CUPRINS Prefaţă ................................................................................................ 7 UNIT 1 PHYSICS ………………………………………………… Revision of tenses UNIT 2 NEWTON’S CONTRIBUTION TO DYNAMICS ….......... The Plural of Nouns (I) UNIT 3 TELESCOPES ..................................................................... The Plural of Nouns (II) UNIT 4 ATOMIC PHYSICS ............................................................ The Genitive Case UNIT 5 THE REVOLUTION IN LIGHT I ...................................... The Adjective UNIT 6 THE REVOLUTION IN LIGHT II .................................... The Adverb UNIT 7 THE PHENOMENA OF NATURE ................................... The Numeral UNIT 8 THE MYSTERIOUS FOURTH STATE OF MATTER ... The Sequence of Tenses UNIT 9 MAGNETISM ................................................................... The Passive Voice UNIT 10 NUCLEAR WEAPONS ................................................... Modal Verbs UNIT 11 HOW GRAVITY AFFECTS PHOTONS ...................... If Clauses UNIT 12 A CENTURY OF DISCOVERIES IN PHYSICS I .......... The Infinitive UNIT 13 A CENTURY OF DISCOVERIES IN PHYSICS II ......... The gerund The ”ING” Participle I NFORMATION UNIT 14CONTRIBUTION OF PHYSICS TO THE INFORMATION AGE I ................................................................................. The Article I NFORMATION UNIT 15CONTRIBUTION OF PHYSICS TO THE INFORMATION AGE II …………………………………………………… Direct/Indirect (Reported) Speech List of Irregular Verbs ...................................................................... Bibliografie ........................................................................................
PREFAŢĂ „Engle ngleza za pent pentru ru fizi fizică că”” se adres dresea eazză stud studen enţi ţilo lorr care care frecventează cursurile Facultăţii de Fizică dar şi celor care doresc să-şi îmbunătăţească cunoştinţele de limba engleză. Lucrarea cuprinde 15 texte de specialitate axate pe câteva subdomenii ale fizicii (astronomie, electrodinamică, fizică atomică şi mole molecu cula lară ră,, fizi fizică că medi medica cală, lă, fizi fizică că nucle nuclear ară, ă, fizi fizica ca part partic icule ulelo lor r elementare, magnetism, termodinamică, etc) menite să atragă interesul cititorului către această disciplină. In general, acestea sunt adaptări după după text textee origi origina nale le engl englez ezeş eşti ti sau sau amer americ icane ane sau sau pur pur şi simp simplu lu docu docume ment ntee aute autent ntic icee extr extras asee din din dive divers rsee cărţ cărţii de spec specia iali lita tate te,, fie fie utilizând internetul. Lecţiile au un nivel intermediar fiind concepute ca mijloc de perfecţionare a unor cunoştinţe de bază deja dobândite fie în anul I de studiu a limbii engleze ca limbă străină în cadrul facultăţilor tehnice, fie in timpul liceului. Din acest motiv, lucrarea cuprinde o tema temati tică că dive divers rsăă adap adapta tată tă preo preocu cupă păril rilor or stude studenţ nţil ilor or comb combin inân ândd elemente ale limbii engleze generale cu acelea specifice limbajului specializat al fizicii (fiecare text este urmat de explicarea termenilor de vocabular general cât şi a termenilor tehnici). Vocabulary Practice este destinat însuşirii şi fixării lexicului tehnic de specialitate pe baza unor exerciţii (identificarea greşelilor, găsirea sinonimelor sau antonimelor unor cuvinte extrase din text, adevărat sau fals, completarea spaţiilor goale, traduceri, etc). Focus on Language se axează pe prezentarea unor noţiuni şi subtilităţi gramaticale sub formă de scheme şi tabele pentru a facilita memorar memorarea ea lor.Ex lor.Exerc erciţii iţiile le aplica aplicativ tivee (traduc (traduceri eri,, umpler umplerea ea spaţii spaţiilor lor goal goalee cu anum anumit itee stru struct ctur uri,i, aleg aleger erea ea form formei ei core corect cte, e, etc) etc) ofer oferăă posibilitatea de a folosi problemele gramaticale asimilate, în mod complex. Intenţia mea a fost de a concepe un material de referinţă pentru studenţii facultăţii de fizică cât şi pentru cei interesaţi de această disciplină. Sursele folosite în redactarea acestei lucrări sunt menţionate în cadrul bibliografiei de la sfârşit.
Autoarea
PREFAŢĂ „Engle ngleza za pent pentru ru fizi fizică că”” se adres dresea eazză stud studen enţi ţilo lorr care care frecventează cursurile Facultăţii de Fizică dar şi celor care doresc să-şi îmbunătăţească cunoştinţele de limba engleză. Lucrarea cuprinde 15 texte de specialitate axate pe câteva subdomenii ale fizicii (astronomie, electrodinamică, fizică atomică şi mole molecu cula lară ră,, fizi fizică că medi medica cală, lă, fizi fizică că nucle nuclear ară, ă, fizi fizica ca part partic icule ulelo lor r elementare, magnetism, termodinamică, etc) menite să atragă interesul cititorului către această disciplină. In general, acestea sunt adaptări după după text textee origi origina nale le engl englez ezeş eşti ti sau sau amer americ icane ane sau sau pur pur şi simp simplu lu docu docume ment ntee aute autent ntic icee extr extras asee din din dive divers rsee cărţ cărţii de spec specia iali lita tate te,, fie fie utilizând internetul. Lecţiile au un nivel intermediar fiind concepute ca mijloc de perfecţionare a unor cunoştinţe de bază deja dobândite fie în anul I de studiu a limbii engleze ca limbă străină în cadrul facultăţilor tehnice, fie in timpul liceului. Din acest motiv, lucrarea cuprinde o tema temati tică că dive divers rsăă adap adapta tată tă preo preocu cupă păril rilor or stude studenţ nţil ilor or comb combin inân ândd elemente ale limbii engleze generale cu acelea specifice limbajului specializat al fizicii (fiecare text este urmat de explicarea termenilor de vocabular general cât şi a termenilor tehnici). Vocabulary Practice este destinat însuşirii şi fixării lexicului tehnic de specialitate pe baza unor exerciţii (identificarea greşelilor, găsirea sinonimelor sau antonimelor unor cuvinte extrase din text, adevărat sau fals, completarea spaţiilor goale, traduceri, etc). Focus on Language se axează pe prezentarea unor noţiuni şi subtilităţi gramaticale sub formă de scheme şi tabele pentru a facilita memorar memorarea ea lor.Ex lor.Exerc erciţii iţiile le aplica aplicativ tivee (traduc (traduceri eri,, umpler umplerea ea spaţii spaţiilor lor goal goalee cu anum anumit itee stru struct ctur uri,i, aleg aleger erea ea form formei ei core corect cte, e, etc) etc) ofer oferăă posibilitatea de a folosi problemele gramaticale asimilate, în mod complex. Intenţia mea a fost de a concepe un material de referinţă pentru studenţii facultăţii de fizică cât şi pentru cei interesaţi de această disciplină. Sursele folosite în redactarea acestei lucrări sunt menţionate în cadrul bibliografiei de la sfârşit.
Autoarea
UNIT 1 PHYSICS REVISION OF TENSES
PHYSICS Physics (from the Greek, ( phusikos), "natural", and ( phusis), "nature") is the science of Nature in the broadest sense. Physics deals with matter and energy and the fundamental forces of nature that govern the interactions between particles. Physicists study a wide range of physical phenomena, from the sub-nuclear particles of which all ordinary matter is made(particle physics) to the material Universe as a whole(cosmology). Some of the properties studied in physics are common to all material systems, such as the conservation of energy. Such properties are often referred to as laws of physics. Physics is sometimes said to be the "fundamental science", because each of the other natural sciences (biology, chemistry, geology, etc.) deals with particular types of material systems that obey the laws of physics. For example, chemistry is the science of molecules and the chemicals that they form in the bulk. The properties of a chemical are determined by the properties of the underlying molecules, which are accurately described by areas of physics such as quantum mechanics, thermodynamics, electromagnetism. . Physics is closely related to mathematics- mathematics provides the logical framework where physical laws can be precisely formulated and their predictions quantified. Physical theories are almost invariably expressed using mathematical relations, and the mathematics involved is generally more complicated than in the other sciences. The difference between physics and mathematics is that physics is concerned with descriptions of the material world, whereas mathematics is concerned with abstract patterns. The distinction, however, is not always clear-cut. There is a large area of research intermediate between physics and mathematics, known as mathematical physics, devoted to developing the mathematical structure of physical theories. Future directions
Research in physics is progressing constantly on a large number of fronts, and is likely to do so for the foreseeable future.In condensed matter physics, the biggest unsolved theoretical problem is the explanation for high-temperature superconductivity. In particle physics, the first pieces of experimental evidence for physics beyond the Standard Model have begun to appear. Foremost amongst these are indications that neutrions have non-zero mass.
These experimental results appear to have solved the long-standing solar neutrino problem in solar physics. The physics of massive neutrinos is currently an area of active theoretical and experimental research. Theoretical attempts to unify quantum mechanics and general relativity into a single theory of quantum gravity, a program ongoing for over half a century, have not yet borne fruit. The current leading candidates areM-theory, superstring theory and loop quantum gravity. Many astronomical and cosmologicla phenomena have yet to be satisfactorily explained, including the existence of ultra-high energy cosmic rays, the baryon asymmetry, the acceleration of the universe and the anomalous rotation rates of galaxies. Although much progress has been made in high-energy, quantum, and astronomical physics, many everyday phenomena, involving complexity, chaos, or turbulence are still poorly understood. Complex problems that seem like they could be solved by a clever application of dynamics and mechanics, like the formation of sandpiles, nodes in trickling water, the shape of water droplets, mechanisms of surface tension catastrophes are unsolved. These complex phenomena have received growing attention since the 1970s for several reasons, not least of which has been the availability of modern mathematical methods and computers which enabled complex systems to be modeled in new ways. The interdisciplinary relevance of complex physics has also increased, as exemplified by the study of turbulence in aerodynamics or the observation of pattern formation in biological systems. GENERAL VOCABULARY
TECHNICAL VOCABULARY
bulk, n.= grămadă; cantitate mare underlying, adj.= fundamental; de bază accurately, adv.= cu exactitate prediction, n.= anticipare foreseeable, adj.=ce poate fi prevăzut; anticipat foremost, adv.= în primul rând
neutrino, n.= neutrion loop, n.= buclă; nod baryion, n= barion anomalous, adj.= neregulat; anormal sandpile, n.= grămadă; morman de nisip trickling, adj.= care se prelinge droplet, n.= picătură to quantify, v.= a cuantifica; a determina sub raport cantitativ
COMPREHENSION
Answer the following questions: a) Is physics an interdisciplinary science? How? b) What does physics really study? c) What is the physicists’ main concern regarding condensed matter? d) How many theories govern quantum gravity? e) Which are the main phenomena still waiting to be solved? PRACTICE 1. Say which statements are true or false: a. The conservation of energy is one of the fundamental laws of physics. b. Physics deals with the description of abstract notions. c. Mathematics and physics are interconnected in the sense that mathematic relations are used to express physical theories. d. Scientists succeeded in unifying M-theory, superstring theory and loop quantum gravity in a single one. e. Physics offers explanations and solutions to all natural phenomena. 2. Read the text and find synonyms for the following words: WORD
illustrated irregular to foresee valid diversity
SYNONYM
……………. ……………. ……………. …………… ……………
WORD
disaster disorder elucidated study to give
SYNONYM
…………… …………… …………… …………… ……………
3. Spot the mistakes in the following sentences and write down their correct version:
Since antiquity people tried to understand why unsupported objects drop on the ground. String theory treat spacetime as composed from strings who have properties like tension and vibration.
Neutrinos are the only known particles that are not significant atenuated by his travel through the interstellar medium. Motions and position of objects are now much easy determined, modern astronomy being more concerned in understanding the physical nature of celestic objects. Astronomy is about finding what was going off beyond Earth.
4. Write down the names of the major subfields of physics by reading the definitions below:
a branch of physics that deals with the forces within the atomic nuclei and reactions that alter, fuse or split them a branch of physics that studies the physical properties of molecules and of the chemical bonds between atoms that bind them into molecules a branch of physics that describes the behavior and properties of light and the interaction of light with matter a branch of physics that studies the reactions involving degradation of polymerization of polymers and monomers a branch of physics that studies rigid matter or solids a branch of physics that studies the effects of the electron hull and the nucleus’s overall spin and electric charge a branch of physics that generates and controls photons particularly in the visible light spectrum a branch of physics that studies the universe on the largest scales and at the earliest times a branch of physics that studies the planets and the solar system
5. Word study !! while – at the same time whereas – while on the contrary One carried the books while the other arranged them on the shelves. One arrived on time whereas the others were late. !! “use” family of words to use – They use many gadgets. (a folosi) a use – Learn the use of this device. (folosirea) user – There are many computer users nowadays. (utilizatori)
usage – The glass apparatus has broken because of rough usage. (folosire) useful – This is a useful tool. (folositor; util) useless – The machine is useless for this experiment. (inutilă) usable – This apparatus is still usable. (utilizabil) to misuse – Scientific discoveries may be misused. (a întrebuinţa greşit) (Bantaş, Andrei; Tudor, Florin; Popescu, Rodica; Ciobanu, Georgeta; Vîlceanu, Irina; Bejan Nicolae, Lb. engleză pentru ştiinţă şi tehnică, Ed. Didactică şi pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1981 Make up sentences of your own with “while”, “whereas” and the family of the word “use”. 6. Use the words below to form sentences:
a) distinct/research/study/aspects/in physics/is/divided/several/ different/fields/of/material/the/contemporary/world/into/that b) research/disciplines/mix/areas/of/physics/with/other/many/are/ there/that c) scientists/help/astrophysical/system/of/solar/scientific/sources/ because/it/can/observe/the neutrino/is/our/interest/beyond d) objects/core/obscured/numerous/dense/galactic/the/bright/gas/ by/the Milky Way/is/of/and/completely e) the Earth/rotated/in/the/orbits/and/everything/Aristotle/said/were/ circles/around/the center/of/perfect/the Universe/it/that(2times)/was 7. Translate into English:
Cuantificarea gravitaţiei este una dintre cele mai dificile probleme ale fizicii ce aşteaptă să fie soluţionată. Elucidarea acestei probleme îi va ajuta pe fizicieni să înţeleagă o serie de fenomene din domeniul astrofizicii. Cosmologia studiază originea, istoria şi destinul universului. Fizica este o ştiinţă complexă structurată pe mai multe domenii de interes cum ar fi: astrofizica, electrostatică, electrodinamică, electricitate, mecanică cuantică, oscilaţii şi unde, termodinamică, etc. Fizica este poate una dintre cele mai importante ştiinţe ale naturii deoarece ea ne poate da informaţii despre fenomene ce sunt întâlnite şi în alte ştiinţe cum ar fi biologia sau chimia.
FOCUS ON LANGUAGE REVISION OF TENSES TENSE
SIMPLE Aff .Vinf; V+(e)s pers. IIIsg Neg.S+DO/DOES NOT + V Int.DO/DOES + S + V.....?
CONTINUOUS Aff .BE + Ving Neg.S +BE NOT+Ving Int.BE + S + Ving.......?
- acţiune obişnuită; repetată I eat twice a day. - adevăr general valabil A doctor cures sick people. -acţiune în viitor; plan official The plane takes off in an hour.
-acţiune în desfăşurare în momentul vorbirii I am leaving now. - acţiune temporară I am taking driving lessons this year. - acţiune în viitor (plan personal) I am flying to London on Wednesday.
PERFECT SIMPLE Aff . HAVE/HAS+V3 NegS+HAVE/HASNOT+V3 Int.HAVE/HAS+S+V3?
PERFECT CONT. Aff .HAVE/HAS+BEEN+Vi ng Neg. S+HAVE/HAS NOT +BEEN+Ving Int. HAVE/HAS+S+ BEEN+Ving…?
PRESENT
- acţiune încheiată în trecut, moment neprecizat, rezultat în prezent I’ve lost my key. - acţiune încheiată de curând (already, just, yet, recently) He has just opened the book. - acţiune terminată într-o perioadă de timp neîncheiată (today, ever, never) Have you ever lost anything? - acţiune începută în trecut dar care se continuă până în prezent (since, for)
- acţiune care a început în trecut şi se continuă până în prezent (for; since; all day long) It has been raining since morning.
He has been here for 2 hours.
TENSE
PAST
SIMPLE Aff. Ved; V2 Neg.S+DID NOT+Vinf Int.DID+S+Vinf….?
CONTINUOUS Aff. WAS/WERE+Ving NegS+WAS/WERE NOT+Ving Int WAS/WERE+S+Ving?
PERFECT SIMPLE Aff. HAD+V3 Neg. S+HAD NOT+V3 Int. HAD+S+V3
PERFECT CONT. Aff. HAD BEEN+Ving Neg.S+HAD NOT BEEN + Ving Int. HAD+S+Ving…?
- acţiune încheiată intr-un moment determinat din trecut My brother arrived last week. - acţiune repetată în trecut He used to sit for hours in front of the house.
acţiune încheiată înaintea unei acţiuni trecute (already, just, yet) He had already been to London when I met him. SIMPLE Aff. SHALL/WILL+Vinf Neg.S+SHALL/WILL NOT +Vinf FUTURE Int. SHALL/WILL+S+Vinf?
- acţiune în desfăşurare în trecut (this time last week) I was reading at this time yesterday.
-acţiune începută înaintea unei acţiuni trecute continuând până la ea He had been waiting for 2 hours when she came.
