouns constitute a closed system of items with nominal function, i.e. they function lie noun phrases. )ronouns may substitute some noun or phrase, they may refer to something which is given or nown within the linguistic general concept. 'yntactically most pronouns function lie noun phrases rather than nouns and combine only in a limit way with determiners and modifiers. "n nglish the pronouns are classified as personal, refle!ive, possessive, relative, interrogative, demonstrative and indefinite. They have certain morphological characteristics. 'ome of them have case contrast for sub4ective or nominative case-, personal distinction, overt gender contrast and morphologically unrelated number forms. *rom syntactic and logical point of view there are two basic groups of pronouns( pronominals and anaphors.
)ersonal, possessive and refle!ive pronouns may be called central pronouns since they share the features that are particularly characteristic of pronoun, in particular they manifest person and gender contrast. 3ost of them also have the distinction of case. )ersonal pronouns usually have definite meaning and may have situational, anaphoric or cataphoric reference, the first and the second person pronouns are used to refer to those directly involved in the discourse situation: the speaer or writer and the addressee. The third person pronouns may also be used situationally to refer to persons or things whose identity could be inferred from the e!tralinguistic conte!t. !: Are they asleep.nodding towards the children’s room6ut much more often the identity is supplied by the linguistic conte!t( according to the position of the element with which it confers, we may have cataphoric or anaphoric reference. "f the use of the pronoun is ambiguous or confusing, an antecedent or a le!ical e;uivalent could be used. The neuter or non personal ‘it’ is used to refer to any antecedent for which ‘he’ or ‘she’ is inappropriate, hence it may refer not only to inanimate ob4ects but also to non(countable substances, whole clauses or sentences. !: $ho said that 2ohn was stupid< % " said it. ‘"t’ is the most neutral and semantically unmared form and it is used as ‘empty’ or ‘prop.’ sub4ect in e!pressions denoting time, distance or atmospheric condition "t is raining.-. "t also occurs as an anticipatory sub4ect in cleft sentences or in clauses with e!traposition. !: "t must have been here that " first met you. "n modern nglish pronouns may be modified by a few determiners and modifiers: ( ad4ectives silly me( opposition we doctors are( relative clauses we who promised to( adverbs you there( prepositional phrases we of modern age( emphatic refle!ive pronouns he himself said it)ossessive pronouns may be two types( determinative( the have determinative function my, your, their- and independent( they have an independent function as a noun phrase mine, yours, theirs-. The independent possessive pronouns may occur in any of the following function: sub4ect, ob4ect, complement, prepositional complement. !: >oo at those cars. Theirs is really ugly, ours is very beautiful. )ossessive pronouns cannot be accompanied by any modifiers or determiners. efle!ive pronouns end in (self sg.- and (selves pl.- which are added to the determinative possessive forms for the first and second person and to the ob4ective form for the /rd person. efl. pronouns always ‘reflect’ another nominal element or clause which usually functions as sub4ect and with which they are co(referential. They have two uses: basic and emphatic. The basic refl. pronoun has the functions of a noun phrase( an ob4ect, a complement or prepositional complement. !: They helped themselves. B5'he allowed herself a rest. "5&e isn’t himself today. sub4. complementThe cage plays for herself. sub4. complement'ometimes the use of refle!ive pronouns is obligatory. ( with refl. verbs to provide onself, etc.( with semi(refle!ive verbs to have onself( after some prepositional phrases e!: Bo you have a photo of yourself<elative pronouns introduce relative clauses. They function as post modifiers to an antecedent which may have different functions in the sentence. According to the way they modify the antecedent they may be restrictive and non(restrict. elative pronouns include two series: ( wh(pronouns: who, whom, whose ( that and zero +either series has member of person contrast but the wh(series has gender contrast between personal ‘who’ and non(personal ‘which’ and case contrast between sub4ective ‘who’, ob4ective
‘whom’ and genitive ‘whose’. "f the relative pronoun is a prepositional complement there are two possibilities: !: ( the person to whom you spoe to ( the person who0that ‘zero’ you spoe to. The e!panded forms of the relative pronoun whoever, whomever, whatever- are nown indefinite relative pronouns. !: The coach will select whoever he pleases. $hoever crosses the line first will win the race. ‘$hat’ is often used as an indefinite relative pronoun 'he will tell you what you need to now.There are five interrogative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, what. The first three are sub4ective, ob4ective and genitive case respectively they have personal gender. The other two interrogatives do not distinguish case or gender. The interrogatives ‘which’ and ‘what’ can be personal or non(personal. $hen it refers to a person ‘what’ is limited to ;uestions about profession, role, status, etc. !: $hat is he< ( A movie star. 6esides introducing ;uestion $hat is that< $ho will help me< $hich do you prefer
9. *emantic Fields and elations
$ords may be classified according to the concept underlying their meaning. This classification is closely connected with the theory of conceptual or semantic fields.
