l ( I ) , 49-98.
1969
SEMI~TICA
HUMA~J I N T E ; ? ~(F':' DEPA DEPART RTME MENT NT
701 PARNASSt.;S UNIV UNIVER ERSI SITY TY OF SA
t,~D
CONflICT
O~ i"SY i"SYC' C'i~ i ~ ~7':'.'r.
F RA RA NC NC i 5 C
r: ::.:.;'J:~ c:,~~;=o;.I~,
FRANCISCO
9';'14 14-3 -3 Ci,L:r'C~~;:A 9';'
Th Repe Repert rtoi oire re of No verb verbal al Be avio avior: r: Cate Catego gori ries es Orig Origin ins, s, Usag Usage, e, an Codi Codi
If
the the penon's will fund fundam amen enta ta
cate catego gori ri
cons consid ider erat atio ions ns
of nonv nonv rb
ORIG ORIGIN IN
USAG USAGE, E,
and
CODING.
beha behavi vior or
the the or
ur
nv
will briefty trace
give at th Symp Sympos osiu ium: m: "Com "Commu muni nica cati tioa oa Tbeory and paper as give Mode Models ls in the Social Sc:ienc:es" at th Cent Center er fo Soci Social al Rese Resear arch ch of the Di TclJ TclJ Inst Instit itut ute, e, Buen Buenos os Aire Aires, s, Arge Argent ntin ina, a, Octo Octobe ber, r, 1967 1967 suppor orte te by rese resean an:h :h grants from the The r e s e a r c : . b as supp Advanced Ilcsean:h Projects AgeDI:'J, admi admini nist ster ered ed by th Ai Fort Fort Office ofScicntific Resea Research rch (AF-AF (AF-AFOSR OSR-I2 -I22929-67) 67) th 1197 1197~3 ~3 an Care Career er Deve Develo lopm pmen en Awar Awar (l-K (l-KJ. J..M .MHH-60 609U 9U)2 )2). ). to her help helpfu fu sugg sugges esti tion on on cont conten en an edit editor oria ia crit critic icis isms ms of styl style. e. Part
Ungu Unguis isti ti Torc Torcqu quat at
Th Repe Repert rtoi oire re of No verb verbal al Be avio avior: r: Cate Catego gori ries es Orig Origin ins, s, Usag Usage, e, an Codi Codi
If
the the penon's will fund fundam amen enta ta
cate catego gori ri
cons consid ider erat atio ions ns
of nonv nonv rb
ORIG ORIGIN IN
USAG USAGE, E,
and
CODING.
beha behavi vior or
the the or
ur
nv
will briefty trace
give at th Symp Sympos osiu ium: m: "Com "Commu muni nica cati tioa oa Tbeory and paper as give Mode Models ls in the Social Sc:ienc:es" at th Cent Center er fo Soci Social al Rese Resear arch ch of the Di TclJ TclJ Inst Instit itut ute, e, Buen Buenos os Aire Aires, s, Arge Argent ntin ina, a, Octo Octobe ber, r, 1967 1967 suppor orte te by rese resean an:h :h grants from the The r e s e a r c : . b as supp Advanced Ilcsean:h Projects AgeDI:'J, admi admini nist ster ered ed by th Ai Fort Fort Office ofScicntific Resea Research rch (AF-AF (AF-AFOSR OSR-I2 -I22929-67) 67) th 1197 1197~3 ~3 an Care Career er Deve Develo lopm pmen en Awar Awar (l-K (l-KJ. J..M .MHH-60 609U 9U)2 )2). ). to her help helpfu fu sugg sugges esti tion on on cont conten en an edit editor oria ia crit critic icis isms ms of styl style. e. Part
Ungu Unguis isti ti Torc Torcqu quat at
50
behavior.
In bo
ot
nt
so
n d s ev ev e
pa ho gy
etc.
of
ba
gu
me
ng
d en en o
on ot ve
be essentially
different types nf
In
n,
ot
ot
on
or ov
ng
o f. f. s t d i
nf
ou
ng
me di
ng n fo fo r
mp be
n.
pe me
bv us
ne
ve
bo
bs
afraid, etc.), ACTS
po
POSITIONS.
nd
ov
on
51
soci social aliz izat atio io
proc proces esse ses, s, clot clothi hing ng
Wher Wher
does does the
DOES
cues?