CONTINUOUS Aff.SHALL/WILL+BE+Ving
Neg.S+SHALL/WILL+NOT+BE+Ving Int.SHALL/WILL+S+BE+Ving - acţiune încheiată înaintea unui moment din viitor -acţiune ce va avea loc în He’ll be eating this time viitor tomorrow. He will come tomorrow. PERFECT SIMPLE
PERFECT CONT.
Aff SHALL/WILL+HAVE+V3 Aff .SHALL/WILL+HAVE+BEEN+ Ving Neg.S+SHALL/WILL Neg.S+SHALL/WILL NOT+ NOT+HAVE+V3 HAVE+BEEN+Ving Int SHALL/WILL+S+HAVE Int.SHALL/WILL+S+HAVE+BEEN +V3…?
-acţiune încheiată înaintea unui +Ving..? moment din viitor - acţiune începută înaintea unui She will have finished cooking moment din viitor care se continuă by 5o’clock tomorrow. până la acel moment By next month he will have been teaching for ten years.
8. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense: a) Don’t worry! I (wait) for you when you return from the school trip. b) I already (do) my homework when father (come) home. c) Jane (study) since I entered the kitchen. d) He usually (eat) breakfast at 7 o’clock but yesterday morning he (eat) at 10. e) You (help) me clean the house on Saturday? f) They (not read) as many books as I’d like to. g) He (live) in London for one year but he can’t understand English. h) I (not pass) the exam last week because I (be) very tired. i) I (write) the composition last week but I (not tell) you because I (not obtain) a good mark. j) She (turn off) the light after she (find) the papers she (look for) an hour. 9. Study the list of irregular verbs at the end of the book and then fill in the blanks with the past tense of the verbs in italics: 1. Andy runs very fast. Yesterday he ......... in the inter-school competition. 2. We begin our lessons at 8 o’clock. We ....... our classes at 8 o’clock yesterday too. 3. Christine sings very well. She ........... two songs at the school festival. 4. I read a lot in my spare time. I ........ three novels last week. 5. My sister often breaks things. She ....... a vase this morning. 6. We leave for our holiday in August. The younger children ......... in June. 7. The bell rings for the long break at 9.50. Yesterday it ......... earlier.
8. The girls usually swim in the morning. Yesterday morning the boys ........ with them. 9. The form-teacher speaks to the parents once a week. He ......... to them last night. 10. We generally eat dinner at 7 o’clock. Last night we ........... dinner at 7 o’clock too. 11. Children drink a lot of milk. My baby brother ........... three cups yesterday. 12. We usually meet our English teacher three times a week.Last week we ......... her four times. (Gălăţeanu , Georgiana, Exerciţii de gramatică engleză, timpurile verbale, Ed. Albatros, Bucureşti, 1979) 10. Translate into English: a) Ne-a plăcut foarte mult vacanţa la mare; am stat într-un hotel modern, am înotat în mare şi am jucat fotbal pe plajă. b) Şedinţa tocmai se terminase când am ajuns la birou. c) Am cumpărat o grămadă de lucruri cu banii pe care mi i-ai împrumutat marţea trecută. d) Îmi ia aproape două ore să ajung la serviciu cu maşina. e) De obicei nu fumează mai mult de patru ţigări pe zi. f) Plânge de când a venit acasă. Probabil s-a întâmplat ceva rău dar nu vrea să-mi spună. g) Te rog să ieşi afară! De mâine nu vei mai lucra aici! h) Această regiune este foarte frumoasă. Turiştii vor veni întotdeauna sa viziteze acest loc! i) Când m-am urcat în autobuz mi-am dat seama că cineva mi-a furat portofelul. j) Se certau în timp ce noi încercam să-i împăcăm. k) M-am gândit la oferta lui toată ziua dar tot nu ştiu ce hotărîre să iau. l) L-am văzut pe unchiul tău acum două zile.Stătea la coadă să cumpere bilete la meci. WRITING Write a short essay in which you express your own opinion about the way physics will contribute to development of the world in the distant future. FUN TIME: What is the difference between a physicist, an engineer, and a mathematician?
If an engineer walks into a room and sees a fire in the middle and a bucket of water in the corner, he takes the bucket of water and pours it on the fire and puts it out. If a physicist walks into a room and sees a fire in the middle and a bucket of water in the corner, he takes the bucket of water and pours it eloquently around the fire and lets the fire put itself out. If a mathematician walks into a room and sees a fire in the middle and a bucket of water in the corner, he convinces himself there is a solution and leaves.
UNIT 2 NEWTON’S CONTRIBUTION TO DYNAMICS THE PLURAL OF NOUNS (I)
NEWTON’S CONTRIBUTION TO DYNAMICS
Dynamics studies the mechanical motion of material bodies in connection with the factors causing the motion. These factors are: mechanical interaction between the bodies, the inertia of the bodies and the constraints imposed on the bodies. Thus, dynamics deals with the general laws of mechanical motion. Isaac Newton was the one who established these basic laws of mechanics, and, by formulating them, he explained the workings of the universe. Isaac published his most famous book “Principia” in 1687 while he was a mathematic professor at Cambridge. In the Principia, he explained three basic laws that govern the way objects move. He then described his idea, or theory about gravity. Gravity is the force that causes things things to fall down. If a pencil pencil falls off a desk, it will land on the floor, not the ceiling. In this book Isaac also used his laws to show that the planets revolve around the suns in orbits that are oval, not round. Newton created a system of mechanics by which the motion of all bodies, whether on the earth or in the heavens, can be understood or at least described and predicted. At the foundations of the system lie three simple principles – his three laws of motion. The first law is a clear statement of Galileo’s idea of inertia. We quote from Newton’s Principia: Law 1 – “Every body perseveres in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a right line, unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed thereon.” This is the law of inertia. There are three distinct points in this law. First, that a body at rest tends to remain at rest is a universal lesson of experience; second, it is also a matter of experience that the natural tendency of a body is to move in a straight line. The third point of
Newton’s first law – that a body continues to move with constant speed – seems contrary to experience. We know that a moving body may continue on its course for a time, but it always slows down and eventually stops. How could Newton make such a statement, and use it as the very foundation of his system? It was really Galileo who developed and justified the idea. He admit dmitte tedd that that all all movi moving ng bodi bodies es on the the eart earthh slo slow down down and and eventually stop, but he maintained that this happens because there is always interference with friction. True, he went beyond experience but not without reasoning. Newton’s second law answers the very question that the first law raises. Suppose we grant that a body tends to keep its state of motion, if it meets with no interference. What happens when we do inte interf rfer eree with with it? it? Newt Newton on’s ’s answ answer er woul wouldd be very very simp simple le but but emphatic: “Then the body will be accelerated”. It will be either speeded up, slowed down, or deflected from its course, depending on the way we interfere with the body. In other words it will suffer change in its velocity. Newton himself expresses it as follows: alternation of motion is ever proportional proportional to the motive Law 2. – The alternation force impressed; and is made in the direction of the right line in which that force is impressed. This is the law of acceleration. The bigger the body – that is the more mass in the body b ody – the less acceleration. Thus the acceleration produced is directly proportional to the force and inve invers rsel elyy prop propor orti tion onal al to the the mass mass.. One One of the the most most impo import rtan antt properties of o f forces f orces is that they always appear in pairs. There is never just one force in any given situation. For every force there is always an equal and opposite force. This simple statement is Newton’s third law of motion. Newton stated it as follows: Law 3. – To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction. Newton’s third law applies to countless interesting instances. As it speeds up, a car pushes the road backward and as it comes to a stop forward. An airplane pushes the air backward on moving through it. Newton’s calculations changed the way people understood u nderstood the universe. No one had been able to explain why the planets stayed in their orbits. What held them? Isaac proved that they were held in place by the sun’s gravity. He was not the first to understand that the orbit of a planet was not circular, but more elongated, like an oval. What he did was to explain how it worked. GENERAL VOCABULARY
TECHNICAL VOCABULARY
constraint, n. = constrângere ceiling, n. = tavan to predict, v.= a prezice to persevere, v.= a persevera to compel, v. = a obliga eventually, adv.= în cele din urmă to grant,v.= a acorda
motion, n.= mişcare; mecanism inertia, n.= forţă de inerţie gravity, n.= gravitaţie to revolve, v.= a (se) roti; a gravita; a (se) învârti orbit, n.= orbită; traiectorie heavens, n.= cosmos friction, n.= frecare to deflect, v.= a devia to elongate, v.= a (a)lungi
COMPREHENSION
Answer the following questions: a. What What doe doess dyna dynami mics cs real really ly dea deall with with?? b. How did Newton contribute to the development of dynamics? c. Can Can you defi define ne the thre threee basic basic laws laws desc descri ribe bedd by Newto Newtonn in Principia? d. Why Why is it said said that that Newt Newton on’s ’s calcu calcula lati tion onss have have chan change gedd the the understanding of the universe? e. Who was was Newton Newton infl influen uenced ced by by in his his caree careerr as a physi physicis cist? t? PRACTICE 1. Match the two columns paying attention to the meanings the words have in the text above: 1. GRAVITY a. elementary particle of gravitation b. force of attraction by which terrestrial bodies tend to fall toward the center of the earth 2. TO REVOLVE a. to turn around; to rotate b. to be revolved in the mind 3. INERTIA a. the tendency of a body to move when a force acts upon it b. the property of a body to maintain its state of rest so long as it is not acted upon by an external force 4. FRICTION a. the resistance of a surface to the relative motion b. a conflict between persons
5. DEFLECTION a. the condition of a body to follow a straight line b. the deviation from a staight line 6. ELONGATED a. something that is round b. extended, lengthened 2. Say which statements are true or false:
a) Newton was the first scientist preocuppied with finding an explanation to the workings of the universe. b) Dynamics is the study of the mechanical motion of material bodies. c) Newton described the system of mechanics in his famous book called Principia d) The first law of inertia concentrates on two distinct issues. e) The law of acceleration states that the acceleration produced to a body is not proportional to the force impressed. f) Isaac Newton proved that planets were held in their orbits by the Sun’s gravity. 3. Give the synonyms of the following words extracted from the text: WORD
motion constraint to revolve friction
SYNONYM
................... ................... .................. .................
WORD
to persevere eventually elongated to quote
SYNONYM
.................. .................. .................. ..................
4. Give the missing noun, adjective or verb corresponding to the following words:
VERB
NOUN
ADJECTIVE
to predict to persevere ....................... to impress ...................... to quote
............................ ............................ tendency ............................ interference ............................
.............................. .............................. .............................. .............................. .............................. ..............................
5. Some of the words below are spelt incorrectly; pick them out and write down their correct version:
mecanical celing straight conection emfatic
elongated forword fundations friction eventualy
heavens orbit matematic mecanics countless
6. Translate into English:
a. Legea inerţiei afirmă că un corp este în stare de repaus până în momentul în care o forţă ce acţionează asupra lui îi modifică această stare. b. Conform teoriei lui Newton un corp nu se poate pune în mişcare sau opri de unul singur şi nu poate să-şi schimbe intensitatea şi direcţia vitezei decât dacă un factor extern acţionează asupra lui. c. Cel de-al doilea principiu al lui Newton susţine că forţa ce acţionează asupra unui corp şi acceleraţia acestuia au aceeaşi direcţie. d. Principiul acţiunii şi reacţiunii afirmă că forţele pe care le exercită două corpuri aflate în interacţiune sunt egale în intensitate dar de sensuri diferite. e. Isaac Newton a fost unul dintre cei mai mari oameni de ştiinţă ai lumii fiindcă a reuşit să explice modul în care funcţionează universul. 7.Crossword puzzle:
1
1. the reciprocal influence 2 of two or more bodies 3 2. the resistance of a 4 body when moving 5 along a given surface 6 3. the shape of a body that 7 is lengthened 8 4. a force that tends to cause 9 motion 10 11 5. to force a body to change its state 12 6. the force that causes things to fall down 7. a branch of mechanics that deals with the motion of systems under the action of forces 8. a science concerned with the action of forces on bodies. 9. movement ; 10. the tendency of a body to maintain its state of rest along a straight line 11. to move in a circular course 12. ultimately; finally FOCUS ON LANGUAGE
THE PLURAL OF NOUNS (I) RULES
EXAMPLES
1. the plural of a noun is usually SINGULAR formed by adding ”s” to the dog singular room bus 2. nouns ending in: -s; -ss; - sh; kiss - ch; -x form their plural by adding crash - es church box 3. nouns ending in – o following a tomato consonant add –es. Nouns of Exc: kilo foreign origin or abbreviated photo words ending in –o, add only - s piano
PLURAL dogs rooms buses kisses crashes churches boxes tomatoes kilos photos pianos
4. nouns ending in – y following a consonant form their plural by changing the y into i and adding -es 5. nouns ending in –f or –fe, drop the f or fe and add - ves
factories cities
factory city wife life Exc: roof proof cliff chief hankerchief
Irregular Plurals
man – men woman – women child –children tooth – teeth foot – feet
goose - geese louse - lice mouse - mice ox - oxen
Foreign Plurals
ENDINGS
NOUN
wives lives roofs proofs cliffs chiefs handkerchiefs
Singular - us -a - um - ex/ix - is - on
Plural -i - ae -a - ices - es -a
Singular stimulus larva erratum index thesis criterion
Plural stimuli larvae errata indices theses criteria
a) some foreign nonus do not follow the rules mentioned above: bonus – bonuses encyclopedia - encyclopedias campus – campuses museum – museums diploma - diplomas electron – electrons b) some foreign nouns have two plural forms: genius – geniuses (oameni de geniu) – genii (spirite; duhuri) formula – formulas – formulae index – indexes (in books) – indices (in mathematics) appendix – appendixes (medical term) – appendices (addition(s)) to a book 8. Write the plural of the following nouns:
body ................ inertia ............... idea ............... mass ................. system ..............
tendency ................ velocity ................. property ................ gravity ................. electricity .............
apparatus ............... medium ................. density .................. formula ................ momentum ............
9. Turn the following sentences into the plural: I. a) Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity brought an important change in Newton’s law of gravitation. b) The radius of an electron cloud is 10.000 times greater than the nucleus. c) The physicist couldn’t describe the discovery he had made two weeks before the conference since he felt sick. d) Roentgen couldn’t calculate exactly the velocity and the mass of the mysterious ray that he discovered in 1896. e) His discovery made the physicist study this phenomenon more closely. II. a) My life has completely changed after the child left for Paris.
b) This woman reads me a story every night but I still can’t sleep. c) That man bought a funny toy for the monkey he had at home. d) It’s hard to establish the right criterion of selection for these candidates. e) He took a photo of his family. 10. Combine the partitive expressions in column A with the uncountable nouns given in column B. Translate them into Romanian:
Column A Column B an article of sugar a bar of meat a cake of bread a grain of paper a heap of soap an item of chocolate a loaf of land a lump of rice a piece of rubbish a pile of evidence a sheet of information a slice of advice a strip of luggage a word of furniture (*** Limba engleză pentru admiterea în învăţământul superior, Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1978) 11. Translate into English:
a) Trebuie să înveţi aceste formule pe dinafară dacă vrei să rezolvi aceste probleme. b) În aceste regiuni astfel de fenomene au loc cam de două ori pe an. c) Atunci când nu există forţe care să acţioneze asupra lor, corpurile îşi menţin stările de repaus. d) Are nişte idei foarte interesante cu privire la modernizarea acestor oraşe cu autobuze noi şi nepoluante care să ducă copiii la şcoală.
e) Acum câteva secole, fizica a fost dominată de geniile lui Newton, Einstein etc. WRITING Summarize the text using your own words (no more than 100 words) FUN TIME Why did the chicken cross the road? Aristotle: It is the nature of chickens to cross roads. Isaac Newton: Chickens at rest tend to stay at rest, chickens in motion tend to cross roads. Albert Einstein: Whether the chicken crossed the road or the road moved beneath the chicken depends on your frame of reference. Werner Heisenberg: We are not sure which side of the road the chicken was on, but it was moving very fast.
UNIT 3 TELESCOPES THE PLURAL OF NOUNS II
TELESCOPES
A telescope is a device that permits distant and faint objects to be viewed as if they were much brighter and closer to the observer. Telescopes are typically used to observe the skies. For hundreds of years, telescopes were the only instruments available for studying the planets and stars. Even today, scientists continue to rely on telescopes to learn about distant stars, nebulas and galaxies.