*emantic field may be defined as a set of le!ical items in which the meaning of each word is determined by the co(presence of the others for e!ample the words blue, red, blac, etc. may be described as maing up the semantic field of colors-. The members of a semantic field are not synonymous but all of them are 4oined together by some- common semantic component. This component is described as the common determiner o meaning. All members of the field are semantically interdependent as each member helps to delimit and determine the meaning of its nighbours and is semantically delimited and determined by them. $e cannot possibly now the e!act meaning of the word if we don’t now the structure of the semantic field the word belongs to e!: captain( army or navy-. The meaning of the word captain is determined by the place it occupies among the terms of the relevant ran system( first officer, lieutenant, etc. Bifferent meaning of a polysemantic word may belong to different semantic fields( mae. ach word is a group of semes seme( the abstract component of meaning-. !: boy girl animated animated integral seme human human integral seme male ( male deferential seme Beferential semes mae the word uni;ue. 'emantic field is consisted of words united by one integral seme. !: inship( father, mother, sister, brother, etc. color terms( blue, red, etc. *emantic relations There are two hierarchies: 7. 6ranching hierarchy: ( ta!onomy( the relation of dominance ( meronymy( the relation of a part to a whole +on(branching hierarchies( chains, helices, cycles. A hierarchy is s et of elements related to one another in a characteristic way. Ta!onomy is the relation of dominance. A test for ta!onomy is: An is a ind of . A father is a ind of parent.An # is a ind of . A mother is a ind of parent., # are a ind of . Te ta!onyms of a le!ical item are subset of its typonyms. Ta!onomic hierarchy: *eature Animal 6ird *ish "nsect 6ear lephant obin agle Cod Trout *ly Ant )olar bear )anda The second ma4or type of branching hierarchy is the part(whole type which is called meronymy. !: &and *orearm Arm lbow $rist &and )alm *ingers An elbow is a part of the hand. 9. +on(branching hierarchies( in which parts are strung out in linear se;uence on either a spatial or a temporal a!is. There are two principal modes of organization of such se;uences: they may e!hibit pure linear ordering( in which case they will be termed chains, or they may have a hybrid linear0cyclical ordering which we shall call helical. !: birth, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, old age, death( chain ed reen $hite cycle 6lue 5range This set does not constitute a hierarchy. There is no top and no bottom. The combination of linearity and cyclicity may be taen as the defining characteristics of a heli!. The lins of a helical chain typically refer to:
(
( (
a period of time: 'pring $inter days of the wee months of the year.