the specific
act, u b n g
the eye-
act,
ha
act
EXPRE EXPRESS SS hi COMMUNICA
rs
sham sham
ADAPTIVEL
accomplishi ishing. ng. the act is accompl
52
do anyt anythi hing ng to body body part part Agai Agai wewere wewere impr impres esse se with with th very very diff differ er ent types to tran transm smit it info inform rmat atio ion. n. othe others rs whic whic appe appear ar to be expr expres essi sive ve or adap adap tive. We have have beco become me incr increa easi sing ngly ly curi curiou ou abou abou what what nonv nonver erba ba beha behavi vior or ie 67 or or
ly
yi
ve wh nv ha esca escape pe effo effort rt to dece deceiv iv (Ekm (Ekman an an Frie Friese sen, n, 1967 1967b, b, 1969 1969 prov provid idin in eithe eithe decep decepti tion on clue clues, s, i.e., info inform rmat atio io that that dece decept ptio io is in prog progre ress ss or leakage, i.e., th betr betray ayal al of th with withhe held ld info inform rmat atio ion. n. But, But, wekno that that if nonv nonver erba ba beha behavi vior or ca li nc
e,
thes thes diff differ eren ence ces. s. Bu this this rais raises es ques questi tion on abou abou th cens censor orin in or cont contro ro verb verbal al beha behavi vior or ca be easi easily ly cont contro roll lled ed whil whil othe othe type type of nonv nonver erba ba beha behavi vior or esca escape pe cont contro ro an prov provid id leak leakag age. e. Ou init initia iati tion on of tw cros crosss-cu cuit itur ural al stud studie ie requ requir ired ed th form formul ulat atio io firs firs of thes thes stud studie ie invo involv lved ed exam examin inat atio io of th enco encodi ding ng or disp displa lay, y, an th deco decodi ding ng or reco recogn gnit itio ion, n, of faci facial al disp displa lays ys of emot emotio io in diff differ eren en cult cultur ural al sett settin ings gs Th meth method od used used in such such stud study, y, th sele select ctio io of spespecifi cifi emot emotio ions ns an tech techni niqu ques es fo anal analyz yzin in enco encodi ding ng an deco decodi ding ng an me cult cultur ural al diff differ eren ence ce requ requir ired ed th expl explic icit it form formul ulat atio io of theo theory ry of both both is stud stud invo involv lved ed anot anothe he type type of nonv nonver erba ba beha behavi vior or wher wher majo majo cult cultur ural al diff differ eren ence ce were were pred predic icte ted: d: thos thos acti action on whic whic ar almo almost st alwa always ys em ploy ployed ed as inte intent ntio iona na comm commun unic icat ativ iv sign signal al (whi (which ch we will will late late defi define ne ms in he fere ferenc nces es betw betwee ee vari variou ou form form of nonv nonver erba ba acti activi vity ty An this this requ requir ired ed consi conside dera rati tion on of three fund fundam amen enta ta issu issues es ment mentio ione ne at th outs outset et th usag usage, e, orig origin in an codi coding ng of nonv nonver erba ba beha behavi vior or
I.
53
Usage (1) the
th
act,
(1)
EXTERNAL
CONDITIO
qu
g. be
dyadic or grou ol
th
type of informatio
xt na
ustoma interactions
nother
in home
of ic
nterviews,
or onvers tions,
etc. in th home
e.g.,
etc. e.g.,
interactants. (2)
th (3)
verbal behavior
AWARENESS.
(4) IN"IENTIONALITY Intentionality is
conc:ept tr di ionall
avoi ed ycho ogists nt re te in is no possible to operationa1ize inten-
th investigator in unc:olllCiou intention We believ tha there an: some nonverba beba.viol' which the sender usuall consciousl intend as communicativ signal to convey messaga (soon to be define as mble ), an th hrough naturali ti or experiment etho it
54
ic
re
io ly
to (5) E X T E R N A L FEEDBACK th rb ct hi th er r, re iv pr vi to th nd r. ch feedback may consis of direct verbal comments on th sender's activity or ob io isua ttention to partic la verb t, to th re ei ver' rb nd on rb avio ic le rl is re ti to th n's io rn ic what th observer perceives, bu is more narrowly define to includ only th observer's activity whic clearly inform th sender that hi nonverba action is bein perceive an evaluated. (6) TYPE OF INFORMATIO CONVEYED refersto basicdistinction between idio yn rati hare in or ation, initio of INFORMATIVE, COMMUNICATIVE and INTERACTIVE no verbal be vi r. idio syncratic meanin if ther is some regularity in th informatio associated with it occurrence bu th associatio is peculiar to single individual An ac ha shared meanin if th informatio associated withit iscommon acros som specifiableset of individuals. Idiosyncratic or share meanin idiosyncrati encode meanin if it is emitte under simila environmental or stimulus conditions by on individual bu no by others particular hand movement migh frequently occu when th individual is exhausted, in lu ce of de drine, he ct as an en od ea in in term th re ul rity of it urrenc it th se ti lu nt ic re e, accompan or typicall follow it or with consistently associated ideation Th co ed ea in is idio yn rati if th ea in is ulia to on if has idiosyncratic DECODED meaning if it consistentl conveys particula ti such specia privileged receiver wh have learne th privat decoding by
othe observer wh have no shared such intimat contac with th sender hare od me ni curs en sp ifia le se bs rv rs from t h f o is possible to ditFerentiat t h e . no rb same time, do admit that the intentionality of othe nonverba behavior is problembe possible to determine the intentionality of ever in tanc of nonverba behavior
ss
THEREPERTOIRE NONVERBALEHAVIOR
usuall agre abou th informatio conveyed by an act. Idiosyncrati nd ed me st it mi noise, movement whic have no regularities in either thei encoding or decoding no even fo single person Th
ms
ss either
wi
meaning. and if
an ac is classifiedinto on of th five categories of nonverba behavior to be described, certai difference in th proportion of idiosyncrati to shared meanin ca be expected Having made distinctio betwee tw ng di ti ga wo ty meanin (encoded an decoded) le us no introduc ou wa of formulating th difference amon 'jnformative', 'communicative an 'inter active' nonverbal behavior. INFORMATIVE onverbal behavior encompasse thos acts whic have me ec g, su acts elicit similar interpre tation in some se of observers. Th us of this term does no impl that th ac wa intended to convey th informatio it does no does it impl if that
decoding is idiosyncrati rather than shared th ac woul no be considere informative. Th shared meanin is not, however, sufficient criterion fo ou us of th term informative; an ac coul have shared encode twitch of th facial muscles, whic reliably occurred in associatio with hostile assault by an interviewer thi association might be reliabl acros om di ed nd et th acts migh no convey consistent informatio abou anything to an give se of observer an thus they woul no be informative. An informative ac is no necessaril on whic convey correc or accurate information abou the sender what th observers decode ma be quit mistaken when compared with an criteria; e.g., stereotypes. The meanin conveyed message as hello or goodbye, informatio abou th transien or enduring affect state, or abou personalit or attitude. COMMUNICATIVE onverbal behavior encompasse thos acts whic ar clearl an consciousl intenci: by th sender to transmit specifiab'~
56
where the
well Communicative
um
acts
ns
sm
Eo
m e s ag e
pa se
so
se
de
hi
acts
modify or in1luenc the inte active behavior of th othe person s)
clearl
the interactions
up
If
is
act
hi
nt
he
nf
act
or
m an y n f
ma no
od
and yet
Figure communicative
(f), or
it
acts acts
intera tive
be thos hi
an
schizophreni ot nf ne
hi
in ormative
(f).