Most telescopes work by collecting and magnifying visible light that is given off by stars or reflected from the surface of planets. Such instruments are called optical telescopes. Conventional optical telescopes use a curved lens or mirror to collect light and bring it to a focus, a point in space where all the light rays converge. A small magnifying lens called an eyepiece, placed at the focus allows the image to be viewed. In astronomical research cameras or other instruments placed near the focus make a precise recording of the light gathered by a telescope. The visible light collected by a telescope is divided into component wavelengths, or colors, through a process called spectroscopy. This powerful technique which uses a prism essentially “decodes” starlight to yield information about an object’s temperature, motion and other dynamics, chemical composition, and the presence of magnetic fields. Light rays, however, are just one part of what scientists call the electromagnetic spectrum. Just as stars emit visible light, they also give off other types of electromagnetic radiation, including radio waves, microwaves, infrared light, ultraviolet light, X rays and gamma rays. All these forms of electromagnetic radiation are emitted as waves. Rapid advances in astrophysics and optical technology broadened telescope technology in the last quarter of the 20th century. Astronomical telescopes today come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes. Many telescopes are Earth-based, located in astronomical observatories around the world. But, only radio waves, visible light, and some infrared radiation can penetrate Earth’s atmosphere and reach the surface of our planet. To overcome this problem, scientists have launched telescopes into space. There are two main kinds of optical telescopes: refracting and reflecting. Refracting telescopes, or refractors, use a glass lens to bend, or refract starlight and bring it to a focus. They are typically hampered by chromatic aberration, which causes different colors of light to come to a different focus because every color has its own degree of refraction. Chromatic aberration causes the image of a star or planet to be surrounded by circles of different colors. Another fundamental limitation of refractors is that lenses with diameters beyond 100 cm are impractical because they weigh more than half a ton and sag under their own weight, distorting the starlight. A reflecting telescope uses a precisely curved mirror instead of a lens to collect starlight. Reflecting telescopes are especially useful for
gathering light from dim objects. Not only can a larger telescope see fainter objects but it can also obtain the data in a fraction of time. Larger reflecting telescopes can typically detect objects that are a millionth or a billionth the brightness of the faintest star seen by the human eye. Other types of telescopes are: radio telescopes, infrared telescopes, ultraviolet telescopes, X-ray telescopes, etc. GENERAL VOCABULARY
faint, adj. = neclar; vag to gather, v.= a aduna; a strânge to yield, v.= a obţine to hamper, v.= a împiedica; a limita to sag, v.= a se îndoi; a se lăsa (sub greutate) dim, adj.= neclar; şters
TECHNICAL VOCABULARY
curved, adj.= îndoit; curbat lens, n.= lentilă to converge, v.= a converge to magnify, v.= a mări; a amplifica eyepiece, n.= ocular wavelength, n.= lungime de undă infrared, adj.= infraroşu focus, n.= focalizare; to bend, v.= a se îndoi; a se curba
COMPREHENSION
Answer the following questions: a. Why are telescopes considered to be important? b. Can you explain how optical telescopes really work? c. What happens to the light collected by a telescope? d. What is the electromagnetic spectrum composed of? e. What are the main limitations of refracting telescopes? f. Are there any differences between refractors and reflecting telescopes? g. How many types of telescopes do you know? PRACTICE 1. Say which statements are true or false: a. Scientists use telescopes to find out information about planets, stars, nebulas and galaxies.
b. When speaking about the electromagnetic spectrum scientists actually refer to the light emitted by stars. c. Chromatic aberration is a specific phenomenon of refractors causing different colors of light to come to a focus. d. Spectroscopy is a technique that helps scientists to get relevant information about an object’s temperature, motion, chemical composition, etc. e. All telescopes are Earth-based being located in astronomical observatories around the world. 2. Give synonyms of the following words extracted from the text: WORD f aint
device available distant
SYNONYM
…………… …………... …………… ……………
WORD
to sag to detect to magnify to broaden
SYNONYM
…………. …………. …………. ………….
3. Find antonyms of the following words by using negative prefixes: WORD
ANTONYM
available practical correct material
………….. …………. ………… …………
WORD
to activate to understand to activate to converge
ANTONYM
………….. …………. …………. ………….
4. Fill in the blanks with the following words extracted from the text: refractors gamma rays microwaves infrared telescopes
chromatic aberration to distort ultraviolet telescopes
a) If the lens of a telescope is too heavy, then, the light emitted by the star is ………………..
b) …………………… are the result of the most catastrophic events in the universe such as collisions between neutron star and black holes having wavelengths shorter than X rays. c) When the optical image of a star or planet is distorted by the appearance of circles of different colors we have to do with the process of ……………… d) ………………. allow scientists to gather significant information about the dark dusty region of space. e) ………………. use a convex lens to converge the rays of light to a focus. f) The electromagnetic spectrum is formed of different types of electromagnetic radiation among which we can mention gamma rays, light rays, X rays, ultraviolet and infrared light as well as ……………. g) …………….. help us to find out more about the hottest and most energetic stars in the universe that can be seen only in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum. 5. Spot the mistakes in the following sentences and write down their correct version:
These technique use a prism to yield informations about an object’s temperature, motion, dynamics, etc. A convex lens is thick in the center and thiner toward her edges. A reflecting telescopes’s light sensitivity increase with the square of the diameter of the telescope’s mirror. In some telescopes designed in the 1990, the mirror’s weigh has been dramaticaly reduced, engineers developping meniscus mirrors. A new tehnique in optic astronomy is to combine signals from telescopes in separate locations so that the rezulting image are equal to that received from a giant telescope. 6. Discover the word written down by solving the crossword puzzle:
1
2. something that lacks 2 brightness 3 3. to register 4 4. systems of stars that 5 are held together by 6 gravitation 7 5. to tend to meet in a 8 point 9 6. far off in space; 10 remote 11 7. a group of light waves ordered in accordance with the magnitudes of a common physical property 8. an electromagnetic wave of very high frequency 9. the lens in an optical instrument that allows the eye to view the image formed 10. a luminous dark mass of gases and small amounts of dust 11. the adjustment of an optical device necessary to produce a clear image 7. Translate into English: Spectrul electromagnetic cuprinde atât lumina emisă de aştri cât şi alte tipuri de radiaţie electromagnetică precum: unde radio, raze X, raze gama, etc Telescoapele sunt amplasate nu numai în observatoare pe pământ ci şi în spaţiu deoarece numai undele radio, lumina
vizibilă şi radiaţiile infraroşii pot să ajungă la suprafaţa pământului. Oamenii de ştiinţă folosesc telescoapele pentru a studia şi a afla cât mai multe despre aştri îndepărtaţi, nebuloase şi galaxii. Telescoapele de reflexie au o importanţă deosebită, ajutândune să vedem obiecte neclare şi să obţinem date precise într-o fracţiune de timp. Aberaţia cromatică este un fenomen specific telescoapelor de refracţie constând în aducerea diferitelor culori ale luminii în puncte de focalizare diferite.
FOCUS ON LANGUAGE THE PLURAL OF NOUNS (II) The plural of compound nouns RULES
1. we add the plural ending to the last word if the last word is a noun 2. in the case of noun + preposition + noun, we add the plural ending to the first noun 3. when one of the compounds is ”man” or ”woman”, both parts are made plural 4. in the case of verb+”-er” nouns + adverbial particle, we add the plural ending to the first word 5. in the case of verb + adverbial particle, we add the plural ending to the last word
Unique nouns
EXAMPLES SINGULAR girlfriend shopassistant mother-in-law editor-in-chief
PLURAL girlfriends shopassistants mothers-in-law editors-in-chief
man driver woman singer
men drivers women singers
passer-by looker-on
passers-by lookers-on
forget-me-not forget-me-nots merry-go-round Merry-gorounds
- havo only the singular number a) unique objects: the earth; the sun; the moon, the east, etc b) nouns of material: bread; oil; soap; tea;water; paper, etc c) abstract nouns: - actions and states: speaking; writing, etc - qualities: length; height; depth,etc - feelings: curage; love; hope, etc - doctrines; games; currents: socialism; tennis; Renaissance -uncountable nouns: advice; information;news; luggage;knowledge - names of sciences: (take both a singular and a plural verb) : dynamics; physics; mathematics,etc Defective nouns - are always plural; they usually denote garments or instruments that consist of two equal parts: trousers, shorts, glasses, etc. Some of them have two different meanings in the plural NOUN a) colour
SINGULAR culoare
b) custom
obicei
c) damage
avarie
d) glass
pahar
e) ground
motiv; cauză
f) minute
minut
f) pain
durere
PLURAL 1. culoare 2. drapel
1. obiceiuri 2. vamă 1. avarii 2. despăgubiri 1. pahare 2. ochelari 1. motive 2. teren 1. minute 2. process verbal 1. dureri 2. osteneală
Collective nouns
a) crew; family; team; etc – take a singular verb if we consider the word to mean a single group
Our team is the best. - take a plural verb if we take it to mean a number of individuals Our team are wearing their new T-shirts. b) people; military; police, etc – always take a plural verb Those people are waiting for you in the office. c) fish; carp; deer;sheep , etc – do not change in the plural She bought three carp.
PRACTICE 8. Turn the following sentences extracted from the text into the singular or plural: TURN INTO THE SG. a) Telescopes are typically used to observe the skies. b) Scientists continue to rely on telescopes to learn about distant stars, nebulas and galaxies. c) Cameras or other instruments placed near the focus make precise recordings of the light gathered by telescopes.
TURN INTO THE PL. a) A small magnifying lens called an eyepiece allows the image to be viewed. b) A larger telescope can see fainter objects and obtain the data in a fraction of time. c) This technique ”decodes” starlight to yield information about an object’s temperature, motion, chemical composition, etc
9. Choose the right form of the verb: a) The government (is/are) against the favourable verdict delivered by the Court of Justice regarding the teachers’strike. b) The government (has/have) announced further VAT cuts. c) Tom’s family (hide/hides) many secrets. d) The family (was/were) waiting for him although it was midnight. e) Our football team (is/are) the best in Europe. f) Their team (is/are) wearing the new red Tshirts. g) Ten people (is/are) standing in a queue to buy our products. h) Our crew (take/takes) part in a competition.
i) The crew (is/are) discussing the possible solutions in case the terrible hurricane will strike their ship. 10.Turn the underlined nouns into the plural if necessary:
You have to show your passport at the custom. I asked Tom to buy me four trout because I wanted to prepare a delicious dinner. Have you seen my glass? I cannot find them. We certainly need a new tooth-brush, otherwise we’ll have tooth decays in a short period of time. I simply don’t trust woman-doctor that’s why I’m not coming with you. He always takes great pain with his projects.
11. Choose the singular or plural form. Translate into Romanian: 1.colour a) I simply hate this ................... b) You must stand still when the country’s ........... is being raised c) My favourite ............... are blue and beige. 2. custom a) You have to declare everything at the ......................... b) She was privileged to get acquainted with this ............... of the Burundians c) Hand shaking is one of the most frequent ................. in Europe. 3. damage a) I’ll have to pay for the ...................... b) In case of fire the insurance company will pay the.......... 4. ground a) You must have solid ........... if you want to ask for a divorce. b) What was the .............. of this quarrel? c) Children hava taken good care of their sports ................ 5. minute a) How many …………. does it take to get to the office? b) We wanted him to read the …………. of the previous meeting. c) Wait a …………….! 6. pain a) She feels no ………….. now. b) What do you recommend for stomach ……………? c) You do take great …………. with your work. (***, Limba engleză – exerciţii pentru admiterea în învăţământul superior, Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1978)
12. Turn the following compound nouns into the plural: schoolboy; masterpiece; brother-in-law; father-in-law; headmaster; woman dentist; postman; blackboard; son-in-law; passer-by; bedroom; looker-on; man singer; merry-go-round; forget-me-not; footstep; fireman (Gălăţeanu, Georgiana; Comişel, Ecaterina, Gramatica limbii engleze pentru uz şcolar , Ed. Didactică şi pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1982) WRITING Describe, in writing, the type of telescope that you like best by using additional materials.
UNIT 4 ATOMIC PHYSICS THE GENITIVE CASE
ATOMIC PHYSICS
One of the main quests of science throughout the ages has been to discover what matter is made of – and what holds it together. All matter is made out of tiny particles called atoms. Modern physics has discovered how atoms are made up of smaller particles and how these particles interact to build atoms into molecules and larger objects of matter. Atoms are extremely small particles, out of which all matter is made. They are the smallest particles of a chemical element that still have the properties of that element. A typical atom is about one millionth of a millimetre across – a million of them laid in a line would measure one millimetre across. The lightest atom is that of hydrogen, while one of the heaviest is that of uranium – 200 times heavier than hydrogen. Splitting large atoms into smaller ones or ‘fusing’ small ones to create larger ones, releases energy – this is what happens inside nuclear reactors and atom bombs (‘fission’) and inside hydrogen bombs and the sun (‘fusion’). States of Matter Matter consists of atoms held together by electromagnetic forces. How tight these bonds are determines which of the four states: solid, liquid, gas or plasma, matter exists as. Plasmas are only found naturally in the coronae and cores of the stars. As the atoms move faster, the distance between them increases. Heating increases the motion of atoms and causes the matter to go from solid (ice) to liquid (water) to gas (vapor). Heat and temperature is explained in atomic theory as the motion of the atoms (faster = hotter). Pressure is explained as the momentum transfer of
those moving atoms on the walls of the container (faster atoms = higher temperature = more momentum/hits = higher pressure). Subatomic Particles At first, scientists thought that atoms were rather like billiard balls – solid objects with no internal structure. But further experiments showed that atoms were made of subatomic particles. The three particles that make up atoms are protons, neutrons and electrons. Protons and neutrons are heavier than electrons and reside in the nucleus, which is the center of the atom. Protons have a positive electrical charge, and neutrons have no electrical charge. Electrons are extremely lightweight and are negatively charged. They exist in a cloud that surrounds the atom. The electron cloud has a radius 10,000 times greater than the nucleus. The first subatomic particle to be identified was the electron, in 1898. Ten years later, Ernest Rutherford discovered that atoms have a very dense nucleus, which contains protons. In 1932, James Chadwick discovered the neutron, another particle located within the nucleus. Rutherford performed early experiments of shooting alpha particles (helium nuclei) at sheets of gold to show that atoms were, in fact, mostly empty space. Some of the alpha particles passed through the foil as expected, but some particles bounced back. Alpha particles carry positive charge. Like charges repel and opposites attract. This meant that there was a small concentration of positive charges in the atom. Rutherford’s model of an atom has a small o nucleus containing - protons (positive charged particles) -neutrons (particles with no electrical charge surrounded by o electrons (small particles with negative charge) This model basically looks like a little solar system, where the nucleus is the Sun and the electrons orbit the nucleus like the planets orbit the Sun. The solid behavior of atoms is due to the electromagnetic repulsion of the electrons in the outer orbits. When you strike your hand on a table, the solidness you feel is an illusion caused by the electrons. The Nucleus The nucleus is only 1/100,000 th the diameter of the atom and yet nearly all the mass of the atom is in that tiny nucleus. There are just over one-hundred elements. Each element may also have several isotopes (different numbers of neutrons), but generally only a few will be stable (not radioactive). Heavy atoms tend to be radioactive.
Electrons Electrons are negatively charged subatomic particles, and they cause electricity when they flow or static electricity when many of them build up in one place, or are taken away. The electrons have negative electrical charge, and their movement between atoms is responsible for electrical current. They can also be removed from atoms by rubbing different material together, e.g. by combing your hair. This is static electricity. The electrical charge of protons and electrons are exactly equal but opposite. Usually there are the same number of protons and electrons in an atom, and their electrical charges cancel each other. The electron is the light weight particle that “orbits” outside the atomic nucleus. Electrons surround the atom in pathways called orbitals. The inner orbitals surrounding the atom are spherical but the outer orbitals are much more complicated. GENERAL VOCABULARY
quest, n.= căutare, urmărire tiny, adj. = micuţ, mititel to bounce, v. = a sări, a ricoşa to repel, v. = a respinge to flow, v. = a curge, a se scurge to shoot at, v. = a căuta să atingă, a ţinti
TECHNICAL VOCABULARY
orbital, adj. = orbital to split, v. = divizat, împărţit fission, n. = fisiune plasma, n. = plasmă, gaz ionizat radius, n. = rază a unui cerc (pl. radii) nucleus, n. = nucleu (pl. nuclei) trickle, n. = scurgere în cantitate mică corona, n. = coroană solară (pl. coronae) pathway, n. = traiectorie
COMPREHENSION Answer these questions on the text: a. What is matter made of? b. Can you name the lightest atom? What about the heaviest one? c. What happens inside a nuclear reactor? d. Which are the states of matter? e. Do atoms have an internal structure? f. What kind of charges do the protons, neutrons and electrons have?
g. What is the size of the nucleus of an atom?
PRACTICE 1. Match the following words with the definitions given below: a. alpha particles f. matter k. momentum b. radius g. nucleus l. coronae c. orbital h. proton d. molecule i. atom e. plasma j. fission
1. force or speed of movement 2. the substance of which any physical object consists or is composed 3. the splitting of the nucleus of an atom into nuclei of lighter atoms accompanied by the release of energy 4. a white or coloured set of concentric circles of light seen around a luminous body (sun, moon or the Sun) 5. a straight line extending from the center of a circle or sphere to the circumference or surface 6. the positively charged mass within an atom, composed of neutrons and protons 7. an elementary particle that is a fundamental constituent of all atomic nuclei, having a positive charge 8. the smallest component of an element having all the properties of the element consisting of an aggregate of protons, neutrons and electrons 9. a highly ionized gas containing an approximately equal number of positive ions and electrons 10. the path traced by an electron revolving around the nucleus of an atom 11. the smallest physical unit of an element or compound consisting of one or more like atoms in an element 12. a positively charged particle consisting of two protons and two neutrons emitted in radioactive decay or nuclear fission; the nucleus of a helium atom 2. Select the answer which best completes or explains the meaning of the sentences:
A. The difference between atoms and molecules is that: a) molecules are made of small particles which contain two protons and two neutrons while atoms are solid objects with no internal structure b) molecules are made of different number of neutrons which are radioactive while atoms are composed of several isotopes c) molecules are the result of the interaction of the particles that build atoms while atoms are small particles of which all matter is made B. The nucleus of an atom consists of: a) neutrons and negatively charged electrons b) positively charged protons and a similar number of neutrons c) positively charged protons and negatively charged electrons C. Electrical current is the result of: a) the movement of the electrons between atoms b) the movement of the atoms c) the movement of protons and neutrons 3. Fill in the blanks with the following words: FUSION
FISSION
REPULSION
ISOTOPES
RADIOACTIVITY
STATIC ELECTRICITY
ELECTRICAL CURRENT
ELECTRICAL CHARGE
A) The electromagnetic ………………. of the electrons in the outer orbits explains the solid behavior of atoms B) Hydrogen bombs are generated by the energy created through the ……………… of light atoms to form larger ones C) ……………………. is generated by the movement of electrons between atoms D) The elements of the atom which have the same number of protons in the nucleus are named ………………. E) The process through which energy is released as a result of splitting large atoms into smaller ones is called ………………….