'ummer Autumn
;. %ord Formation Patterns in 'nglish
$ord formation is a way of forming new words by using the linguistic building material that is at hand in a given language. $ord formation is studied by le!icology. "t treats only composites which are analyzable both formally and semantically which e!cludes the simple word. (erivation
atin through *rench-. )refi!ation( affi!es added to the beginning of a word are called prefi!es. 5nly one prefi! is possible. The function of prefi!es in nglish is purely semantical. They are used to give some nuance to the meaning of the word and could be attached to various parts of speech verbs, ad4ectives( dislie, unpleasant-. !: some of the prefi!es in 3odern nglish are fore(, out(, over(, un(, up(, under(, miss( overestimate, unnown, upright, etc.5f >atin origin but very productive in 3odern nglish: para(, intra(, inter(, e!tra(, semi(, hyper(, neo(, e!(, macro(, micro, poly(, super(, etc. 'ometimes the prefi! is left to be one and the same for several words but the spelling and the pronunciation are different. This is the case with some pref. denoting negation in 3 e!: illegal, impossible, indirect( practically this is the same prefi! but the changes are due to the initial consonant of the root-. 'uffi!ation( affi!es added to the end of a word are called suffi!es useful, happiness- ( nouns, verbs, ad4ectives, adverbs. 'uffi!es differ from prefi!es in that they have double role to perform: they add something in the meaning of the word and at the same time they have a grammatical function. That is why different grammatical categories have different suffi!es. The suffi!es performing purely grammatical functions are called endings functional morphemes, not derivations- and they are dealt with by morphology (ed, (ing, (s( +ominal suffi!es a- ad4ective suffi!: (ness, (dom, (th, (ship happiness, freedom b- noun suffi!: (ship, (hood, (ism, (ate friendship, childhoodc- verb suffi!: (ing, (er, (age, (ance, (ence listener, resistance( 1erbal suffi!es: (ate, (fy, (ise, (ize ( Ad4ectival suffi!es: 1suf. %ent, (ed, (y, (able +suf. %ons, (ful, (less, (ish, (ly, (some Ad4.suf. %y, (ful, (ish, (some ( Adverbial: (ly, (wards)refi!ation( suffi!ation: !: endangered, enlarged ero affi!ation( conversion( with or without change of stress: im’port v-, ‘import n"nfi!ation( an infi! incorporated inside another word not normaly to be found in nglish but fairly common in some other languages: emotionally( hallebloodylu4ah#on-affiational
1owel gradation( it used to be very productive in 5ld nglish and it is still very productive in many "ndo(uropean languages but not in nglish any more. There are traces of vowel gradation in the so(called irregular verbs in 3 ride % rode % ridden-. Contraction clipping- is shortening of a word by omitted element. This is an e!pression of the tendency for linguistic economy. The result of contraction is a shorter form which may preserve fully or partly the meaning of the original one or may ac;uire a new meaning e!: ad( advertisement, fan( fantastic, phone( telephone-. There are three types of contraction according to the place of the omitted element: ( ! ( aphaeresis( when the first sound or syllable is dropped out at the beginning of a word telephone( phone arabella( bella( ! ( syncope( when a sound or a syllable is dropped out in the middle of a word fantasy( fancy( !( apocope( when a final sound or syllable is dropped out math, lab, zoo, ad, *red6lending( combining by taing only the beginning of one word and 4oining it to the end of the other word. !: smoe channel breafast motor fog tunnel lunch hotel smog channel brunch motel 6acformation( a word from one type is reduced to form another word of a different type. !: television( televise burglar( burgle editor( edit Conversion( a change in the function of a word, for e!ample, when a noun comes to be used as a verb without any reduction-( wor, bottle, butter &ave you buttered the toast<-. The conversion can involve verbs becoming nouns guess, must, spy( a guess, a must, a spy-. Ad4ectives dirty, empty, total, crazy- can become verbs to dirty, to empty, to total-. Acronyms( new words formed from initial letters of a set of other words +AT5, +A'A, F+'C5Coinage( one of the least common processes of word formation in nglish. "t is the invention of totally new terms. Aspirin, nylon, ero! began as invented trade names and have ;uicly become every day word in the language. 6orrowing( one of the most common sources of new words in nglish. That is the taing over of words from other languages. Throughout its history the nglish language has adopted a vast number of loan(words from other languages including alcohol Arabic-, boss Butch-, croissant *rench-, lilae )ersian-, piano "talian-, etc. Compounding( a 4oining of two separate words to produce a single form. This process is very common in erman and nglish boocase, fingerprint, sunburn, wallpaper, te!tboo, waterbed-.