acts
bs
ot
ve
mu or
un
ve
nt
on
57
io
la
Fig. 1.
the that
ehavio
whic
sh re
ha
decoded
it
ling isti
phenomen
the se de
co scio sl AUTISTIC
MUNICATIVE
in
im
intend and
COM-
58
ea in urther we thin that shared is an inadequate basi fo In be avio (w ic we will on in meaning. Another difficulty it hl's ommu ic tive ti s, is th it is
ti
th le el of ea in idio ncrati distinguishing fundamenta categories cribe) must
ed
on iffere ce
in
di isio of ha io into ti ti as le uc nv rb eh io re ti
nd ut
shared decode meanin whic need no be communicative; informativ an interactive. ai st mp si th th istinction tw idio ncrati an shared or amon informative, communicativ an interactive, refers to le ty me ni no to categories ha ior. Th s, given iv th adaptors). An ac whic is informativ migh or migh no be interactiv ommu ic tive in an iv in tanc Th te ri sc em to pr ente re isti guis on er avio in rt in term th relative prevalence of informative, communicativ an interactiv mean in th categories if er in th rati of idiosy cr ti to hare anin all th eh vi in an category is cl iv ly th Althou il sp eh vi as inform tive mm ic ti intera ti thes term cu ro ou iv at orie refe to th informatio or type me ni ss iate with ha ior, in an at ry no te ry of eh io it el past wri~ing (Elcman. 1965a; Ekman an Friesen, 1968 we have no utilized used th term 'indicative' thes term in the d. an communic tive to refe to method of re earc aime determinin th encode od ni th th word 'communicative',
nd no re ng th ly fo ta me sage there is evidence that th behavior was on ciousl de igne to transmit ph ic iv va ue used associated with an act; now, fo th am reason we sugges th term inform tive Finally, we ha (Ekman an Friesen, 1965 1967a) used th term 'interactive to refe to an nonverba behavior whic occurs during an interper onal interaction. No we ar proposin much more re tricte usage m , viz., to refe to acts whose meanin ca be hown to influenc th interactio of th peno perceiving it in orde is also communicative, also fr infonnative, or only informativ or only communicative, bu no interactive.
I.
59
'I
.I
Origin the nonverba
behavior originally the action. became part of th person's repertoire that is. Uof conditions involved in th origin ar necessaril repeated in th late usag of an act. Fo example, steering-wheel-arm-rotatio ac ma have been originally learne as part ns ta be used conversationally with no ca presen to refe ob me on types of origin can be distinguished. On origin of nonverba behavior is relationship betwee stimulus rb ch st ever intact member of th species.A reflexis th most obviou example, also base upon inherite neurological programs. second origin is experience common to al member of th species; this differsfro th firs origin in that on need no assume that th nonis er cq species-constant experience of th huma equipmen interactin with almost an environment. Fo example, regardless of cultur th hand with will mouth. thir origin of nonverba behavior is experience whic varies with culture class. family or individual Some nonverba behavior ar learne as part of an instrumental task inwhich th goal is master of particular activity such as farming. driving. swimming an in learning particular styles of eating defecating, etc. Othe nonverba acts ar learne as part of social interaction. wher th goal isthe establishmen or maintenanc nv ha ea explicitly with consciou attentio from learne an tuto •.or from only th learner; others ar acquired more implicitly with less focu upon th acquisitio process. Imitating th posture or facial expression of favorite movi sta ma be quite explicitand practiced whil th acquisition of th postur or othe movement of th same-sex parent ma occu with less learning
NOT
xp
le ut
tl the reinforcement contingency.
no ld
nd sp
ar
60
LL
FI
Coding
the act
or
EXTRINSIC
INTRINSIC.
in IS
ARBITRARY
(e trinsic) code
an
INTRINSIC
(extrinsic
its significant; codes,
ICONIC
I.
codes.
slush and buzz.
carry their appearance
the
it trin
ik
ic IS
is th
it signi-
significant.
of the term iconic is taken from Morris (1946) wh ai ••An iconic sign is is ll Iconicit is thus matter of degree.. the tr ngth of th iconic:sign lies in it bility to fo ti i e .v.." (1 id ti between digita an analogic codification was relevant to nonverba behavior th
distinction is very similar to
we have de cribed arbitrar
an
iconic coding
mathematic relevant to m o rm it i n m at i is nc io further di cussio of nalogi an digita coding with pecial referenc 10 nonverbal behavior in infrahuman organisms ee Sebeok (1963) an Diebol (1968) The recognitio of the need to distinguis intrinsicall code from iconic behavior grew ou of discussion with Silv Tomkins.