F) Inside the nucleus of an atom, neutrons have no …………….. … G) Most heavy atoms are generally characterized by ………………. resulting from changes in the nuclei of atoms of the element H) When electrons are removed from atoms by rubbing different material together we have to do with …………….. 4. Give nouns corresponding to the following verbs: TO REPULSE
………………….
TO FUSE ……………………
TO BOUNCE TO MOVE
…………………. ………………….
TO INTERACT ……………..
5. Give synonyms to the following words extracted from the text: TO SURROUND …………………….
LOCATED …………………
PROPERTIES
EMPTY ……………………
…………………….
TO SPLIT ……………..
TINY ……………… QUEST …………
6. Complete the missing words in the paragraph using vocabulary items from the text studied above:
Rutherford made a very important assumption after his experiment: when a_ _ _ _ particles collided directly with nitrogen nuclei, an entirely new _ _ c_ _ _ _ was created which was unstable and disintegrated into a form of oxygen and ordinary _ y _ _ _ _ _ _. It was this ejected _ y _ _ _ _ _ _ which he was detecting in the form of high-speed _ _ _ t _ _ _. This historic experiment was the first manmade _u _ _ _ _ _ transmutation. Chadwick in England was one of Rutherford’s disciples. He demonstrated the existence in nature of a fundamental _ _ _ _ i _ _ _ that was electrically neutral. In 1935 he received the Nobel prize for his discovery of the _ _ u _ _ _ _. 7. Translate into English: a) Atomul este cea mai mică parte dintr-un element chimic care păstreză însuşirile chimice ale elementului respectiv.
b) Rutherford a descris atomul ca fiind format dintr-un nucleu în jurul căruia se învârt electronii. c) Chadwick a descoperit o particulă nouă care avea aceeaşi masă ca protonul dar nu avea sarcină electrică d) Sarcinile de acelaşi fel se resping în timp ce sarcinile opuse se atrag. e) Curentul electric este rezultatul mişcării electronilor printre atomi. FUN TIME
A hydrogen atom lost its electron and went to the police station to file a missing electron report. He was questioned by the police: "Haven't you just misplaced it somewhere? Are you sure that your electron is really lost?" "I'm positive." replied the atom.
FOCUS ON LANGUAGE THE GENITIVE CASE The Analytical Genitive – with the preposition of is used with: a) nouns denoting human beings: the book of the pupil b) nouns denoting objects: the doors of the house c) with long noun phrases: the sister of the boy you’ve just talked to .. The Synthetic Genitive – with ’s is used with: a) singular nouns: the girl’s room; John’s pencil b) irregular plurals: the men’s club
! We add only ’ to plural nouns: my friends’ books ! The “Synthetic Genitive” is used with:
a) nouns denoting persons or other beings: Tom’s pencil; the hen’s egg b) geographical names or natural phenomena: Romania’s flag; the day’s heat c) collective nouns: the government’s solution to this problem d) nouns denoting measurement, time, space, quantity, value: a three weeks’ holiday; a life’s work
The Implicit Genitive - is often used nowadays; we do no longer use the mark of the genitive: afternoon schedule; audience participation PRACTICE 9. Use either the analytical or the synthetic genitive with the nouns in brackets: a) He opened only one (window) his room. b) I haven’t read today (newspaper). c) Tom is (Mary) brother. d) (Children) answers are always direct and sincere. e) (Woman) clothes are very expensive this summer. f) (Babies) toys are bought especially on Christmas. g) He wanted to sharpen the blade (knife) in just two minutes. h) We don’t know the (woman) opinion regarding this problem. i) I have always received Tom (presents) earlier than expected. j) The pupils (relatives) were asked to join their trip to the mountains. 10 Turn the following nouns in the genitive case into the plural: a) My cousin’s house is large. b) The girl’s room is very pretty. c) The pupil’s uniform is blue. d) The woman’s work is very much appreciated. e) The worker’s life is much better today. f) The teacher praised the student’s work. g) Where are the child’s clothes? h) The baby’s food is in the fridge. (Gălăţeanu, Georgiana; Comişel, Ecaterina, Gramatica limbii engleze pentru uz şcolar , Ed. Didactică şi pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1982) 11. Substitute synthetic genitive forms for the prepositional genitive forms when possible: a. What can you tell me about the forests of this region? b. The color of my favorite skirt is blue. c. What’s the name of the new colleague of your twin brothers? d. The interests of the police are to cover all the traces of the murder. e. The bathrooms of that house are quite small and dirty.
12. Turn the following sentences into plural: a. Have you written down the effect of that interesting phenomenon? b. The child’s foot was bleeding heavily so that he had to be taken to the hospital. c. The shelter of the sheep was made of wood and leaves. d. His wife’s laughter drew everybody’s attention. e. He has been looking for the key of his car since morning. f. There is a poster on the door of this house. g. The main traffic light of the city is out of order so pay attention while driving. h. The roof of this building has to be repaired, otherwise it will rain inside. i. Your friend’s money is on the third shelf. 13. Translate the following set phrases into Romanian: at one stone’s throw; to be at one’s wits’ end; for Heaven’s sake; a bird’s eye view; at death’s door; in my mind’s eyes; at arm’s length; to my heart’s content; for conscience’ sake; art for art’s sake (***, Limba engleză – exerciţii pentru admiterea în învăţământul superior, Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1978) 14. Translate into English: a) Colegii lui Jane au organizat o petrecere frumoasă pentru ziua ei de naştere. b) Este foarte greu să contrazici declaraţiile femeilor privind răpirea copilului, având în vedere că nu ai nici o dovadă împotriva lor. c) Nu se poate să fi rupt toate paginile dicţionarelor. d) Ai văzut maşina familiei Brown după accidentul pe care l-au avut săptămâna trecută? e) Mi-a fost greu să mai recunosc feţele copiilor după ce au mâncat o ciocolată întreagă. f) Populaţia Chinei a crescut în ultimii ani, guvernul confruntânduse cu serioase probleme economice. g) Trebuie să faci curat în camera lui Sarah înainte ca ea să se întoarcă de la spital. h) Intenţiile părinţilor tăi au fost de a te încuraja să înveţi mai bine, nu de a te pedepsi. i) Toţi am râs când am auzit numele pisicii ei.
j) Bărbatul de acolo este fratele unchiului tău sau nepotul bunicilor lui Tom? WRITING Write your own short history of the atom by using the information in the text studied above or you may add further details that you consider to be necessary. FUN TIME Two atoms are walking down the street and they collide. The first atoms picks himself up and dusts himself off. Then he turns to the second and helps him up. "Are you OK?" he asks. The second atom says "I think... no wait", he pats himself down, "I've lost an electron" "Are you sure" "Oh, I'm Positive"
UNIT 5 THE REVOLUTION IN LIGHT I THE ADJECTIVE
THE REVOLUTION IN LIGHT I
In 1921 Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for having conceived the theory that explained the “photo-electric effect”. Two years later Robert Millikan was awarded the Nobel Prize for having performed the experiment that proved Einstein’s theory. Einstein’s theory had first been advanced in 1905; Millikan’s great experiment was performed almost a decade after that. The double award marked the success of one of the most profound revolutions in physics. Isaac Newton had enriched the science of physics with two theories: the first described the laws of motion of ponderable bodies; the second described light a being composed of very tiny particles of radiant matter. Newton supported the corpuscular theory of light, even though it explained only two of the known phenomena of light. Reflection, according to Newton, was simply the elastic bouncing of the light particles form the reflecting surface; and refraction, the bending of light as it passed from a rare medium like air to a denser medium like water. Newton’s theory of light could not explain interference, diffraction or polarization. By the beginning of the eighteenth century, the wave theory of light put forward by Newton’s contemporary, Huyghens – that light consisted of a vibration in the ether – began to come to the fore. The great French physicist Fresnel demonstrated mathematically that if
light were truly a wave phenomenon, then all the observed behavior could easily be explained. Half a century later, James Clerk Maxwell strengthened the wave theory of light by demonstrating dramatically that light was a vibration of electric and magnetic waves. Not until the last decade of the nineteenth century did there appear to be any discrepancy in Maxwell’s theory. In 1887 Hertz had noticed that light – particularly ultra-violet light – would cause metal surfaces to become electrically charged. Thomson showed that the positive charge on the surface was due to the instantaneous emission of negative electrons from the metal. One physicist who seemed aware that this involved a contradiction in the wave theory of light was Albert Einstein; and in 1905 he suggested that the “photoelectric effect” could be explained only by a return to the corpuscular theory of light with certain important modifications. To Einstein the contradiction was this : The more light that was shone on a metal surface, the greater the number of electrons that were given off; but the individual energies of the electrons were not affected by the intensity of light even though Maxwell’s theory said that this was the measure of light energy. Einstein offered this explanation: A beam of light was composed of a stream of tiny corpuscles or pulses of energy. The energy of each pulse was proportional to its color or, in classical terms, its frequency – not its amplitude, as Maxwell had said. When light struck solid matter, some of these Einsteinian corpuscles of energy were absorbed. The absorbed energies in some cases were great enough to allow electrons to escape from the atoms in which they had been held. The energy of these liberated “photoelectrons” should, therefore be identically equal to the energy of the captured light corpuscle, called “quanta”, less the amount of energy needed to extricate the electron from the atom. This last quantity, the “work function” could be measured by direct means. Einstein stated this in the form of an equation that connected the velocity of an emitted photoelectron with the energy of the captured light quantum and the work function The crux of Einstein’s theory was the way energy was supposed to depend on color, or frequency. Einstein said that this dependence was a direct one. Energy was equal to frequency multiplied by a “certain number”; and the “certain number” was the same for every color; it had to be a constant of nature. Einstein used the symbol h for the number out of deference to his colleague, Max Plank.
GENERAL VOCABULARY
TECHNICAL VOCABULARY
law, n. = lege to come to fore = a veni în prim plan to strengthen, v. = a întări; a consolida to give off, v.= a elibera; a emite crux, n. = esenţa; dificultatea deference, n.= stimă, consideraţie
motion, n. = mişcare, mecanism bouncing, n.= vibraţie diffraction, n. = difracţie a luminii wave, n.= undă charge, n. = sarcină; încărcare beam, n. = rază; fascicul de raze pulse, n. = impuls; şoc velocity, n. = viteză quantum, n.= cuantă
COMPREHENSION
Answer the following questions: a. Who was the physicist that was awarded the Nobel Prize for having explained the “photo-electric effect”? b. What were the two theories described by Isaac Newton? c. Did James Maxwell agree to the wave theory of light? d. How did Einstein explain the photo-electric effect? e. What was the crux of Einstein’s theory? PRACTICE 1. Match the two columns paying attention to the meaning the words have in the text above:
1. DIFFRACTION a) any of a variety of translucent materials for filtering glare from the light source b) the bending of light waves around obstacles in their path 2. POLARIZATION a) a state in which rays of light or similar radiation exhibit different properties in different directions b) a device, often a crystal or prism that produces polarized light from unpolarized light 3. CORPUSCLE
a) an elementary particle of matter as an electron, proton or atom b) a body, mass, or part having a special character or function 4. REFRACTION a) the return of light after striking a surface b) the change of direction of a ray of light in passing obliquely from one medium into another in which its speed is different 5. WAVE a) a progressive disturbance propagated from point to point in a medium or space without progress or advance by the points themselves as in the transmission of light b) the analogous motion of the particles of a mass of air or the like, whose state of equilibrium has been disturbed; oscillation 6. PHOTON a) a quantum of electromagnetic radiation, usually considered as an elementary particle b) an elementary particle that is a fundamental constituent of all atomic nuclei, having a positive charge equal in magnitude to that of the electron 7. REFLECTION a) the ratio of the intensity of reflected radiation to that of the radiation incident on a surface b) the return of light after striking a surface 8. EMISSION a) something that is emitted; discharge; emanation b) the total flux emitted per unit area 2. Say which statements are true or false:
a) Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for having conceived and performed the photo-electric effect b) Reflection and refraction were the only two phenomena explained by Isaac Newton c) James Maxwell demonstrated that light was a vibration of electric and magnetic waves d) Hertz observed that ultra-violet light would cause metal surfaces to become electrically charged e) Einstein thought that the individual energies of the electrons (given off by a metal surface) are affected by the intensity of light 3. Fill in the blanks with the following words:
emission interference frequency wave
photoelectron intensity amplitude (2 times)
a. The ………………… of the sound was so high that for a moment I had the impression of deafness. b. The ………………. of earthquakes in this region made my parents leave their home and move to a less dangerous town. c. Radio …………….. are propagated through the atmosphere with the speed of light. d. When a metallic surface absorbs light, there takes place a(n) ………………… of ……………….. e. The ……………. of the resulting of two electromagnetic waves is equal to the sum of their ……………….. f. The ………………… of two electromagnetic waves leads either to their reinforcement or to their canceling. 4. Give the noun, adjective, verb or adverb corresponding to the following words:
NOUN …………… interference …………… …………… light …………… …………… intensity …………
ADJECTIVE radiant …………… …………… …………… …………… …………… frequent …………… …………….
VERB …………… …………… to conceive …………… …………… to extricate …………… …………… ……………
ADVERB …………………. …………………. …………………. diffractively …………………. ………………… …………………. …………………. proportionally
5. Give the synonyms and the antonyms of the following words extracted from the text: WORD
to prove discrepancy to amplify radiant
SYNONYM
…………….. ……………. …………….. ……………..
OPPOSITE
……………… ……………… ……………… ……………….
to capture to contradict
…………….. ……………..
……………… ………………
6. Write down the family of the following words:
ENERGY ……………. …………… …………… ……………
CONTRADICTION …………………… ………………….. …………………… …………………...
RADIANT ……………… ………………. ………………. ……………….
7.Some of the words below are spelt incorrectly. Spot the mistakes and write down the correct version:
physicist ponderabile eter quantum corpuscul
intensity emision polarization genius diffraction
discrepancy instantaneous trully equation diference
8. Crossword puzzle: DOWN: 1 the phenomenon
2
which describes the change of direction of a ray of light ACROSS: 2. positive or negative electricity of a
3 4 5 6
1
7 particle, body or system 3. rapidity of an action; speed 8 4. to bend the light waves 9 5. something that is essential 10 11 and decisive 6. a state characteristic to the rays of light which exhibit different properties in different directions 7. elementary particles negatively charged 8. the smallest quantity of radiant energy 9. change of position in space; movement 10. a sudden leap or spring 11. to back up an affirmation 9. Translate into English: a) Newton a contribuit la dezvoltarea fizicii prin elaborarea unei teorii corpusculare a luminii. b) Teoria lui Newton nu a fost completă în sensul că deşi oferea definiţiile reflexiei şi refracţiei, nu spunea nimic despre interferenţă, difracţie sau polarizaţie. c) Contemporanii lui Newton au considerat lumina un fenomen de undă şi au definit-o ca o vibraţie de unde electrice şi magnice. d) Einstein a fost primul fizician care a reuşit să explice efectul foto-electric prin câteva modificări aduse teoriei corpusculare a luminii. e) Concluzia lui Einstein a fost că energia micilor corpusculi ce formează o rază de lumină depinde în mod direct de culoarea şi frecvenţa acesteia. 10. Select the appropriate word in the following sentences:
a) Einstein noticed that the energy of each pulse was proportional to (it’s/its colour). b) In (classical/classic) terms he meant that the energy of the tiny corpuscles that composed the beam of light was proportional to its frequency. c) The wave theory considered light to be a vibration of (electric/electrical) waves.
d) The (absorption/absorbtion) of the Einsteinian corpuscles of energy took place when light struck solid matter. e) For having succeeded in giving an explanation to the photoelectric (affect/effect), Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize. f) Newton explained the phenomenon of reflection as being the (elastic/elastical) bouncing of the light particles. FOCUS ON LANGUAGE THE ADJECTIVE COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES Degrres of Monosyllabic Comparison Adjectives Positive adj. John is short. Comparative adj + -er +than of superiority John is shorter than Chris. Comparative as + adj. + as John is as short as of equality Chris. Comparative less + adj. + than of inferiority John is less short than Chris. The the + adj. + -est John is the shortest in Superlative the classroom. Relative The Absolute very + adj. John is very short. Superlative
Plurisyllabic Adjectives adj. Jane is beautiful more + adj. + than Jane is more beautiful than Diana as + adj. + as Jane is as beautiful as Diana less + adj. + than Jane is less beautiful than Diana the most + adj. Jane is the most beautiful girl in the classroom very + adj. Jane is very beautiful.
THE IRREGULAR COMPARISON Positive good bad much/many little
Comparative better worse more less
Superlative the best the worst the most the least
late
later
old
older elder farther further
far
the latest (cel mai recent) the last (ultimul) the latter (ultimul din doi) the oldest (mai bătrân;mai vechi) the eldest (mai în vârstă) the farthest (cel mai îndepărtat – ca distanţă) the furthest (cel mai îndepărtat – ca timp)
! Când se adaugă terminaţiile ER şi EST adjectivele suferă următoarele modificări:
a) adj. monosilabice terminate în consoană precedată de vocală dublează consoana finală fat – fatter – the fattest b) adj. terminate în E îl pierd nice – nicer – the nicest c) adj. terminate în Y precedat de o consoană, transformă Y în I easy – easier – the easiest SPECIAL CONSTRUCTIONS
a) comparative + and + comparative (“din ce în ce mai”, „tot mai”) The weather is getting better and better. His answers are more and more correct. b) the + comparative ………… the + comparative (“cu cât mai ...... cu atât mai”) The more we are the merrier we’ll be. c) the + comparative (when two things or persons are compared) Mary is the prettier of the two sisters.