1=. Types of !eaning
*rom the point of view of the structure of language, there are two basic types of meaning: grammatical and le!ical. The grammatical meaning occurs repeatingly unidentical sets of individual form of different words. These sets are all the plurality mars, (ed forms, possessives, past forms, etc bag(bags, child(children, forgotten, done-. 5n the other hand the le!ical meaning is the meaning which is proper to a linguistic unit in all its forms and distribution. "t is repeated in all of the word forms, e!: do(does, doing, done, did( different grammatical meaning but the le!ical meaning is the same. 6oth these meanings belong to two different levels of the structure of the language but none of them can function independently in the process of communication. There are words that have only grammatical meaning. They form the so called closed grammatical classes( con4unctions, articles, prepositions, pronouns and au!iliary verbs. The open grammatical classes are called notional words and they have le!ical meaning nouns, verbs, ad4., adverbs-.
According to eoffrey >eech there seven 7 Z 7- types of meaning: conceptual meaning denotative, referential-, connotative, stylistic, affective, reflective, collocative and thematic. *ive of them connotative, stylistic, affective, reflective and collocative- constitute the so called general category of associative meaning. Conceptual meaning( it is about the neutral le!is, sometimes called cognitive or denotative( assumed to be the central factor in linguistic communications. "t can be interpreted as a bundle of distinctive features. "t is based on two structural principles: ( the principle of contrastiveness: !: boy human, (adult, (female irl human, (adult, female ( the second principle is mainly concerned in synta! it is called constituent structure( larger syntactic units are built of small ones: !:
sentence sub4.
predicate determiner noun verb complement The boy is tall. The colourless green ideas sleep furiously. The second e!ample presents a sentence that is acceptable form grammatical point of view but it is unacceptable from semantic point of view meaningless-. Connotative meaning presents the relation between the linguistic sign and its user. "t includes the semantic features of the referent and also the socio(cultural specific of the users of different languages and the particular period of time. "t varies according to culture, historical periods and the e!perience of the individual e!: ‘marsist’( 6ulgarian before and after 7_^_-. 'tylistic meaning refers to the situation in which the communicative act taes place. The stylistic variations depend on the dialect time from a historical point of view, participation( field communication- social status, individuality. The most general distinction is between spoen and written language -domicile( very formal, residence( formal, home( general, abode( poetic-. Affective meaning reflects the speaer’s attitude and feelings. "t has something in common with politeness and rudeness. !: " am terribly sorry to interrupt, but " wonder if you would be so ind as to open the window, please= 5pen the window right now= eflective meaning deals with words which have more than one conceptual meanings and one of the meanings influence one’s understanding of another meaning. "t is usually met with polysemantic words that have taboo meanings. !: gay( 7. 4oyful, 9. homose!ual coc( rooster Collocative meaning regards the association which a word re;uires depending on the other words that appear in its immediate environment. !: pretty( girl, woman, flower handsome( boy, man, car Thematic meaning deals with the focus and emphasis of the message. "t is mainly a matter of choice between alternative grammatical constructions. 5ne and the same propositional content can be given different prominence by different le!ico(grammatical and international means. !: &is father owns this car. "t is this car that is owned by his father. This car belongs to his father. This is his father’s car.