61
ti etc. However, if
th ti
similar
omething closer to an intrinsicall
.I
in
er
th
c o d e d act.
imil
tr
in
used
dear gun, th
of th
th
litera
action
may
tota acti n; (e. .• th
vi ua relation hips PICTORIAL.
if
in
etween ac an al
is
ic
ignificant (e.g .•
pictoria
be avio
is ic nic.
SPATIAL.
(e.g.,
th
ia
ic
te .)
signifie
or is
part.
(e.g., th
throat-cut
this th
if
(e.g., fi t- avin
th
or extrem
beha io
of hitting); in this .A
attitu e.
attrib te
In s u m . ictorial
affect,
patial an rh thmi
relationship
betwee It
ti
mo emen
AVl
Instead,
~.
hich
il io
It th them differentl
to avoi
in
contradictions
Emblems io
in
li
acts
within
th
te
informatio
li
conveyed
to communicate;
used this term oaly fo thos ge tuRs whic ar no morphologi ally relate it ll uesc (1956) u s e d rd tu li le in COvei' to comwtI.l de crib as also included as gestures th category whic illu tr tors an furthe emphasized th th gestur must be symbolic, requirement whic to us se ms relevant to th arbitrary, bu no to the iconic gestUreS or emblems. they signify; emblem coul only us of th term is broadene to includ both
64
is
viduals. There ha
done Bu in determinin
ly oi e,
external
(e.g.,
circ msta ce
used used around th more itualize
used
th
tl
.S
it than idio nc atic
blem ofte
ea in
ar interactiv
been
lt ug
in
it is os ible as
ah
1968
oi te
iv
I.
65
'I It
culture-specific Efron' stud of th nonverba behavior of Jewish an differences betwee the immigrant groups in emblematic behavior Sait and Cervenka (1962)have catalogue differencesin emblemati behaviors betwee Colombia an th U.S. ould ex ec ha emblem re us ally lear ed uc like ve ba area.
in th U.S. emblem ar primaril show by th face an hands. Emblem ca be base upon what we willlater describe as affect displays an adap to no verb ehaviors or exampl th raisin th brow nd hori affect
displa ca be mble at c, if he cu ture pa specific at ention to nd pres ribe ve pe ificmeanin to that fa ia ehavior, lthoug th emblematic meanin migh be differen from th affect om mble re arbitraril co ed in that th ctio does no oo number of fingermovement wher th finger do no look like th shap of th letter thes ar arbitraril coded. Othe finger sign ar iconically coded. in that th fingersare placed into position whic closel resemble employ an action to convey word or phrase ar iconic (resemblin thei significan visually). Th tracin of th body outlin of ic ni -p ct rial embl in hi th hand dr pi tu shapel of fist is usuall an iconic-kinetic emblem Whil an intrinsicall code ac ould mble se mslike that if ct 'achieves emblematic status it wil becomehighl stylizedfor convenien use as communicativ
considere as iconicall coded. PROORESS: directed to thre type of questions. (I Is th re se mble atic words' hi ca rr ng to re te emblematic phrase or sentences? Is th sizeof th emblematic vocabulary simila across cultures if not, what ar th factor correlated with variation in size Ou focu is descriptive, to ma th emblematic vocabulary of specificcultures and to determine the syntax of emblemati statements. (2 re th am essa domain mble at arious ulture all cultures;
66 do all
h av e
pl
mb
ng di on
gs
n? mu
on
n d d ep a nv
m en t
oc
pm
in ut
rilla
ro
he
no gy
culture-specific emblems? We expect th
qu
ve
mm ni
rbitrarily code
mblems
bl ms
emblems will he si
ma
su
g. pictorial-iconic
pi
ng
u ch -
or kinetic-iconic
to
ul
om
ni
de
mb
be
ur
pe
This reaearchon emblematic behavior in the endeavor between our research gr up Studie in on erba Behavior of he ngle Porter Neurop ychi tric In titute th Univer it of California di al Scho l. nd th nter fo th Stud Growth evelopme an Di ea in Primitiv Cultures of th Natiouallnstitutes of Neurological Diseases an Blindness, directed by Carleton Gajdusek.
Sorenson Whil workin amon th Sout Fore of Ne Guinea wecom pile an prior list of messages whic migh be emblematic within an culture. As wethought abou it an checke with fe highly acculturate informants th list grew to abou 60messages, such as Hello am hungry
ic re t' to ac es geo ou li t. ve in or with in rm ts wh ha ee ry fe Ca ca ia nd ok pi in we nd th in less than lf te te only perfor emblem fo us bu voluntee ones no on ou list Th main ro le en untere wa th ub ct's is to le it wa io th we were intere te in this avio nd os bj ts ante what to do an ha to invent an essentiall perfor charade. Emblem ca be distinguishe from charades by reaction time betwee instructio an perf rm nc ic is very hort or an em le us ally mu le th te rd provided by comparison of nonverba behavior performe fo th same messag by differen subjects whic is identical if th messag is emblemati an it if re if th ha io is harade ly th in emblematic .units throug comparisons acros filmed subjects, and acros syntaxes, .g.• st is to dr
ugo st ta ougo ta th ngo Th second om arison betw lt re of th ss om in
isolatin thes emblem throug comparison of ~h Ne Guinea film wit filmsof other cultures.f showin th emblem to observer in various cultures an cbecking th similarity in report th rc ic le emblem an whic ar identica amon th people of th U.S. th Sout ia rs begun tudy of emblematic behavior mong Spanish origin an Italia origin Argeotinians research project with the Centro de Investigacione Psychiatriquas Buenos Aires, directed by Carlos Sluzki
pa
will involv th
ut
ompl tion of this film coll c-
bl
the dete mination
of th
oc
mblemati
vocabu
Illustrators
nc
BATONS,
IDEOGRAPHS,
of
DEiCTI
SPATIA
MOVEMENTS,
de
move-
MOVEMENTS,
ng
KINETOGRAPHS.