PRACTICE 8. Underline the adjectives from the text studied above “The Revolution in Light I” and write down their positive, comparative and superlative forms.
9. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate form of the adjective or adverb (the positive, comparative or superlative degree)
a) Physics as a science is even …………… (important) when we think of it in relation with other sciences like: chemistry, medicine. b) The rainbow, …………………. (beautiful) phenomena from the atmosphere used to be considered a “heavenly sign”. c) The role of polymeric materials is becoming …………….. (important) . d) The existence of the particle is not a surprise, but its mass is ……………. (low) than expected. e) A ……………. (powerful) brightness appears after the preliminary discharge of the lightning, first, near the earth, then ………….. (high) and …………… (high) to the clouds. f) Millikan said that ……………. (lucky) thing that had ever happened to him was that Pupin did not take him on as his assistant. g) There are six types of quarks in nature. The up and down quarks are ……………….. (light). …………(heavy) quarks were present in the early universe. h) Even ……………. (radical) alternative, ……………. (late) incarnation of the steady state theory does not dispute that the universe is expanding and cooling. i) Nowadays, physics is considered one of …………… (important) sciences and its achievements will take mankind to a ………….. (high) grade of civilization. 10. Supply the appropriate form of the adjectives given in brackets:
a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h)
Which is the ……………. (funny) joke you have ever heard? Jane often wears ………….. (beautiful) dresses than her sister. What is the ………………. (good) solution to this problem? He is the ……………. (old) son of the Browns but he is …………….. (short) than Mark. I can’t get …………….. (thin) although I always eat ……….. (little) than my colleagues. Can you show me the …………………. (old) building in this town? Why don’t you try to talk to him …………… (late)? This is the …………… (interesting) book I have ever heard.
i) Lily is ………….. (tall) than Chris but not ………………… (tall) her mother. j) Do you know that his sons are ……………. (young) and …………… (fat) than my nephews? 11. Supply the comparative form of the adjectives paying attention to the comparative of adjectives “cu cât….cu atât”:
a) The …………. (big) the windows, the …………… (bright) the room. b) The …………. (fast) the train, the ……………. (early) our arrival at the conference. c) The …………. (high) the building, the ………….. (difficult) its consolidation. d) The …………. (strange) the story, the ……………. (interesting) its reading. e) The ………….. (long) the trip is, the ………… (boring) it is. 12. Fill in the following blanks with the appropriate form of the adjectives:
bad worse the worst busy ………. …………. ……. drier …………. ……. ………. the slimmest free ………….. ……………… ………… steadier ……………… 13. Choose the appropriate adjective: 1. I am fond of classic/classical languages. 2. Caragiale’s play “The Lost Letter” is a comic/comical masterpiece. 3. Everybody has realized that big cars are not economic/economical to run. 4. It has taken long years of historic/historical research to gather all the data about this historic/historical building. 5. The Royal Ballet’s performance of “The Nut-cracker” was a classic/classical one. 6. Romania’s economic/economical performance is no longer considered a miracle. 7. She was quite a sight with that comic/comical old hat on. 8. Many innocent men have gone to the electric/electrical chair.
9. He is quite an expert in electric/electrical engineering. (***, Limba engleză – exerciţii pentru admiterea în învăţământul superior, Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1978) 14. Translate into English: a) Fizicienii au încercat să găsească cea mai bună metodă de a demonstra că teoria lor este corectă. b) Cercetările recente au arătat importanţa ultimelor descoperiri din domeniul fizicii. c) Noua tehnică nu era foarte atractivă deoarece necesita un echipament mai complex şi mai scump decât cea anterioară. d) Treptat, din ce în ce mai mulţi oameni de ştiinţă au fost concediaţi din universităţi din diferite motive. e) Am adunat cât de multe informaţii am putut pentru a crea prototipul ideal. WRITING Write an essay beginning with “Einstein was a great scientist because he …..”. (200 words) FUN TIME
Seen on the door to a light-wave lab: "CAUTION! Do not look into laser with remaining good eye."
UNIT 6 THE REVOLUTION IN LIGHT II THE ADVERB
THE REVOLUTION IN LIGHT (II)
Some years earlier, Max Planck had been able to solve a hitherto insoluble theoretical problem in radiation by arbitrarily replacing the term for energy with another term that included frequency and this constant. Planck had written the number as “h” and regarded the whole operation as a mathematical convenience adopted simply to make the problem “come out”. Einstein perceived that Planck inadvertently had done considerably more: because Planck’s “mathematical convenience” had solved a problem, it was possibly a true statement and meant what it said.
Einstein gave it literal meaning and so his photoelectric equation was the first direct application of the new quantum theory. Millikan decided to subject Einstein’s theory to these three questions: 1. Did the energy of a light quanta actually equal “h” times the frequency of light? 2. Was “h” really a constant for all colors? 3. Did Einstein’s photo-electric equation agree with what occurred in nature? For the experiment Millikan designed an ingenious apparatus which he was later to call his “vacuum barber shop.” Inside a glass vacuum chamber he had a turntable which could be rotated by means of a magnet outside the chamber. On three faces of the turntable were samples of three highly reactive metals –sodium, potassium, and lithium- each of which responded to light of different frequencies. Because the experiment would depend so crucially on the nature of the surface of each metal sample, the vacuum chamber also contained a small polishing device which could be brought to bear on the metal surfaces by magnets outside. White light from a lamp source was refracted into its spectrum by means of lenses and a prism. The different pure colors were played in turn upon a narrow slit so that Millikan could observe the effect of only one color at a time upon the metal surfaces. As each pure color shone in on the metal surface, Millikan measured the number of electrons that came off and their energy. The number of electrons coming off each second was simply the current. He measured their energy by determining how much electrical force was needed to stop them. If a body of unknown weight requires a force of five pounds to be held in the air, one can say that the body weighs five pounds. Following the same reasoning, Millikan determined electron velocity by measuring the force required to cancel it out. Knowing this velocity, he was able to calculate the energy of the electrons emitted for each color. When this was repeated for all the various portions of the spectrum, he was then able to plot a curve showing the electron’s energy dependence on color or frequency. His result gave conclusively positive answer to the three questions he had asked Einstein’s theory. The direct measurement of Planck’s constant turned out to be 6.57x 10 erg seconds. America had waited a long time for such a man as Millikan. His researches were of the first rank; as a teacher at Chicago he took the time to train and encourage the young man with whom Michelson had not patience; as administrator at California Institute of -27
Technology, he trained several generations of young scientists to a level of achievement which would put an end forever to the necessity for young Americans to go abroad for scientific training GENERAL VOCABULARY
TECHNICAL VOCABULARY
hitherto, adv. = până azi; acum to occur, v. = a se întâmpla; a avea loc to bear on, v. = a se rezema de sample, n. = mostră, eşantion achievement, n. = realizare
turntable, n. = disc turnant; placă vacuum chamber = cameră de vid polishing device = dispozitiv de netezire spectrum, n. = spectru slit, n. = fisură to plot, v. = a trasa; a desena curve, n. = curbă
COMPREHENSION
Answer the following questions: a) b) c) d) e)
What did Planck’s symbol “h” really designate? Did Einstein agree to Planck’s mathematical convenience? What did Millikan invent in order to prove Einstein’s theory? How was Millikan’s apparatus designed? What did his experiment consist of?
PRACTICE 1. Match the two columns paying attention to the meaning of the words in the text:
1. QUANTUM a. the smallest quantity of radiant energy equal to Planck’s constant; the frequency of the associated radiation b. any one of the three types of elementary particles that are believed by some physicists to form the basis of all matter in the universe 2. LENS
a. a piece of transparent substance, usually glass, as for affecting sound waves, electromagnetic radiation, or streams of electrons b. a tiny convex glass forming part of such lenses impressed on the surface of a film 3. SPECTRUM a. an optical device for producing and observing light and radiation b. the band of colors produced when sunlight is passed through a prism 4. FREQUENCY a. the number of cycles or completed alternations per unit time of a wave or oscillation b. a method of impressing a signal on a radio carrier wave by varying its frequency 5. PRISM a. a unit of prismatic deviation b. a transparent, solid, polygonal body, often having triangular bases, used for dispersing light into a spectrum for reflecting rays of light 6. ULTRAVIOLET a. something beyond the violet in the spectrum corresponding to light b. something emitting or reflecting light 2. Say which statements are true or false:
a) Max Planck suggested a mathematical approach to the problem of radiation b) The turntable that Millikan designed inside the glass vacuum chamber had no metals on it c) Millikan played different colors in turn upon a narrow slit in order to observe their effect upon the metal surfaces d) Millikan calculated the electron’s velocity by measuring the force required to cancel it out. e) Millikan couldn’t demonstrate the electron’s energy dependence on colour or frequency. 3. Give the noun, adjective, verb or adverb corresponding to the following words:
NOUN
VERB
ADJECTIVE ADVERB
weight …………… …………… …………… measurement ……………. ……………. …………… color
……………. ……………. to magnetize …………… ……………. ……………. to apply ……………. …………….
……………… theoretical ……………… ……………… ……………… reactive …………….. ……………. …………….
……………… ……………… ………………. simply ……………… ……………… ……………… conclusively ………………
4. Give the synonyms of the following words extracted from the text: WORD
to polish inadvertent conclusive application ingenious
SYNONYM
………….. …………. …………. ………….. ………….
WORD
simple crucial weight constant device
SYNONYM
…………… …………… …………… …………… ……………
5. Some of the words below are spelt incorrectly. Spot the mistakes and write down the correct version:
inginious turntable narow emited chamber
weigth lithium frequency conveniance dependance
hitherto aplication inadvertently potasium achievement
6. Complete the following sentences with the appropriate word in the pair, according to the context: EMISSION / EMITTANCE
1. In optics, we often talk about luminous ………….. in terms of lumina. 2. Inside a thermionic tube takes place an …………. of electrons as a result of thermal agitation.
INGENIOUS / INGENUOUS
1. It was ………….. of him to solve all the exercises so quickly. 2. She was …………… with everybody not only with her family. CURRANT / CURRENT
1. The water …………. damaged all the small houses from this area. 2. I ate so many …………. last Monday that I felt sick all day long. 7. Crossword puzzle:
1. a regular happening of
1
events 2 2. a synonym of “area” 3 3. a solid body having 4 triangular bases 5 4. inventive 6 5. an extremely small 7 amount of radiant 8 energy 9 6. a space that contains 10 no matter 7. the band of colors produced as a result of the passing of sunlight through a prism 8. something which doesn’t change 9. another word for hue 10 without others; exclusively 8. Translate into English:
a) Ecuaţia fotoelectrică a lui Einstein a fost un pas important în dezvoltarea teoriei cuantice a luminii. b) Millikan a creat un aparat extrem de ingenios prin intermediul căruia a reuşit să calculeze constanta lui Plank. c) Millikan a folosit o lampă ca sursă de lumină pentru a urmări efectul fiecărei culori în parte asupra suprafeţei metalice. d) Millikan a măsurat energia electronilor emişi în urma refractării luminii pe suprafaţa metalică prin aflarea forţei electrice necesare opririi lor. e) Millikan a afirmat că, greutatea unui corp este egală cu forţa necesară susţinerii lui în aer. FOCUS ON LANGUAGE THE ADVERB
According to the meaning criteria there are: - adverbs of manner show the way an event occurs: slowly, fast, well, etc - adverbs of time show the temporal circumstances of an event: today, tomorrow, afterwards, monthly, etc - adverbs of place indicate the whereabouts of an event: here, there, northward, inside, outside, far, above, etc - adverbs of cause, reason, result and concession show the circumstances under which an event takes place: so that, consequently, still, yet, etc - interrogative adverbs: when, why, where - adverbs of quantity, measure: little, more, extremely, etc - Introductory adverbs: however, consequently, etc - Explanatory adverbs: namely, such as - adverbs of frequency: always, never, often, etc Other adverbs: maybe, possibly Adverbial phrases: at first, upside down, at least, at random, etc ! The most common suffix for adverb formation is „ly” which is attached to the adjectival form: brilliant – brilliantly Other suffixes for adverb formation are: „ward(s)”, „way(s)”, „long”, etc ! The suffix „ly” also creates adjectives. Pay attention to the following sentences:
This is a daily magazine. (adjective) He phones his parents daily. (adverb) The spelling of the adverbs formed by „ly”: a) the final „e” of the adjective is maintained: large – largely; Exc: whole-wholly simple – simply b) adjectives ending in vowel and „l”, double the „l”: equal - equally c) adjectives ending in „ll” lose one of them: full – fully d) adjectives ending in „ue” lose the final „e”: true – truly e) adjectives ending in „y” change it into „i”: day – daily The Comparison of Adverbs - is similar to that of the adjectives: fast –faster – the fastest likely – more likely – the most likely The Irregular Comparison of Adverbs: POSITIVE
COMPARATIVE
well much far late ill/badly little near
better more farther/further later worse less nearer
SUPERLATIVE
the best the most the farthest/the furthest the latest/the last the worst the least the nearest/the next
9. Underline the adverbs from the text studied above: ”The Revolution in Light II”. 10. Recognize the grammar issues representative for the following sentences extracted from the text “The Revolution in Light I” and discuss them: R. Millikan was awarded the Nobel Prize for having performed the experiment that proved Einstein’s theory. In 1887 Herz had noticed that light would cause metal surfaces to become electrically charged. The double award marked the success of one of the most profound revolutions in physics. By the beginning of the eighteenth century, the wave theory came to the fore. The absorbed energies in some cases were great enough to allow electrons to escape from the atom in which they had been held.
Refraction is the bending of light as it passed from a rare medium like air to a denser medium like water.
11. Give the adverbs of the following adjectives: ADJECTIVE
ambiguous emotional crazy marvellous unhappy
ADVERB
................... …............... .................... .................... ..................
ADJECTIVE
appreciable hungry good true questionable
ADVERB
.................... ................... ................... ................... .................
12. Choose the correct word:
1. You are an excellent cook. The food tastes (good, well). 2. It was a lovely day with birds singing and the sun shining (bright, brightly) and girls wearing (bright, brightly)-coloured dresses. 3. I hate taking medicine. It tastes (bitter, bitterly). 4. I don’t think he is ill. His voice sounds (merry, merrily). 5. It rains (heavy, heavily). 6. It is (near, nearly) five o’clock. 7. You must work (hard, hardly) for your exams. 8. He spoke so (quick, quickly) that we could (hard, hardly) follow him. 9. When did you (last, lastly) see him? 10. I am (direct, directly) interested in what you think. 11. He couldn’t move as he was (dead, deadly) tired. 12. His eyes hurt him (bad, badly). 13. Mr. Jones held it (tight, tightly). 14. It was six o’clock as (near, nearly) as he could guess. 15. (last, lastly) I must account for my sister’s behaviour. (***, Limba engleză – exerciţii pentru admiterea în învăţământul superior, Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1978) 13. Rewrite the following sentences paying attention to the degree of comparison of the adverbs in parentheses: a) Sarah speaks English (well) but she can’t understand French. b) You run (fast) than my brother. c) He phoned me (quickly) than I had expected. d) You move (slowly) of all the children in the class. e) His cake tastes (well) than the one I did yesterday.
f) g) h) i) j)
This dress cost me (much) than I could afford. Tom sings (badly) than his colleagues do. You don’t have to walk (far) than I do. I paid (little) than all the other teachers. He doesn’t work (hard) than me, he is just lucky.
14. Translate into English: a) Săptămâna aceasta a învăţat mai mult decât săptămâna trecută. b) Cu cât citim mai mult cu atât ştim mai mult. c) S-a jucat mai puţin decât ceilalţi copii deoarece nu s-a simţit bine. d) Care dintre lucrări a fost scrisă cel mai frumos? e) Trebuie să conduci maşina cu atenţie, mai ales noaptea. f) Dacă vrei să iei o notă mare trebui să citeşti mai mult. g) Eşti destul de inteligent ca să înţelegi că nu se mai poate face nimic în ceea ce-l priveşte pe fratele tău. h) Mergi mai încet, nu pot să ţin pasul cu tine! i) Nu mai mânca atât de repede! Este suficientă mâncare pentru toată lumea! j) Am mers mai departe decât trebuia, dar mi-am dat seama şi mam intors în staţia de autobuz să cer cuiva informaţii despre adresa ce- o aveam. FUN TIME
How many physicists does it take to change a light bulb? Eleven. One to do it and ten to co-author the paper. How many astronomers does it take to change a light bulb? None, astronomers prefer the dark. How many radio astronomers does it take to change a light bulb? None. They are not interested in that short wave stuff. How many general relativists does it take to change a light bulb? Two. One holds the bulb, while the other rotates the universe.