11. Polysemy and 3omonymy Polysemy
The bul of nglish words are polysemantic, that is to say possess more than one meaning polysemy-. )olysemy has language economy effect. The various additional meaning of one and the same word are also called connotations head( part of the body, chief, the highest part-. Those connotations have different abilities to combine with other words semantically but not grammatically. The grammatical forms of the various meanings are the same. The conte!t gives the clue to which connotation of a given word functions at the moment. 'ome words preserve all their old meaning and may meanwhile ac;uire new ones, while others may lose some of the older meanings connotations-. Biachronic approach( polysemy implies that a word may retain its previous meaning or meanings and at the same time ac;uire one or several new ones. !: table( the primary meaning is a flat slot of stone or wood in 5 ‘tabule’ from >atine ‘tabula’- all other meanings are secondary as they are derived from the primary meaning and appeared later. 'ynchronic approach( polysemy as the co(e!istence of various meanings of the same word at a certain historical period of the development of the nglish language. 'ome of the meanings are more central, others( peripherical. A criterion of the comparative value of individual meaning seems to be the fre;uency of their occurrence in speech. &owever as the semantic structure is never static, the relationship between the diachronic and synchronic evaluation of individual meaning may be different in different period of the historical development of the language. 'ources of )olysemy 7. 'hift of application. This is the main source of polysemy green( color, unripe, young, tender wear( one wears a dress and from a long use it wears out-. 9. 'pecialization( technical terms parts of the body( hand, finger, foot-. The opposite tendency may also be observed in everyday speech to gear( to put into gear-. /. *igurative e!pression &e combed the streets. 3ountains of language.-. Y. 6orrowing( in nglish a word of foreign origin may have a different meaning from what it has in other language. "n some cases the old meaning is preserved actual-. 3echanisms of shifting of the meaning 7. adiation( the basic meaning is at the center and all other connotations are directly connected with it. 9. Concetenation( union by lining together one meaning develops from the basic one though it gives rise to yet another one and so no!: heart: ( set of emotion ( set of love ( set of courage /. )olysemy and conte!t( the meaning or meaning of polysemantic words observed only in certain conte!ts may be view as determined either by linguistic conte!ts or e!tra(linguistic conte!ts. The two types of linguistic conte!ts which serve to determine individual meaning of words are the le!ical conte!t and the grammatical conte!t. !: le!ical conte!t: heavy( heavy load, heavy rain, heavy industry grammatical conte!t: to mae( mae tea, mae good friend 3omonymy &omonyms are words identical in form but different in meaning. Classification of homonyms 7. Complete homonyms( only words belonging to one and the same grammatical category words are homonyms all through their grammatical paradigms!: bo!: 7. " put my shoes in the bo!. 9. very 'unday " play bo! with my friend. club: 7. They go to disco clubs. 9. " broe my club. 9. )artial( includes words homonymous in some of their grammatical forms !: lie( lied( lied( RUS lie( lay( lain( RQUS lay( laid( laid( NLWMPXSV, RQUS ( words belonging to different grammatical categories may become partial homonyms e!: provided( ad4., past tense of ‘to provide’-
(
another case of partial homonymy is due to conversion where usually the infinitive of the verb and the singular form of the noun are e!actly the same but the rest forms are different e!: fires( pl. of ‘fire’ and /rd p. sg. of ‘to fire’*ormal classification 7. &omophones( homonyms which coincide in sound but differ in spelling now0no pair0 pear hair0hare-. 9. &omographs( homonyms which coincide in spelling but differ in sound and meaning bow DbouE0DbauE lead Dli:dE0DledE tear D‘tiE0DtE-. /. )erfect homonyms( identical both in spelling and sound but different in meaning grave( n.0ad4., long( ad4.0v.'ources of homonymy 7. &istorical reasons( some words which were not homonyms in 5ld and 3iddle nglish became homonymous due to certain changes either in their written form or in their pronunciation right( write 3ay( may by( buy meat(met sea(see-. 9. 6orrowings( the borrowed word may preserve its original spelling and 0or pronunciation or may undergo some changes form *rench ;uai( ey, rein(rain from ree scene( seen/. 'emantic reasons( in some cases it is difficult to distinguish homonymy from polysemy. !: Dflau:E % flower0flour from *rench ‘fleur’ "n contemporary nglish the two words are felt to be homonymous rather than forms of a pysemantic words. Y. Contractions: flu( flew Z. Bialecticism, 4argonism and children’s speech are also sources of homonymy 3ummy( mummy- in cocney dialects DeiE is pronounced as DaiE( day(die, may(my [. )aradigmatic homonyms( girls( girl’s( girls’( ways of avoiding misunderstanding. ]. 'tress: ‘ ( noun ‘e!port, ‘ob4ect, ‘refuse- ’ ( verb e!’port, ob’4ect, re’fuse^. 'pelling( sun( son, right( write _. 'ubstitution: ‘mean’( ‘interior’ ‘mean’( intermediate, meantime, meanwhile 7@. Addition( by adding something the sole of her foot, instead of ‘her sole’, which can be mistaen for ‘soul’-.