PICTOGRAPHS.
pl should
pr os ng
us
or
is xclusive of th
Fr edma nd offm nn (1967) istingui he umbe of ty es of obje t-fo us DlOWJDeI1ts which closely resemble th illustrato sub-type we have proposed They inc:Iuded punctuatin movement (our batons). literal-reproductive movement (which woul includ ou sub-type of deictic. iconographic kinetographic. pictographic), an litera1
te
ta
tc lO lJ st ator id
less intentio al
os illu trat rs
ul
ca
informative,
epeat, ly
ub titute
be somewhat pr vi in ared be considered
ff prin
no longer ho ed thes
if erence
hile th
aintai ed
in illustrators). it
ittm nn's (1966) findin th certain to phonemic clauses in speech may pertinen to th illustrators although hi measures di no ifferentiate amon categori of nonverba behavior except in term of body are involvement. 10
ni
pictorial ut
u t in
d ed ,
iconic because
de
nn
be
on
ur
mu
bl
ni
in part. 12
ov
mb
three times,
of th
nc
on
pi s; mi
n, on
vi du
pi
six types
is to determine
he he
ur
be
will increase as
us
the
ov
ho
st nt
ps
gi
on
dl
requency of occurrence whic nd contact
sugg st that th ki
ha
st
ot
us
of speech
Affect Displays Our discussion of affect ve
br ks
between
hi aspect
type
on
a s p e c t of affect
v em en t
on
vioa
is
71
tely
le
displays.
te ib ar affectiv
is lays
ch as th
tartle espons
and, perhap
trembling;
ts
I9 that ther
is
PRIMAR
di ferences in theoretica tu ied, an
si te cies
ecad
hich ugge
he
orientation,
methods,
th inve tigati
te tative
er ap
ar
AFFECT
atio alit
as pe fo me
pa tial list
di tincti
are. Despit of th
ubject
the
rimary af ects
is
af ects ca
ju
as re dily
isti guis ed by bser er
in ot er cultures
11
Working independently. Izard (1968) ha recently obtained data on similarities in the recogoitio of affect displays across cultures.
11
72
might le
if
pan-
to
cultural
be dis-
c u s s e d late in co nectio
with evokin
timuli be aviora
conseq ences,
If
Later,
en di cu sing
ur re ea ch in ro ress
in particular facial
uscles
hich
ov
en
activities as ociate
with thes facial mu cula
affect displa
il
particular affect isaroused. moveme ts
This explana-
muscles, Tomkins
to that interested in ti ia
ti
in im
is It might be that affecbe elabo-
th ed
lt
th
ta
af movements in
to
ti be
with
73
th st rtle efle and th pain co tracti ns ar no satisfie with this accoun (i is particularly weak in exp1aining the facial affect displa of happiness; bu Darwin also ha troubl with providin functionally principl of antithesis). Oarity on this question requires furthe research Of particular valu woul be clos stud of visual record of th developwith blin an sighte children facial
uscl
fo each of
number
primar affect stat
is no as et
im ressions of ultura difference in affect isplay have rise from circ msta ce go erning th di play of affect hich ar markedly nfl ence by ocia learning nd vary ithi an etwe cultures af ec is arouse re th same cros cultur s, th voking stimuli, th linked af ects th di play ules an th beha iora conseq ence all
sider. The
EVOKIN
STIMUL
whic elicit
affe
ma well iffe from on
some unlearne affect evokers, soci le rnin teache th individual number of associations betwee events memories anticipation an affect Fo example, when person is angr th facial features will show give configuration. bu what rovo es nger is leas in part deteritfall in cr ss-cultura rese rc affect displa is to infe common emotiona stat simply becaus th same even is bein compared in tw cultures in actualit th even ma evok differen affectin each culture, an th difference in facial behavior ma reflec thos difference rather tha differencesin the facial muscle associate wit affectin eac culture. Fo example, cultur migh show up-turne lips nasolabial folds, an almost closed eyes at funerals whil cultur migh show down-turne funerals
efor statin
ha th
acia displa
sadnes vane across
normativel evokes th same affect in th tw cultures rather than bein
I.
75
AVI
DI
AY
in various
UL
ocia
settings
role
etc.
is
ct
if no affect
di play ul is ap ropriate fo each affect when ex erienced
individual
etc.
is evoked,
il
typicall
convey
th
the ll
is
be cu
th
AFFECf BLENDS
ix
ia
ie tl ti
in le
76
ha thes affectiv combinations ca ccur no only imultaneousl blends bu in rapi sequence Blends ls ma lead confusions in ross-cultura comparison of affectdisplay Iffo on cultur th sadnes evoked by funera is normative bl nded with fear bu in anothe cultur sa ness is blende it anger, ther will be difference in th facial displays We ar arguin that thes diff rences shou no be interpreted signifying that th move variable from on cultur to another, bu should be attributed to differ ence in th habitually blende affect considered is th BEHAVIORAL CONSEQUENCE of an affectiv display. Th behavioral consequenc of an affect displa ca be although th face ma show th affect associated with give behavioral consequence. We interpre th movement an postures of th body whic coincide with an foUowa facial affect displa as coping with th facially isplayed af ect, Such movement ofte do no differ ntiate on acia affect from another; or ex mple th behavioral cons quence of flight particular social contexts Th fact that people show very differen body mo ements afte displaying th same acia affect should no be interpreted as meanin that th facial affectis meaningless. or inconsequential.
ultura elem nt of affect. co text they ma be elicited by differen stimuli, be operated upon by differen displa rules, be by differen beha iora onsequences. no me to belittle thes factors; in majo source of cultural difference in affect display. Bu ou argument as be emph size th ifficult in uncovering th pan-cultur elebe obscured by ents an to cautio ag inst th Although us ally ar awar of ou fa ia affect displays they ma occu with or withou deliberate intentio to communicate. Similarly, nhibitio of facial display, cont ol of facial display, or dissimulatio affect be intentional Becaus wehav such good feedback abou ou facial behavior we sually ar awar of ha happen th moment we hang facial move
I.