UNIT 7 THE PHENOMENA OF NATURE THE NUMERAL
THE PHENOMENA OF NATURE
The rainbow, the most beautiful phenomenon from the atmosphere, had a great impact upon people of all times, being considered a “heavenly sign” bringing welfare and prosperity. The rainbow is an optical phenomenon which arises from the solar light dispersion and reflection in the rain drops from the atmosphere. It can be seen when the sun shines from behind us in the front cloud curtain, the light reflecting on the clear vault of the sky. The clouds are more or less delineated by water drops or by ice crystals groups, suspended in the atmosphere, arising from the condensation or sublimation of the water vapours. The same as with the optical prism, the light in the water drops from the clouds is decomposed in seven colours: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, aniland violet. Usually there are two rainbows arising:a main and a secondary one. Inside the bow of the main rainbow, the red colour is situated outside of it, while in the secondary one, red is inside. The more light is inflected and reflected on the bigger rain drops, the more vivid and pure the light is. It is to mention that sometimes rainbow can accompany even moonlight but they are pale and hard to notice without special apparatus. The thunder and the lightning accompaning storms which terrified people for centuries, find their scientific explanation in the electricity of the atmosphere. The thunder is an electrical discharge sparkling in the terrestrial atmosphere, may it be between two clouds or between a cloud and the earth. The storm clouds charge especially in their inferior part and with negative charge and the latter, in its turn, charges by influence the surface of the earth with positive charge. When the cloud moves forward, the area of positive charge from the earth follows the cloud like a shadow. The cloud and the earth can be considered the accessories of a condenser of which electrical power can reach values of decimals and even hundreds of millions of volts. If the power between two clouds or between clouds and the earth becomes high enough, it takes place a very powerful electrical discharge called thunder. The irradiant phenomenon accompanying the thunder is called the flash of lightning and the accoustic one is called the thunder. The sparks of the lightning can reach lengths starting from thousands of meters to a few kilometers. The diameter of the sparks is of a few centimeters (to 20cm). In most cases, the spark of the lightninig, very small and insignificant in the beginning, takes place near the clouds and then it is extended towards the earth direction, this
being a preliminary discharge which creates a kind of a good-leading electricity channel in the air and which travels to the earth about 50 meters, with a speed of 50000 km/hour. After a very short period of time (decimals of microns of seconds) after the first discharge is gone, there is another preliminary discharge occurring; this one approaches even more the earth and then is interrupted again. Sometimes, there are even decimals of preliminary discharges. After the preliminary discharge reaches the earth or an object in electrical touch with this one, it follows a very powerful brightness of the sparkled channel, first, near the earth, then, higher and higher to the clouds. There is only now that the main discharge of the lightning occurs and the first one one ment mentio ione nedd move movess form form the the eart earthh to the the clou cloud. d. So, So, the the two two opinions according to which the lightning strikes man both from the above and from the insides of the earth are right. Insi Inside de the the chan channe nell of the the ligh lightn tnin ing, g, the the air air is comp comple lete tely ly ionized, the substance in here being the plasma. Due to discharging of a large amount of energy in a very short period of time, there is a sudden jumping pressure inside the thin plasma channel and which causes acoustic shock wave (the lightning). The irradiant phenomenon accompanying the electrical discharge is called the flash of lightning. The perlite lightning is called the lightning whose irradiant channel is fragmented in a series of small round irradiant groups, looking as the beads of a necklace. It is considered a type of transition between the habitual and the globular lightning. Statistics show that every minute the globe of the earth is stroke by about 1800 lightning, which means a rate of one billion lightning per year. On global scale, lightning strikes every day 20 persons and wounds 80. Against the damages caused by the direct effect of the lightning, there is used protection equipment called lightning conductors. They are composed of one or more catching elements (steel or copper electrical conductors with curved bars); these are put on the highest parts of the protected objects; they can also be composed of one or several descending conductors (by which the electric power of lightning discharge passes through in its way to the earth) and a bottom electrode.
GENERAL VOCABULARY
TECHNICAL VOCABULARY
welfare,n.=bunăstare, prosperitate vault,n.= boltă anil, n.= indigo (culoare şi colorant) thunder, n.= tunet to sparkle, v.= a scânteia bead, n.= mărgea necklace, n.= colier, lanţ lightning, n.= fulger
rainbow,n.= curcubeu dispersion,n.= difuziune, dispersie to inflect, v.= a devia discharge, n.= descărcare perlite lightning = fulger perlit steel, n.= oţel copper, n.= cupru catching, adj.= de captare
COMPREHENSION
Answer the following questions: a. What What makes makes the the rainb rainbow ow appea appearr after after the the fall fall of the the rain? rain? b. Is there just one rainbow that arises? c. What What is the scient scientific ific expl explana anatio tionn of the thund thunder er phenom phenomeno enon? n? d. Are Are ther theree many many elec electr tric ical al disc discha harg rges es that that occu occurr duri during ng the the lightning? e. What What is the protec protecti tion on equipm equipmen entt that that peopl peoplee use again against st the damages caused by the lightning? PRACTICE 1. Match the two columns paying attention to the meanings the words have in the text above:
1. TO INFLECT a. to produc producee an elect electrica ricall charge charge in a neigh neighbori boring ng body body without without contact b. to turn from a direct line (about a body that has electric or magnetic properties) 2. PLASMA a. a highl highlyy ionized ionized gas gas cont contain aining ing an an approxi approximat mately ely equa equall number of positive ions and electrons b. the liquid part of blood or lymph 3. CONDUCTOR a. a devi device ce that that cond conduc ucts ts elect electri ricit cityy inst instal alle ledd to divert divert lightn lightnin ingg away from a structure by providing a direct path to the ground b. a combination of lenses that gathers and concentrates light in a specified direction
4. VOLT a. the the mete meterr-ki kilo logr gram am-s -sec econ ondd unit unit of powe powerr equi equiva vale lent nt to one one joule per second b. the meter-kilogram second unit of electromotive force or potential difference equal to the electromotive force 5. TO DISCHARGE a. to relieve b. to lose or give up a charge of electricity 6. DISPERSION a. the the separa separati tion on of white white or comp compou ound nd light light into into its respec respecti tive ve colours b. the linear distance in a given direction between a body or point and a reference position 7. IRRADIANT a. acting acting alon alongg or in the the direc directio tionn of the radi radius us of a circle circle b. emitted or propagated by radiation 8. ION a. an elec electri trica call llyy charge chargedd atom atom or group group of atoms atoms forme formedd by the loss or gain of one or more electrons b. the meter-kilogram-second unit of resistance equal to the resi resist stan ance ce in a cond conduc ucto torr in whic whichh one one volt volt of pote potent ntia iall difference produces a current of one ampere 2. Say which statements are are true or false:
a) A thun thunde derr is produ producced when hen a stor storm m clou cloudd is char charge gedd positively in its inferior part and this charge is influenced by the negative charge of the Earth b) It is well known that inside the main rainbow the colour is red while in the secondary one the red colour is situated outside c) The ligh lightni tning ng is an elec electri trical cal disch discharg argee that that moves moves from the the Earth to the cloud d) In the cas case of the perl perlit itee ligh lightn tnin ingg we have have to do with with series of irradiant groups situated in just one irradiant channel e) The The ligh lightn tnin ingg is cause causedd by the the sudd sudden en jump jumpin ingg pres pressu sure re inside the plasma channel as a result of the discharge of a large amount of energy in a very short period of time
3. Complete the following sentences with the appropriate word in the pair, according to the context: OPTIC/OPTICAL 1. A cranial nerve that conducts impulses from the retina to the brain is called an ………….. nerve. 2. Did you know that an ………. glass has refractive properties? 3. What are these ………… instruments used for? ELECTRIC/ELECTRICAL 1. They want to hire a good ………… engineer so they advertised the position in the local newspaper. 2. An …………. motor is a machine which transforms ………… energy into mechanical one. 3. In the past, many criminals used to be executed on the …….. chair for their murders. 4. It is quite difficult to explain what is an ……………. storm to a student in the 5th grade. 5. In this motor, the ……….. power is usually converted into mechanical power. ACOUSTIC/ACOUSTICAL 1. I couldn’t remember anything about the …………. nerve so I didn’t pass the exam. 2. In a concert hall the sound is improved by the …………cloud that is installed near its ceiling. 3. The physicist gave us an accurate description of an ………….. ohm but, frankly, I was too tired to understand it. 4. Complete the missing words in the paragraph using vocabulary items from the text studied above:
When a lightning flashes, it carries a lot of _ _ e _ _ _ and beats the air. This heat causes the temperature and the _ _ _ _ _ u _ _ to rise . Thus, the air moves faster than the speed of the sound causing sound _ a _ _ _. These are the _ _ u _ _ _ _ that one hears after a flash of lightning. We can protect ourselves from _ i _ _ _ _ _ _ _ by using a capacitor. A capacitor is an _ _ _ c _ _ _ _ _ _ device. 5. Give verbs corresponding to the following nouns:
NOUN reflection brightness energy pressure sublimation
VERB ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ………………
NOUN dispersion condenser thunder spark equipment
VERB ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ………………
6. Translate into English: a) Tunetul este descărcarea electrică dintre doi nori sau un nor şi pământ. b) Curcubeul se creează ca urmare a reflectării luminii soarelui în picăturile de ploaie din atmosferă. c) Paratrăznetul este singura modalitate de protecţie împotriva efectelor distrugătoare ale fulgerului. d) Tunetul este întotdeauna însoţit de fulger care se formează în urma unei foarte mari descărcări de energie. e) În medie, pământul este lovit de fulger cam de 100 de ori pe secundă. FOCUS ON LANGUAGE THE NUMERAL CARD. NO.
ORD. NO.
CARD. NO.
ORD. NO
1 one 2 two 3 three 4 four 5 five 6 six 7 seven 8 eight 9 nine 10 ten
1st first 2nd second 3rd third
11 eleven 12 twelve 13 thirteen
11th eleventh 12th twelfth 13th thirteenth
4th fourth 5th fifth 6th sixth 7th seventh 8th eigth 9th nineth 10th tenth
14 fourteen 15 fifteen 20 twenty 30 thirty 40 forty 50 fifty 100 one hundred
14th fourteenth 15th fifteenth 20th twentieth 30th thirtieth 40th fortieth 50th fiftieth 100th one hundredth
1000 one thousand 1,000,000 one million 1,000,000,000 one milliard ! One billion înseamnă (un) miliard în limba americană şi trilion în limba engleză. Miliard se spune thousand millions în limba engleză. ! Adjectivul numeralului este invariabil 300 = three thousand; 2000= two thousand ! Pentru zecimale virgula devine punct 0,302= nought point three hundred and two
FRACTIONAL NUMERALS
Common ½ a half ⅓ a third ¼ a fourth ¾ three fourth
ADVERBIAL NUMERALS
Decimal 0.4 nought once point four twice 0.05 nought point nought three times five 3.601 three point six nought one
MULTIPLICATIVE NUMERALS
single double threefold
Distributive numerals: one by one, two by two, etc. one at a time, two at a time, by twos, two and two, etc Collective numerals: a couple, half a dozen (6 elements), dozen (12 elements) !! Zero is read: - nought (in mathematics) - zero (for temperature) - o [∂u] for telephone numbers - nil or love in sports scores Mathematical symbols and operations EXAMPLE
SPOKEN
3 + 7 = 10 6–2=4 30 : 5 = 6 7 x 3 = 21 3² 6³ √9 x≡y x≠y x≈y x→0 x<5 x>5 x ≤ 10 x ≥ 10 x→∞
three plus seven is/are ten six minus two is/are four thirty divided by five is/are six seven multiplied by three is/are twenty one three squared/three to the power of two six cubed the square root of nine x is equivalent to y x is not equal to y x is approximately equal to y x tends to nought x is less than five x is greater than five x is less than or equal to 10 x is greater than or equal to 10 x tends to infinity
PRACTICE 7. Choose the best answer that completes your sentences paying attention that: 1 mile = 1.6093 km a) The distance between the Sun which is the central body of the solar system and the Earth is about ……….. b) The distance between the Moon which is the Earth’s natural satellite and the Earth is about ………… c) The speed of light is about ……..
1) 186.300 miles/s
2) 93.000.000 miles 3) 238.857 miles
8. Write down the name of these signs and their numerical computation: “+” “-“ “x” “ ÷ “ 9. Write the next three numbers in each sequence: 11th the eleventh ………. ………… …..……. 12 twelve ……… ………... ..……… st 1 the first ………. ……….. ..………. 19th the nineteenth …………. ………… ………... 39 thirty nine ………… …………. .…………
10. Some of the words below are spelt incorrectly; pick them out and write down their correct version: channel botom approach lightening fourteen acompanying fourty brighteness atmosphere iradiant welfare cristal energy fortieth interrupted 11. Write the following numbers: 326 …………………….. 0.045 …………………….. 5/7 …………………….. 1593 ……………………… 7.802 ………………………
2,643 312,756,844 215,723 813,985 4.502
………………… ………………… …………………. …………………. ………………….
12. Translate into English: a) Am 35 de ani dar încă nu am absolvit facultatea de fizică pe care am început-o acum 7 ani. b) Au intrat în sala de examen 5 câte 5 pentru că nu era suficient spaţiu pentru toţi. c) Colegii mei s-au dus de două ori pe săptămână la laborator dar tot nu au înţeles experimentul. d) Am fost a cincea din clasă care a reuşit să treacă examenul la fizică atomică de prima dată. e) Tu ai fost a treia persoană care a părăsit sala de conferinţă fără să-şi citească articolul. WRITING Describe, in writing, another interesting phenomenon of nature than the ones mentioned above. FUN TIME
You can listen to thunder after lightning and tell how close you came to getting hit. If you don't hear it, you got hit, so never mind.
UNIT 8 THE MYSTERIOUS FOURTH STATE OF MATTER THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES
THE MYSTERIOUS FOURTH STATE OF MATTER
On January 4, 1896, Wilhelm Konrad von Roentgen read a paper before the Wurzburg Phyisico-Medical Society. His announcement created a sensation in two sciences. Roentgen described the discovery of an entirely new form of radiation which permitted him to photograph objects hidden beneath opaque, solid shields. He showed a photograph of parts of his own living skeleton – the bones of his hand. To the medical world, the phenomenon of the Roentgen rays was a miracle that had to be put to diagnostic work at once. To the world of the physicist, the explanation of the phenomenon seemed far more important at the moment than its use. The search for this explanation was to prove the first leap into the atomic and sub-atomic world. The marvelous rays discovered by Roentgen had a history going back some forty years in European science. In 1853, a French physicist named Masson played a high voltage spark on a glass vessel from which most of the air had been evacuated. The flask suddenly was filled with a bright, unearthly purplish glow. Hittorf and Crookes made further investigations of this beautiful phenomenon during the 1860’s and ‘70’s. The invention of the same highly efficient vacuum pumps that allowed Edison to invent an incandescent lamp also allowed Crookes to observe the weird vacuum glow at lower and lower pressures. The nature of the glow changed as the pressure inside the glass flask was reduced to a hundredth and then thousandth of the atmosphere outside. It brightened, then broke into isolated blobs of light, and finally diminished and disappeared altogether. When the vacuum was sufficiently thorough, the glow in the tube was gone, but the glass walls of the vessel itself began to shine with a ghostly greenish light. Crookes established that the glow in the tube was due to the passage of rays which were called cathode rays. He also noted that the mysterious rays seemed to act as if they had mass and velocity. He did not understand their nature, and he referred to them as “a fourth state of matter”, neither liquid, gaseous, nor solid. It further was established that the cathode rays were electrical in nature because a magnet held outside the tube could cause the cathode rays to bend in an arc within the tube. An electric force outside the tube would also cause the cathode rays to be deflected. In the autumn of 1895, Roentgen was performing some experiments with a Crookes tube which was wrapped tightly in black paper so that none of the glow would escape. By accident, he noticed that in the completely dark room, with the tube so shielded, “a paper screen washed with barium-platinum-cyanide lights up brilliantly and
fluoresces equally well, whether the treated side (of the paper) or the other be turned toward the discharge tube. Roentgen knew that the cathode rays would make such a coated sheet fluoresce and he soon found out that all substances were more or less transparent to the mysterious new rays. Only lead seemed opaque to it. He found that he could activate photographic films and this made photography possible with the new rays. He traced back the source of the rays. They came from the spot on the glass where the cathode rays impinged at high vacuum. He then said that the new rays could be generated whenever cathode rays struck any solid body. To prove it, he designed a tube which would give a more intense form of radiation which, for lack of a better name, he called “X-radiation”, -X, the unknown. Roentgen himself did not understand the phenomenon and offered the explanation that these were “longitudinal vibrations in the ether”. His discovery made physicists study the phenomenon of fluorescence more closely while the medical world used the tube to analyze the inner structures of the human body. GENERAL VOCABULARY
beneath, adv. = mai jos, dedesubt, sub leap,n. = săritură, salt marvelous, adj. = minunat, uimitor altogether, adv. = total, complet to bend, v. = a îndoi, a curba to wrap, v. = a înfăşura, a înveli
COMPREHENSION
TECHNICAL VOCABULARY
shield, n. = ecran de protecţie, scut spark, n. = scânteie flask, n. = balon, butelie, flacon vacuum pump = pompă de vid blob, n. = picătură de lichid cathode ray = rază catodică glow, n. = luminescenţă, incandescenţă to deflect, v. = a devia, a îndoi, a curba discharge, n. = descărcare lead, n. = plumb, grafit to impinge, v. = a ricoşa, a (se) lovi
Answer the following questions: a. What could Roentgen do with the new form of radiation? b. Is it Roentgen that discovered this marvelous X ray? c. What explanation did Croookes give to the fact that the rays had mass and velocity? d. What was Roentgen’s conclusion toward the reaction of the substances to the new rays? e. How did Roentgen explain the phenomenon of X rays? PRACTICE 1. Match the two columns:
1. RADIATION a. heating device through which steam or hot water passes b. the process in which energy is emitted as particles or waves 2. SPARK a. the light produced by a sudden discontinuous discharge of electricity through air b. brilliance, liveliness or vivacity 3. VACUUM a. a cavity within a cell, often containing a watery liquid b. an enclosed space from which matter, esp. air, has been partially removed 4. INCANDESCENCE a. the emission of visible light by a body, caused by its high temperature b. the chanting or uttering of words thought to have magical power 5. RAY a. a narrow beam of light b. any of numerous fishes having a fattened body adapted for life on the sea bottom 6. ELECTRODE a. electric current b. a conductor through which a current enters or leaves 7. VOLTAGE a. electromotive force expressed in volts b. a device for measuring the quantity of electricity passing through a conductor 8. PRESSURE
a. one which presses or applies pressure b. force per unit area 2. Say which statements are true or false:
a) Milikan discovered a new form of radiation which allowed him to photograph objects beneath opaque shields. b) Crookes’s tube was sealed in both ends by a metal plate c) Ectoplasm is the fourth state of matter d) The medical world used Roentgen’s tube in different ways to analyze fractures, deep-seated wounds and the inner structure of the human body e) Roentgen did not understand the phenomenon and stated that the X rays are in fact longitudinal vibrations in the ether 3. Fill in the blanks with the following words:
fluorescent radiation lead glow
flask vacuum pump cathode ray
a. ……………….. is a heavy metal sometimes found in its natural state, sometimes combined with other elements b. Physicists can produce a space partially devoid of matter with the help of a ………………… c. When certain substances are exposed to external radiation such as light or X rays they become ……………….. d. Stars emit not only visible light but also other types of electromagnetic …………………… such as radio waves, X rays, etc. e. A vacuum tube that generates a beam of electrons which can be deflected by electric or magnetic fields is called ………………… tube. f. When electricity passes through a low-pressure gas it produces a ………………… discharge. g. Yesterday, it was the first time I saw a ……………… in the laboratory.