1". *ynonymy and &ppositeness *ynonyms are words different in their sound(form but similar in their denotational meaning and interchangeable at least in some conte!ts. They belong to one and the same part of speech beautiful, pretty, handsome( ad4.-. 'ynonyms refer the same e!tralinguistic phenomena and they have the same denotative meaning. &owever, every meaning may have different nuances. Thus different words may stress one feature or another, or other words, they have different connotations. *rom paradigmatic point of view in a given group of synonyms the separate word may belong to different style, register or genre( some of them may be more collo;uial, more formal, slang, others may be technical or vulgar, etc. goodbye, farewell, adieu-. "n every cluster of synonyms there is usually one word which is stylistically neuter and stands for the basic general concept. This word is called the ‘synonym dominant’. 'ources of synonymy 7. eference to the emotions is a productive source of synonyms and this is especially true for phrases a big fish, to drin lie a fish-. 9. Affected speech also gives rise to synonyms /. Archaism and borrowings e!: cowardice *r.-( fear, answer( reply, buy( purchase-. Y. veryday speech, 4argon, dialects man(fellow, guy, chapClassification of synonymy
7. Absolute synonyms( words identical in meaning without any difference whatever. They can be always substituted for one another in any ind of conte!t without changing the meaning of the te!t. They are very rare. Fsually this is the case with some scientific terms grouped around one invention ‘z’( spirant, fricative9. elative synonyms are words standing for the same notion but varying in the shade of meaning they may differ in the degree, emotional colors and range of usage. This is actually the largest group of synonyms. !: to do and to mae( " do my homewor, she maes a cae. to shine, to glare, to glitter, to sparle, to flash ill, assassinate, murder, slaughter The choice of one or another word from a group of synonyms depends on the semantic conte!t. 'ynonyms can also be dialectal and regional flesher( butcher, glen( valley, autumn( fall-. egister varies along three dimensions: field, mode, style. *ield refers to the topic or field of discourse: legal, political. 3ode is concerned with the manner of transmission of a linguistic message( whether it is spoen, written, phone(call, etc. /. 'tylistic synonyms( they often differ not so much in meaning as in their emotional connotations poetry, for instance, maes use of such words: ‘maid’ for girl, ‘eve’ for evening, ‘vale’ for valley-. Y. )hraseological synonyms are words synonymous only in phrases. That is a wod has to have several connotations which become clear from the conte!t0phrase. &ppositeness 6asic types of opposites: 5ppositeness Complementarity single(married !8y y 8 (!
Autonomy good(bad y 8 (! compatibility
Converseness husbad(wife passive, case
incompatibility Complementariness is a special is a special use of incompatibility dead(alive, male(female, single( married-. 'yntactic test: ;uestion0logical relation (! 8 y &e is dead. &e is alive. y 8 (! &e is not alive. &e is not dead. Benial of ! implies y not single % married Assertion of y implies ! married % not single Benial of both is impossible The door is neither open nor shut. +on(gradable slightly pregnant, very dead Color terms are specific case of complementaries as the # is a range of possibilities. Antonyms 6asic characteristics: ( they are fully gradable ( both elements denote degrees of a particular property ( allow preceding intensifiers as a result of their attachment the final phrases denote more distant relation than the original words very good( very bad( present different stages of appro!imation to @ but never reach @ value ( there is neuter area between the e!tremes, negation test allows: 2ohn neither lies nor dislies 3ary. Test: negation, syntactic transformations # 8 ( Assertion of # implies the denial of . !: 2ohn is good. 2ohn is bad. 2ohn is bad. 2ohn is not good. 2ohn is not good. < 2ohn is bad.
2ohn is not bad. < 2ohn is good. Converses( use of incompatibility e!: husband(wife, tae(bring, buy( sell, lend( borrow-. There are two tests( syntactic and pasivization: ( 'yntactic: +)7 is of +)9 \ +)9 is # of +)7. 2ohn is 3ary’s husband. \ 3ary is 2ohn’s wife. )eter is &elen’s brother. \ &elen is )eter’s sister. +)7 +)9 from +)/ \ +)/ # +)9 to +)7 2ohn bought a boo from 'am. \ 'am sold a boo 2ohn. ( )assivization +)9 was en by +)7 \ A boo was bought by 2ohn. +)9 was #en by +)/ \ A boo was sold by 'am.