AVI
proble fo th observer of facial affect displays if ther is an suspicio in progress is to detect whic affect displays ar th ecepti lies an whic ar more involuntar leakag (Ekman an Friesen, 1969). Facial behavior in general, an affectiv displays in particular receiv
.I
term of direct comments on facial behavior Whil people do no continually look at each other' faces,for to do so woul be to star flirtations, powe struggle or question of suspicio or distrust the fac receives more visual attentio from the body nd ar or li el to om nt acia xpress on re ot cert in whethe observatio bout he xter al fe dbac iv to facial behavior ar limite to th U.S. or Wester cultures Affectiv displays carr more personal informatio than illustrators or most emblems. Th most personal or idiosyncrati informatio come just from th is la of arti ul em ti n, ut ro he af ecti blends th affectiv sequences, an th extent to whic th affectiv display isinfluence by th setting. In th U.S. th norm abou what affect known. Affectiv displays ar appropriat in certai public places no in others e.g., at funerals weddings athletic events bu no in restau rants. Th appropriatenes of affectiv displays is also governed by th role position ag an sex.Th mappin of norm in differen cultures fo affectivedisplays affect blends affect sequences and affective behaviora consequences in differen social settings interpersona roles, ag levels an sexes, is centra problem. Affect displays ca be relate to verbal behavior in number of ways separate unrelate channel' of communication. Affect displays ca be enti
ff ctiv displa
le
nt of
affect ve is la
an
od
in
an ulture is such an em le Most affect displays ar informative, particularly if they ar of sufficien duration to be easilyobserved. Much of th confusio in th percep tion seemingl contradictor blends of affect simultaneously or sequentially Affec displays often hav interactive consequences modifying the behavior th ther inte actant Much affect displa wo ld no be omrnu12
Goffman
1963).
Erving
Behavior in P u bl i
P la ce s (London, Collier-MacMilla
Ltd.
78
la
ly
affective displays in discusse
th difference
betwee
communicativ
an
non-comrnunicative
I.
information.
sugges that some ffec
life woul
isplay
ar either intrinsicall
co ed
accept Darwin's principle of antithesis as th
it woul
be arbitraril
REsEAllC
ex lanation
of
coded.
IN PROORESS
have b e e n ts ti
th film,
affect. Our
had
some indirect evidence
all
ll
79
wa th occurrence of blends of tw or more affectsin givenphotograph; we chos only 'pure' single affect photographs. Ou final se of stimul included 34 pictures of male an females, some children many adults rofe io actors mateur os rs nd ontane to ra mental patients Thes stimul were show to observer (college students re ic ro th judgment choice fo anothe stud we won' report here although we do no consider pain an affect). three respects very high agreemen ts re on server in th ir re og itio fe ispl ys th server decoded almost all th facial stimul as ha predicted; and, th stimul in re 70 agreemen amon American observer on particular affect labe (whe choosing from list of terms) fo 32of th 34 stimuli. Th majo rity affect labe chosen fo th stimul wa as we had predicte fo 30out of th 34stimuli, thus providin indirectly some evidence fo ou selectio of stimuli, an encouragemen that FAST ma be validl describing th cues associated with th recognitio of affect displays Th four pictures where the observers decode affects we ha no predicte involved mino errors (whichcan be either considered ours or th observers) Tw stimul nsid re to ow di us re lled ontemp by ab ut lf th judges whilethe remainde said disgust. Tw stimul whic we ha called slight pain were labelled sad. Ou result from showin thes stimul to collegestudent at th Natioty lm ic agreemen amon observers, an thei interpretatio of th affect show is us ot in th .S lled nt mp in ra il Whil wewould like to interpre th similarity in th decoding of affect et ee Br zili an .S ob rv rs eviden th an-cultura pretation. Th Brazilia an U.S. observer both shar some of th same is t, ic re film an television wh ma serv as models of affect displa to imitated, they both se tourists from th othe country. Perhap both groups av le rn th re og itio ct ro th am ur s. In rd to meet this criticism, we initiate studie of affect displa in Ne Guinea re le ta rs television an wher some ha seen very fe Caucasians
Th
investigatio
in ollabora io
with Sore so an Gajd se
ha
an Brazilia obse vers to ar et subj ct ho va ie in xt nt acculturatio from thos wh worewester clothe an ha learne Pidgin gone fa fr
th ir illage
or tr ditional cl th s, spok
Pidg n.