4. Give the synonyms and the antonyms of the following words extracted from the text: WORD
beneath marvelous to diminish velocity to prove weird
SYNONYM
…………… …………… …………… …………… …………… ……………
OPPOSITE
…………….. …………….. …………….. …………….. …………….. ……………..
5. Give the missing noun, adjective or verb corresponding to the following words:
NOUN radiation ………………….. …………………. . invention …………………. . vibration …………………. . …………………. . vacuum ………………….
ADJECTIVE ……………… ……………… incandescent ………………. electrical ………………. ………………. solid ………………. opaque
VERB ……………… to fluoresce ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… to impinge ……………… ……………… ………………
6. Translate into English: a. S-a demonstrat că razele catodice sunt de natură electrică prin intermediul unui magnet plasat în afara tubului lui Crookes. b. Razele X sunt o formă de radiaţie electro-magnetică asemănătoare luminii dar cu o lungime a undelor mai mică. c. Descoperirea razelor X a reprezentat un pas important atât pentru lumea medicală cât şi pentru fizicieni. d. Deşi Roentgen a descris pentru prima oară această formă nouă de radiaţie nu i-a putut da o explicaţie.
e. De la descoperirea lui Roentgen, medicii folosesc aceste raze X pentru a depista orice nereguli din interiorul corpului uman. 7.Crossword puzzle: DOWN: 1. another word
2
1
for speed 3 ACROSS : 2.to discover 4 something new 5 3.below,under 6 4.to deviate from a 7 8 straight line 5. a light emitted by a 9 substance heated to luminosity 6. a space entirely devoid of matter 7. something that protects 8 a hypothetical substance which is responsible for the propagation of electromagnetic radiation through space 9. Roentgen’s new discovery FOCUS ON LANGUAGE THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES MAIN CLAUSE
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
PRESENT - any tense required by context TENSE PAST TENSE Past Tense – simultaneity He told me the truth when he returned home She was watching TV while I was studying. They were laughing when their brother entered the room. Past Perfect – anteriority I thought that he had passed the test but he didn’t. Future in the Past – posteriority He mentioned that he would lend me his book. FUTURE Future Tense – simultaneity TENSE You’ll tell me what you’ll buy. Present Tense – simultaneity (Temporal Clause) I’ll solve this problem when I have time. Present Perfect – anteriority I shall give you an answer after I have read the paper.
Exceptions: 1. Even if in the main clause we have a verb in the Past Tense, in the subordinate clause we can use a verb in the Present Tense when we deal with general truths; We all knew that the atom is the smallest particle, you needn’t repeat that. 2. in attributive clause – the verb in the subordinate can be at any tense He gave me presents which I shall always remember. 3. in comparative clauses – introduced by: as, more than, as well as, as much as, the tense of the verb is required by the context. He asked for the TV set more than I’ll ever ask for it. PRACTICE 9. Put the verbs in brackets in the appropriate tense paying attention to the sequence of tenses:
I am sure I (to forget) my passport at home and I wonder why it (not to be) here. I phoned my sister to ask about it and she said she (to see) it a few days ago in the kitchen. The passport should be here but I still can’t find it. Maybe my father (to come across) it and (to put) it somewhere else. I don’t know for sure. I’ll call him later when the conference (to be over). I just hope I (not miss) the plane. 10. Select the correct word or expression in parentheses in each of the following sentences: a) She will buy me books as soon as she (will arrive/ has arrived/arrives) in New York. b) The teacher told us that the Earth (had/has/would have) a period of revolution of 365.26 days. c) He had demonstrated long time ago that the neutrons (are/were/had been) the fundamental constituents of the atomic nucleus. d) My father asked me yesterday why I (left/had left/have left) so early the previous day. e) Show this paper to Mr. Black when you (meet/met/will meet) him. f) They said they (send/will send/would send) me a postcard on Tuesday. g) She gave me magazines which I never (would forget/forgot/shall forget). h) I was doing my homework while he (read/was reading/had read) the local newspaper. i) She remembered that the money (is/was/would be) in the top drawer. j) People will forget him if he (doesn’t do/will not do/hasn’t done) something to change that. 10. Translate into English: a. Voi veni la tine când voi termina proiectul la fizică. b. I-am spus de două ori că este cel mai bun dintre toţi şi că nu trebuie să-şi facă griji deloc. c. Nu am crezut că mă va minţi vreodată. d. De îndată ce a gustat prăjitura bunicii, a rămas nemişcat gândindu-se că este cea mai bună prăjitură pe care a mâncat-o vreodată. e. Tremura de nelinişte în timp ce aştepta rezultatul examenului.
f. Sunt sigură că şi-ar fi dorit să vizităm Parisul împreună. g. Citea de două ore în staţia de autobuz când John l-a remarcat. h. Mary i-a telefonat bunicii sale de îndată ce a coborît din tren. i. I-a plăcut să citească mai mult decât îi place sau îi va place vreodată să conducă maşina. WRITING Imagine that you are a researcher who has just made an important discovery. Write a paper about it and read it before your colleagues.
UNIT 9 MAGNETISM PASSIVE VOICE
MAGNETISM Introduction Magnetism is an aspect of electromagnetism, one of the fundamental forces of nature. Magnetic forces are produced by the motion of charged particles such as electrons, indicating the close relationship between electricity and magnetism. The most familiar evidence of magnetism is the attractive or repulsive force observed to act between magnetic materials such as iron. More subtle effects of magnetism, however, are found in all matter. In recent times these effects have provided important clues to the atomic structure of matter. History The phenomenon of magnetism has been known since ancient times. The mineral lodestone, an oxide of iron that has the property of attracting iron objects, was known to the Greeks, Romans, and Chinese. When a piece of iron is stroked with lodestone, the iron itself acquires the same ability to attract other pieces of iron. The magnets thus produced are polarized – that is, each has two sides or ends called north-seeking and south-seeking poles. Like poles repel one another, and unlike poles attract. Electromagnetic theory In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the theories of electricity and magnetism were investigated simultaneously. In 1819 an important discovery was made by the Danish physicist Hans Christian Oersted, who found that a magnetic needle could be deflected by an electric current flowing through a wire. This discovery, which showed a connection between electricity and
magnetism, was followed up by the French scientist André Marie Ampère, who studied the forces between wires carrying electric currents, and by the French physicist Dominique François Jean Arago, who magnetized a piece of iron by placing it near a current-carrying wire. In 1831, Faraday discovered that moving a magnet near a wire induces an electric current in that wire, the inverse effect to that found by Oersted: Oersted showed that an electric current creates a magnetic field, while Faraday showed that a magnetic field can be used to create an electric current. The full unification of the theories of electricity and magnetism was achieved by the English physicist James Clerk Maxwell, who predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves and identified light as an electromagnetic phenomenon. Subsequent studies of magnetism were increasingly concerned with an understanding of the atomic and molecular origins of the magnetic properties of matter. In 1905 the French physicist Paul Langevin produced a theory regarding the temperature dependence of the magnetic properties of paramagnets, which was based on the atomic structure of matter. Langevin’s theory was subsequently expanded by the French physicist Pierre Weiss, who postulated the existence of an internal “molecular” magnetic field in material such as iron. This concept, when combined with Langevin’s theory, served to explain the properties of strongly magnetic materials such as lodestone. After Weiss’s theory, magnetic properties were explored in greater and greater detail. In 1925, two American physicists showed that the electron itself has spin and behaves like a small bar magnet. At the atomic level, magnetism is measured in terms of magnetic moments – a magnetic moment is a vector quantity that depends on the strength and orientation of the magnetic field, and the configuration of the object that produces the magnetic field. Other scientists then predicted many more complex atomic arrangements of magnetic moments, with diverse magnetic properties. GENERAL VOCABULARY
clue, n. = indiciu, punct de reper to seek, v. = a se mişca, a se îndrepta spre needle, n.= ac, săgeată, indicator wire, n. = sârmă, fir de sârmă to predict, v. = a prezice, a
TECHNICAL VOCABULARY
iron, n. = fier (ca metal) lodestone, n.= magnet natural sau magnetit oxide, n. = oxid pole, n. = pol to induce, v. = a produce, a cauza
prevedea spin, n. = moment de răsucire, subsequent, adj. = următor, ulterior rotire to postulate, v. = a accepta fără dovezi, a pretinde
COMPREHENSION
Answer these questions on the text: a. What was the main property of the mineral lodestone? b. Which is the cause that generates the appearance of magnetic forces? c. Who succeeded in unifying both theories for the very first time? d. Did Faraday agree to Oersted’s theory? e. Can you define a magnetic moment? PRACTICE 1. Mark the following sentences true (T) or false (F):
a. Oersted proved that there was no connection between electricity and magnetism b. It was Pierre Weiss that postulated for the very first time the existence of an internal “molecular” magnetic field inside iron c. There are both attractive and repulsive forces between two magnetic materials d. A vector quantity does not depend on the orientation of the magnetic field e. By the polarization of magnets we understand the existence of two poles called north-seeking pole and south-seeking pole 2. Match the following words with the definitions given below:
a. iron b. pole c. magnetite d. wire
e. lodestone f. electron g. magnet h. matter
i. electricity j. magnetism k. oxide
1. elementary particle that is a fundamental constituent of matter
2. the substance or substances of which any physical object consists or is composed 3. the properties of attraction possessed by magnets 4. a variety of magnetite which possesses magnetic polarity 5. a very common black iron oxide that is strongly attracted by magnets 6. a body that possesses the property of attracting certain substances such as iron 7. a fundamental physical agency which is caused by the presence and motion of electrons, protons and other charged particles 8. a ductile, malleable silver-white metallic element 9. a compound containing oxygen and one or more elements 10. either of the two regions or parts of an electric battery 11. a slender, stringlike piece or filament of relatively rigid or flexible metal 3. Give nouns corresponding to the following verbs:
VERB to predict to polarize to acquire to deflect to postulate
NOUN ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ………………
VERB to induce to achieve to expand to combine to discover
NOUN ……………. ……………. ……………. ……………. ……………..
4. Write down the family of the following words:
MAGNET …………… …………… …………… ……………
ELECTRIC ………………. ………………. ………………. ……………….
5. Give synonyms to the following text: evidence- …………… phenomenon - …………… repulse - ………… connection-…………… • • • •
EXISTENCE ……………….. ………………. ………………. ………………
.
words extracted from the
to acquire - …………… to expand - …………… to discover - …………… to postulate - ………….
6. Fill in the blanks with the following words:
electric current magnetic needle electromagnetic wave magnetic moment
magnetic field magnetic induction paramagnet
a. He described the ……………………. as being a quantity equal to the product of the pole strength and length of a given magnet b. A body or a substance that possesses magnetization in direct proportion to the strength of the field in which it is placed is called ………………… c. Generally, a magnetic substance has in its vicinity a ………………… which manifests itself as a force d. The magnetic field is measured by means of ……………… which is in fact a vector quantity. e. The acceleration of an electric charge produces a (an) ………………… that is propagated by the periodic variation of intensity of perpendicular and magnetic fields. f. A (An) ………………….. is an ordered (directional) motion of charged particles (these particles are free electrons) g. Inside a compass you can find a ……………………. that indicates the direction of the Earth’s magnetic fields or (the approximate position of North and South) 7. Some of the words bellow are spelt incorrectly; pick them out and write down their correct version:
attractive magnet lodstone polarized through
repel simultaneously unification subsequently achived 2
8. Crossword puzzle:
arangement strocked existence repulsive aquire
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ACROSS: 1.something which
consists of molecules DOWN: 2. the structure of an atom 3. a quantity possessing both magnitude and direction 4.physical repulsion 1 5. the science dealing with magnetic phenomena 6.a fundamental constituent of matter having negative charge 7. to presuppose 8. a space in the vicinity of a magnet 9. to spread 10. to cause approach or union. 9. Translate into English:
a. In 1905, s-a descoperit că, în interiorul unor materiale ca fierul, există un camp magnetic molecular. b. John Michell a afirmat că, atracţia şi respingerea magneţilor descreşte pe măsură ce distanţa dintre polii acestora creşte. c. Teoria structurii atomice a avut o importanţă deosebită în explicarea prezenţei magnetismului în elemente de tranziţie ca fierul sau compuşi ai acestora. d. În 1600, William Gilbert a subliniat că pământul însuşi se comportă ca un magnet uriaş.
e. Pe baza mecanicii cuantice, fizicianul Heisenberg a explicat câmpul molecular. f. Oersted a descoperit că un ac magnetic ar putea fi deviat dacă sar introduce curent electric într-un fir. g. Faraday a contrazis teoria lui Oersted arătând că un câmp magnetic poate fi folosit pentru a crea curent electric şi nu invers. h.Cele două teorii de mai sus, cea a electricităţii şi cea a magnetismului au fost unite de Maxwell care a prezis existenţa undelor electromagnetice i. Relaţia apropiată dintre electricitate şi magnetism este reprezentată de forţele magnetice care sunt produse de mişcarea unor particule încărcate ca electronii. FOCUS ON LANGUAGE THE PASSIVE VOICE PAST SIMPLE was/were+Ved V3 CONT. was/were+being+Ved V3 PERFECT Had+been+Ved V3 PERFECT CONT.
PRESENT am/is/are+Ved V3 am/is/are+being+Ved V3 Have/has+been+Ved V3 -
FUTURE SIMPLE CONT. PERFECT PERFECT CONT.
FUTURE IN THE PAST shall/will+be+Ved would+be+Ved V3 V3 _ _ Shall/will+have+ Would+have+ Been+Ved/V3 Been+Ved/V3 -
10. Underline the verbs that were used in the Passive Voice in the text studied above “Magnetism”.
11. Change the following sentences into the Passive Voice: a. People generally use telescopes to observe the skies. b. Galileo had already formulated the law of inertia when Newton was born. c. Gilbert applied scientific methods to the study of electricity and magnetism. d. The physicist is reading a paper on the gravitomagnetic field. e. Scientists have viewed celestial objects through a telescope’s eyepiece. (adapted from www.weburbia.co.uk/physics) 12. Change the following sentences into the Passive Voice. Make the underlined words the subject of your passive sentences:
a. He will give us an answer as soon as possible. b. They offered Jane a well-paid job but she couldn’t accept it. c. She hasn’t watered the roses for a week now. d. When they were good friends he was phoning her twice a day. e. Someone saw you enter the shop over there. f. John had painted the house three times before he left. g. She didn’t allow me to enter her room. h. Jane couldn’t have written all those funny jokes. i. I’ll send you the letter as soon as I arrive home. j. He ought to lend you $50. 13. Rephrase the following sentences using the words suggested, so that the original sense is preserved: a) What caused the explosion? What _____________ by? b) We must look into this matter. This ______________________. c) People say he is a reliable man. It ________________________. d) Someone saw you enter the bank. You ________________ enter the bank. e) It is claimed that the new model is more economical than the old one. The new model __________________________. f) The police believe he left the country several days ago. He is ___________________________________.