Pidgin an to English. Th acculturated subjects were able to choose from acculturat subj ct seemed na le to this perhap be ause of th language barrier, so weinstea obtained storie whic describe what ha be ap enin that ea to an /o foll we th ex ressio show in of li guist, th Sout or ords fo di fe en af ects an ll su je ts were able to labe th photograph in thei ow language In anothe stud we ha subjects pose affects, describe in thei ow language an we then sh we he ew in phot gr ph othe Sout Fo bs rv rs who decoded th affe shown. Fi al y. we took cine of th po in ff ct nd were an lyzi th particular us le whic re in ol ed in each pose utilizin ou facial coding procedure, FAST Th same decoding of th same facial behavior wa foun across thre literate cultures (U.S., Brazil an Japan) fo happy. anger. fear surprise sadnes an fo single category combinin both disgus an contempt (Ekman Sorenson an Friesen, 1969).Sinc that time we have obtained th same result in Chil an Argentina. Th literate cultur result were compared with data from tw preliterat cultures th most acculturated
bt ined that th same ac al stimul ar de oded as th same emotio fo happiness, anger, an fear In subsequent work complete in th last fe onth ne task proced re as empl ye hi verc me so
literate cultures Thus we have obtained reasonable evidence fo pancultural el ment in ff ct di pl ys th as oc at on part cu ar acia muscle wiht particular emotions b e e n intrigued wit
81
displayed; many of th themes ar simila across subjects revealin th age, sex, usua evoking stimul an behaviora consequence of particula affects.Information derive in this wa woul of course have to be compare with informatio gathered from fiel observations an from othe informants in orde to determin th generality of thes affect stories. Itdoes appear however, that th us of such stimul to elicitinformation or ma ov be useful anthropologica tool when th stimul have been standardized within culture. Ou last cross-cultural stud of affect displays is utilizin differen method of study; we ar focusing upon th elicitatio of affect or affect encoding an within traditiona laboratory framework. This research is bein conducte in collaboratio with Lazarus, Averil an Opton,13 utilizin thei stress-inducin procedure. Subjects ar show on of number of stress-inducin films, most of whic ar concerne with difinterestin films. In previous work Lazarus' grou verified both in th an ul ul by yz rb he ms in du he films, and by takin physiologica measure of arousal In ou stud Wetake motion pictures of th subject' facial expression an hand movement withou hi knowledge, whil he watche stress filmand neutra film have collecte pilo data utilizin very brie samples of nonverba behavior both in Japa an in th U.S. Ou analysis of thes record involvesboth th applicatio of FAST an th collection of Japanese an U.S. observers' interpretation of th affectshown in th s. FA is ne mi he am us on ur groups Th observers' interpretation of th stimul will reveal whethe both cultures interpre similarl th stress reaction of member of their. study, othe than th impression that th procedures have worked an informatio is obtainable from th experiments.
13
University or California Berkeley.
Regulators REGU-
LATORS.
etc. talk, etc.
head
mm-hmm;
other
acts.
necessary .tween the conversationalists
behavior
adaptors
and is
can
can
REGU-
LATORS
er or re ul ti ac ca easily recall and they ar re ent. As to in ibit aU
te try
I.
highly over-learned habits th
la
be
all rinciple
code
in ol ed in egulat rs
me ar
in
bvio sl
intrinsi ally code
regulators th
of th illustrators
affect
regulative aspect
la te
which th
la
as
ic an
whil we recogniz
by affect
ti positions, an IN
three
la
presentations.
occu ever fe
entences th
re
ovements of th head neck
84
of
de
POSITION,
as
position PRESENTATION
os ur
di
de ne
of
nt
nv
ne
on on
on
os
nc
is all
th
Adoptors he
ba
he ADAPTORS
or to le rn instrumental activiti s. discus
self-adaptors,
previously learne
alter-adaptors
hu
distinguis
an
an
be ause
il sepa at ly
object-adaptors.
adaptive acts re maintained by habit. When or ginall types of interpersona
interaction,
occurred currentl whic is relevant to th drive, emotion, relationship or settin originally associated with th learning of th adaptive pattern. completion; an when seen without knowledgeof the origin of the activity,. it ma appear as random or nois behavior By this reasoning, adaptors wh it by ha in mi me sage an usuall withou awareness. This view of adaptors is basicall simila to Darwin's explanatio of postulatin that th evolutionary developmen is ontogeneti rather than phylogenetic Darwin hypothesized that such movement originally ha serviceabl functions, relevant to th survival of th organism an that they were throug selection, preserve an maintained over th course of evolution, although in ma they ar no longer relate to thei original function We assume that thes adaptors ar learne anew by each person earl in life an that they evolve over th course of hi developmen with gradua modification an reductio of th tota adaptive patter so that by adulthood, an particularly in social conversation only fragment of th earlie learne adapto ma be seen an no necessaril in obviou relationship to th original purpos served by th movement SELF-ADAPTORS va ug ar tastin or touching Some self-adaptor ar learne fo th proper performance of ingestiv or excretiv functions. Others ar learne fo th os la tion with others we will consider as alter-adaptors). Self-adaptor ar od ne of th faceand body And, some self-adaptor ar firs learne to facilitate or bloc sound-making an speech Mo gh he parent an shaped by socialization processes Th grooming self-adaptors ar re-learned during adolescenc when ther is repeated intensifie in
self-adaptor ca involv learning to us th body or specific way, on he st at
facial featur in ta
events an with particular settings he thes adaptors ar repeated late in adul life it ca EITHER be in orde to perfor th relevant adap
ive activity, th
OR
adaptive habit. It is or
us
pe most in imat
el tionships,
ub or
he
th
is person lity diso ganization
be ve to be
th
grief
rience
rejectio
by authorit
figures.
87 od by time an fragment
by inhibitions, bu
er inst ad totall
pe fo med,
be
the
of
ho
ur
be us
nt
di
he
ha he is doin
to hims lf Ac ivitie
may be
sensory with
mentary.
of
he ha dl Self direct
adapto
have ic ps hologica
me ning
mo
on
personal
in
the
But th
etc.
The
ALTER-DIRECTED
ADAPTORS
early.
Freedman an Hoffman' (1967) category similar to ou descriptio of self-adaptors They the body nd have co only to sensor experience., bu assume that suc" 14
of body-focused mo em nt is quit li ited thei initia or to action in sidere th se mo em nt as relevant action ar relevant to n e e d gratifying
addition to th sensor self-adaptors. Rosenfeld' (1966) category of self-manipulatio is de cribed as ctions in whic on part of th body contacts another; hi examples re scratching ru bing or tapping. os nfel interprets th ov me ts as indica true fo some self-adaptors, ther self-adaptor particul rl thos hich in olve ttacking ov me ts dire te agains th elf, nd certain restless-looking movement (which we consider as alteradaptors ca be necessarily discomforting.
ER
IO
ecessary to esta li hing affect on an inti ac em
ev
or wi hdra al an
fl gh
al be may
be
es
inke
to ar ic la
ypes
nter ersona
events ex ectanc es
emotions
ch en
th
is inctio
movement whic atte tion an
bein th
artificial in that instance
e.g., protectiv
stimulates part
be
th
ft er escribed as rele an to regulators
hich we prev ousl
co
other.
alter-adapto
ei at
eg
ovements ca ofte
al er-a aptors
sh wi
residues
kick ng
at
u s e d inten-
co
alter-adaptor
at
than on
re
en
self-adaptor al
rn will
the side;
90
examinin th situatio when th baboon firs learne to figh an attack bu sinc he wa no full developed, he woul only do so in th presence of hi mother Lookin late ally wa thus learne as necessar pa of aggressive behavior to chec whethe mother wa there. Itis maintaine behavior. OBJECT-ADAPTOR,
movement originally
le rned in the smoking, wielding tool etc. This movement will be repeated gain only in part during conversation if th emotiona or attitudina compoself- and alter-adaptors in
in life Object-adaptor
ma ofte be within awareness,
hich wa no
municate Generall ther ar fewe social taboos abou th performanc of object-adaptor than self-adaptors, or even alter-adaptors iconically code or intrinsicall oded th ar ot arbitraril code ovemen is only residu or fragment of th original adaptive If th behavior it approaches bein iconic bu coul be considered intrinsicall al of th essentia elements fo th movement to have an adaptive consequence we woul consider it intrinsicall code adaptive behavior It seem likely however, that with time fragmentatio will occur, an that with fr gmentation alteration will also occur. Th codi adaptors is primaril kinetic. ha is th movement executes part of an action or performance, an meanin either is associated iconically with that perfor manc or is that performance. Byimplication, ther should be considerable variatio in adaptors across cultures Thos adaptors whic ar common across cultures wil chiefl be thos whic ar most relevant to sensations an to th body function of ingestion. excretio an reproduction sinc th huma anatom necessitates some commonalit in th performanc of thes activities Th adaptors will usuall have rich leve of idiosyncrati meanin as well as shared meaning, particularly th self-adaptors. This idiosyncrati meanin will generall refe to th stimul whic trigge th self-adaptor th histor of ho th adapto wa learne an parental reacti ns to th
91 ve
oc
na
in
mind with hi term autistic actions, although
on R ES E
ha
CH
9)
PR
ne
us
go
be
E SS :
he
n in g
se
ps
n ts , type of
ps hi (p. 74).
an
pa
Americans.
de
st
or
Photograph of adaptors were made from cinema previously take of th Sout Fore an thes photograph were show to Sout Fore informants ho er ke to te he me ng ve en em nt amon informants woul show that th movement wa informative, that is ey ar de ed ea g. spontaneou instance of embarrassment, flirtation an shame, to stud particular movement encode in such circumstances. Th clas of move ment studie included self-adaptor (hidin th face covering th eyes ou er ap rt us is on lm body part to anothe person). Both th encoding an decoding of many of thes movement were foun to Th lt ar ee nt wi or by l- es dt wh appeared in th popula pres on simila flirtation movement in differen cultures.
SUMMARY
In th
ab go
su ma of no er
ed me av
er
sc si of or
ns
od
an
overstated an others whic ar importan ar ignored. Th tabl should however, facilitat comparison between categories on particular topic, su wa es ta ou ea re sp defining on category than another. Th tabl should also show th gaps in ou presen thinking Let us emphasiz that this categorica scheme is no complete or final. er ve av wh ba do ve ll nt at or or am e, an ri ur at th fi suc as holding th head in forward angular position. The fivecategorie ar no exclusive; th same nonverba act nd om im mu di
ay or li de ki og ph emblem whic said verbally es be er
pt wh ed me ni us to is kinetographi Affect displays ly ld
ve ee he ll
la
by
ul
nd ra nc ad to ll lu to ay al or pictographic to illustrate what is bein whic repeat or augmen th affect bein si ed lu te ds we
93
if
affect displays or illustrators the
accoun
th
ifferences betwee
ic ni an intrin ically co ed
ehavior.
the
of nonverba
behavior an
have ye to specif sequcntialinterrelationships the
thi framework ic
if in is
iv Langle
ty Porter
eu op ychi tric
In titute
94
AYJ
.I
..
.a
c:a."
..
liD"
.9-8
~.5
...·8
..
.s
I~
Ie
io
IU
UL
REFERENCES n d r e w , R.
1963 1965 Boucher, 1965
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