g) She doesn’t like when they keep her waiting. ________________ kept ___________________. h) People know that he has had three wives already. He is __________ been _________ three times already. i) It surprised me to find that someone had broken into our cellar. I ____________ that our cellar ____________. (Pawlowska, Barbara; Kempinski, Zbigniew, Teste de limba engleză, Ed. Teora, Bucureşti, 1997) 14. Translate into English paying attention to the use of the Passive Voice: a. Dintre toate încercările făcute pentru a explica acest rezultat, cel mai promiţător a fost oferit de Lorentz. b. Tocmai mi s-a explicat teoria relativităţii a lui Einstein dar tot nu pot s-o înţeleg. c. Aceste teorii vor fi testate săptămâna viitoare pentru a le demonstra eficienţa. d. Celebra carte a lui Isaac Newton „Principia” trebuie să fie citită până la sfârşitul semestrului. e. Am fost surprinsă de experimentul pe care voia să-l facă dar nu am putut să-l determin să renunţe la el. FUN TIME What is the meaning of the abreviation SPIN ? S ociety for the P rotection of I nnocent N uclei
UNIT 10 NUCLEAR WEAPONS MODAL VERBS
NUCLEAR WEAPONS Nuclear weapons, explosive devices designed to release nuclear energy on a large scale, used primarily in military applications. The first atomic bomb (or A-bomb), which was tested on July 16, 1945, New Mexico, represented a completely new type of explosive. Nuclear explosives involve energy sources within the core, or nucleus, of the atom. The A-bomb gained its power from the splitting, or fission, of all the atomic nuclei in several kilograms of plutonium. The A-bomb was developed, constructed and tested by a massive United States enterprise during the World War II. After the war, the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission became responsible for the oversight of all nuclear matters, including research on hydrogen bombs. In these bombs the source of energy is the fusion process, in which nuclei of
the isotopes of hydrogen combine to form a heavier helium nucleus. This weapons research resulted in the production of bombs that range in power from a fraction of a kiloton to many megatons. Furthermore, the physical size of a nuclear bomb was drastically reduced, permitting the development of nuclear artillery shells and small missiles that can be fired from portable launchers in the field. Fission Weapons In 1905 Albert Einstein published his theory of relativity. According to this theory, the relation between mass and energy is expressed by the equation E= mc2 , which states that a given mass (m) is associated with an amount of energy (E) equal to this mass multiplied by the square of the speed of light (c). A very small amount of matter is equivalent to a vast amount of energy. In 1938, German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann split the uranium atom into two parts by bombardment with neutrons. When a uranium or other suitable nucleus fissions, it breaks up into a pair of nuclear fragments and releases energy. At the same time, the nucleus emits very quickly a number of fast neutrons, the same type of particle that initiated the fission of the uranium nucleus. This makes it possible to achieve a self-sustaining series of nuclear fissions; the neutrons that are emitted in fission produce a chain reaction, with continouous release of energy. The light isotope of uranium is easily split by the fission neutrons and, upon fission emits an average of about 2.5 neutrons. One neutron per generation of nuclear fissions is necessary to sustain the chain reaction. Others may be lost by escape from the mass of chain reacting material, or they may be absorbed in impurities or in the heavy uranium isotope if it is present. Any substance capable of sustaining a fission chain reaction is known as a fissile material. Fusion (Thermonuclear) Weapons Even before the first atomic bomb was developed, scientists realized that a type of nuclear reaction different from the fission process was theoretically possible as a source of nuclear energy. Instead of using the energy released as a result of a chain reaction in fissile material, nuclear weapons could use the energy liberated in the fusion of light elements. This process is the opposite of fission, since it involves the fusing together of the nuclei of isotopes of light atoms such as hydrogen. It is for this reason that the weapons based on nuclearfusion reactions are often called hydrogen bombs or H-bombs. Of the three isotopes of hydrogen the two heaviest species, deuterium and tritium, combine most readily to form helium. The term thermonuclear implies that the nuclei have a distribution of energies
characteristic of the temperature. This plays an important role in making rapid fusion reactions possible by an increase in temperature. Fission-Fusion-Fission Bomb within the bomb. In the process helium and high energy neutrons were formed. The third stage resulted from the impact of these high-speed neutrons on the outer jacket of the bomb, which consisted of natural uranium. No chain reaction was produced, but the fusion neutrons had sufficient energy to cause fission of the uranium nuclei and thus added to the explosive yield and also to the radioactivity of the bomb residues. GENERAL VOCABULARY
weapon, n.= armă device, n.= aparat; dispozitiv to oversight, v.= a supraveghea square, n.= pătrat on a large scale = pe scară mare
TECHNICAL VOCABULARY
to release, v.= a degaja; a elibera core, n.= partea centrală; mijloc fission, n.= fisiune fusion, n.= fuziune shell, n.= obuz missile, n.= proiectil fissile, adj.= fisionabil to yield, v.= a emite; a produce chain reaction = reacţie în lanţ
COMPREHENSION 1. Answer these questions on the text: a) Which are the three types of nuclear bombs described in the text? b) How did Einstein’s theory of relativity contribute to the creation of the first fission weapon? c) What are hydrogen bombs based on? d) What does thermonuclear really mean? e) Can you describe the process involved in the fabrication of thermonuclear bombs? PRACTICE 1. Mark the following sentences true (T) or false (F):
a. The A-bomb consists of the fusion of the atomic nuclei in several kilograms of plutonium.
b. Fission bombs are based on the bombardment with neutrons of an uranium atom. c. Scientists realized that nuclear weapons could not use the energy liberated in the fusion of light elements. d. Deuterium and helium are the lightest isotopes of hydrogen. e. Thermonuclear bombs are the result of the impact of high speed neutrons with the outer jacket of the bomb. f. Both fission and thermonuclear bombs are based on chain reactions. 2. Fill in the blanks with the following words extracted from the text: fissile (2 times) fusion missile isotope nuclear neutron thermonuclear fission
a) It was impossible to create hydrogen bombs before the perfection of the A-bombs since only the latter could produce the heat necessary to achieve ………………….. of hydrogen bombs. b) Although the heavy uranium …………….. is not able to maintain a chain reaction, it can be converted into a ……………. material by bombarding it with ……………….. c) Nowadays guided ……………. can be launched from the ground, the air or underwater. d) The chain reaction is formed as a result of the ……………… of an uranium nucleus into nuclear fragments. e) ……………….. weapons can be used for a variety of applications in the military field. f) The minimum amount of …………….. material needed to sustain a chain reaction is known as the critical mass. g) The detonation of a …………….. weapon leads to catastrophic effects for the environment since the resulting fireball burns everything. 3. Give the noun, adjective or verb corresponding to the following words:
NOUN
VERB
ADJECTIVE
……………….. launcher ………………. ……………… fraction ……………… ……………… ………………
………………… ………………… to permit ………………… ………………… to reduce ………………… to split
explosive ………………… …....................... opposite ………………… ………………… military ………………...
4. Give the synonyms of the following words extracted from the text: WORD
fission shell readily to fuse to sustain
SYNONYM
…………… …………… …………… …………… ……………
WORD
to oversight to release to yield to fire
SYNONYM
…………... ………….. …………... …………..
5. Spot the mistakes in the following sentences extracted from the text and write down their correct version:
The oposite process of fussion is fision which involve the fusing of the nuclei of isotopes of light atoms such as hydrogen. Such a reaction imply that two of the most heavy isotopes combine to form helium. Scientists realized that a type of nuclear reaction diferent from the fision proces were theoreticaly possible before the first atomic bomb was developped. In a fission bomb the uranium atom is splited into two parts by bombardament with neutrons releassing energy. After the war, the US Atomic Energy Comission become responsable for the oversight of all nuclear mater including hydrogen bombs.
6. Crossword puzzle: DOWN: 1. one of the heaviest isotopes of ACROSS: 2. a mechanical invention
hydrogen
1
3. a projectile from a canon filled with an explosive charge 2 4. a thermonuclear reaction in 3 which nuclei of light atoms join 4 to form nuclei of heavier atoms 5 5. another isotope of hydrogen 6 having an atomic weight of three 7 6. an instrument used to attack in 8 combat 9 7. to free from anything that 10 restrains 8. the splitting of the nucleus of an atom into nuclei of lighter atoms 9. to support 10. a kind of weapon for shooting 7. Translate into English:
Când are loc fisiunea unui nucleu de uraniu, acesta se sparge în fragmente nucleare şi emite energie. Atunci când dimensiunile bombelor nucleare s-au redus, artileria nucleară s-a dezvoltat rapid de la obuze până la proiectile mici. Bombele cu hidrogen sunt rezultatul fuziunii a doi nuclei ai izotopilor hidrogenului şi anume: deuteriu şi tritiu pentru a forma heliu. Bomba termonucleară nu se bazează pe o reacţie în lanţ ci pe fuziunea neutronilor care au suficientă energie pentru a duce la o fisiune a nucleilor de uraniu.
Prima bombă atomică a fost construită de Statele Unite şi testată pentru prima oară în timpul celui de-al doilea război mondial.
FOCUS ON LANGUAGE MODAL VERBS Modal verbs are used to indicate a certain attitude towards what is being said, towards the information transmitted concerning the intentions of the speaker or the effect on the hearer.
There are two types of modal verbs in English: 1) notional verbs expressing manner (want; wish; order; oblige; advise; intend; mean; prefer, etc) which act just like normal verbs. ( Don’t oblige her to wash the dishes!) 2) defective modal verbs (can/could; may/might; must/to have to; shall/should; will/would; ought to; used to; need; dare) which express manner but they have some specific characteristics: a) They can not be conjugated in all the moods and tenses; that is why they have equivalents to express the other moods and tenses ( must – to have to; may – might, etc) b) They do not take –s/-es in the third person singular ( I am sure he can do this.) c) In interrogative and negative sentences modal verbs are not accompanied by the auxiliary ”to do” excepting ”to have to”. i. (You mustn’t worry.) ii. (Could you give me an example?) iii. ( ! You don’t have to finish your work before 11 a.m.) d) Modals are followed by the short infinitive that is by infinitive without ”to” (except ”ought to; to have to”.) i. (I must do it at once.).
Present
can must
PastT./ Equivalent Conditional could to be able to
_______
to have to
Meaning
a putea a trebui
to be allowed to to be permitted to to be possible to _________
a (se) putea a avea voie
may
might
shall
should
will
would
_________
a vrea
ought to
______
__________
need
Needed
__________
a trebui; a se cuveni a fi nevoie
dare
dared
__________
a îndrăzni
a trebui
a) Ability (physical or intellectual) – I can/am able to swim. b)Permission – Can I go out? c)Possibility – You can eat, there is enough food. d)Polite request – Can you wait a little longer? e)Negative deduction – Jane can’t be working so long. COULD a) ability in the past – I could swim when I was young. b) more polite request – Could you stay with me? c) condition – I could buy you a book if I had money. MAY a) requiring/granting permission – May I use your phone? b) possibility – She may be working in her room. MIGHT a) past tense of may – She said she might help you. b) more polite request – Might I use your phone? c) smaller possibility – She might pass her exams. MUST a) obligation – I must/have to be there before 2. b) deduction – She must be rich. (I am sure she is rich). c) prohibition (must + not) – You mustn’t come late. SHALL – a) the strong intention imposed on the subject by someone else – You shall leave by 10 o’clock. b) to ask an advice – Shall I buy this dress? c) a promiss – The manager shall settle the complain. WILL – a) strong intention of the subject imposed on the others – I will solve the problems if I want to. SHOULD – a) advice – You should work. b) moral obligation – I should pay the electricity bill. WOULD – a) polite request – Would you like to talk to him now? NEED – a) necessitiy – Need I go there? CAN
b) absence of obligation – You needn’t do it. (it’s not necessary according to the speaker) OUGHT TO – a) obligation – You ought to do the homework after 11 o’clock. b) a supposition – He ought to be in the session by now. c) moral duty – He ought to be on time. PRACTICE 8. Underline the modal verbs that you can find in the text studied above. 9. Fill in the blanks with modal verbs:
a) You ................... shoot the horse.It ...................... to run again in two weeks. b) You ...................... have paid $500 for the painting of an unknown artist. c) They ...................... be writing a composition for the English class otherwise they would be here right now. d) You ....................... keep your promise if you want to be successful. e) You ....................... take a shower if you plan to go out with Mary. f) I ........................ to buy her a present although I didn’t have too much money. g) She ................... turn you down if you propose to her dressed like that. h) I ........................ translate what he is saying. It’s too complicated. i) You …………… give up eating chocolate if you want to be thin. j) You …………… have accepted when he asked you for the very first time. 10. Choose the one item marked a, b, c or d to complete the following sentences: a) Jane (nu se poate să fi venit) to the club last night. a. can’t have come c. couldn’t come b. may not have come d. couldn’t have come b) You (nu e nevoie să iei) those tablets so often.
a. shouldn’t take c. needn’t take b. mustn’t take d. aren’t allowed to take c) Frank (se poate să nu fi văzut) “Hair” while he was in London. a. might not see c. couldn’t see b. may not have seen d. couldn’t have seen d) She said she (trebuia să trimită) a telegram to her husband. a. must have sent c. had to send b. must send d. had had to send e) Kate (ar fi trebuit să fie dusă)to hospital a long time ago. a. ought to be taken c. should take b. should have taken d. should have been taken f) John (se temea pe vremuri) of horses. a. used to be afraid c. used to have been afraid b. used to being afraid d. used to having been afraid g) I’m glad I (n-am fost nevoit să lucrez) overtime last week. a. didn’t have to work c. needn’t have worked b. mustn’t work d. haven’t had to work h) She (nu e obişnuită să se trezească) so early. a. usen’t to get up c. didn’t use to get up b. isn’t used to getting up d. isn’t used to get up i) Professor Swindon (nu se poate să fi întârziat) for the lecture. a. wasn’t able to come late c. couldn’t have come late b. might not come late d. might not have come late j) I’m afraid I (va trebui să fiu de serviciu) next Sunday. a. must be on duty c. will have to be on duty b. will be on duty d. have to be on duty (Pawlowska, Barbara; Kempinski, Zbigniew, Teste de limba engleză, Ed. Teora, Bucureşti, 1997) 11. Translate into English:
a) Vrei să mă ajuţi să car toate aceste cutii pline de jucării până la etajul 3? b) Doriţi o cafea cu frişcă sau una simplă? c) Ar fi trebuit să aştepte mai mult de 10 minute sosirea autobuzului. d) E posibil ca trenul să nu ajungă în gară la 4 fix din cauza zăpezii. e) Ar fi putut conduce maşina dar nu a vrut deoarece era foarte obosit. f) Trebuie să citeşti toate aceste cărţi dacă vrei să obţii bursa.
g) Ce să fac în cazul în care sună să mă invite la cinema? h) Nu aveţi voie să vă plimbaţi pe stradă. O maşină v-ar putea lovi oricând. i) Conducătorii auto ar trebui să calce frâna dacă semaforul este roşu. j) Nu trebuie să-ţi fixezi centura de siguranţă dacă avionul este încă în aeroport. k) I s-a dat voie să privească la televizor când şi-a terminat antrenamentul la fotbal. l) A trebuit să dovedească că este cel mai bun deoarece nimeni nu-l cunoştea atunci. m) Pot să răspund la telefon? Este ceva urgent. n) N-ar fi trebuit să plătească el dacă prietenul lui l-a invitat. o) Nu era nevoie să conduci atât de repede. Te aşteptam oricum. WRITING Write a short essay focusing on the damage caused by nuclear weapons at Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
UNIT 11 HOW GRAVITY AFFECTS PHOTONS IF CLAUSES
HOW GRAVITY AFFECTS PHOTONS The question: Does light have mass? Light is affected by gravity, and, as we all know, anything that has mass is affected by gravity. So, if a black hole gravity field is so strong that light cannot escape itself, then light must have mass.
The answer: Whether or not light (or more accurately photons, the indivisible units in which light can be emitted or absorbed) has mass and how it is affected by gravity, puzzled scientists for many, many years. Figuring it all out is what made Albert Einstein famous. Back in the 1700s, scientists were still struggling to understand which theory of light was correct: was it composed of particles or was it made of waves? Under the theory that light is waves, it was not clear how it would respond to gravity. But if light was composed of particles it would be expected that they would be affected by gravity in the same way apples and planets are. This expectation grew when it was discovered that light did not travel infinitely fast, but with a finite measurable velocity. Armed with these facts, a paper was published in 1783 by John Michell, in which he pointed out that a sufficiently massive compact star would possess a strong enough gravitational field that light could not escape. Any light emitted from the star’s surface would be dragged back by the star’s gravity before it could get very far. Not much was done over the next hundred years or so with the ideas of Michell. This was mostly true because during that time, the wave theory of light became the most accepted one. And no one understood how light, as a wave, could be affected by gravity. Then, in 1915 Albert Einstein proposed the theory of general relativity. General relativity explained, in a consistent way, how gravity affects light. We now knew that while photons have no mass, they do possess momentum. We also knew that photons are affected by gravitational fields not because photons have mass, but because gravitational fields (in particular strong gravitational fields) change the shape of spacetime. The photons are responding to the curvature in space-time, not directly to the gravitational field. Space-time is the four-dimensional “space” we live in. (also known as a Minkowski space – there are 3 spatial dimensions, think of x, y, and z, and one time dimension). Let us relate this to light travelling near a star. The strong gravitational field of the star changes the paths of light rays in spacetime from what they would have been, had the star not been present. Specifically, the path of the light is bent slightly inward toward the surface of the star. We see this effect all the time when we observe distant stars in our Universe. As a star contracts, the gravitational field at its surface gets stronger, thus bending the light more. This makes it more and more difficult for light from the star to escape, thus it appears to us that the star is dimmer. Eventually, if the star shrinks to a certain critical radius, the gravitational field at the surface becomes
so strong that the path of the light is bent so severely inward so that it returns to the star itself. The light can no longer escape. According to the theory of relativity, nothing can travel faster than light. Thus, if light cannot escape, neither can anything else. Everything is dragged back by the gravitational field. We call the region of space for which this condition is true a “black hole”. A black hole is in essence a space singularity (a point in space where the curvature of the space-time is infinit), surrounded by a horizon (the radial distance from the singularity from which even light cannot escape). Now, being scientists, we do not just accept theories like general relativity or conclusions like photons have no mass. We constantly test them, trying to definitively prove or disprove. So far, general relativity has withstood every test. And try as we might, we can measure no mass for the photon. We can just put upper limits on what mass it can have. These upper limits are determined by the sensitivity of the experiment we are using to try to “weigh the photon”. GENERAL VOCABULARY
to puzzle, v.= a pune în încurcătură; a nedumeri to figure out, v.= a înţelege to point out, v.= a sublinia; a atrage atenţia asupra slightly, adv.= puţin to bend, v.= a îndoi; a curba dim, adj.= redus; mic to shrink, v.= a (se) micşora to withstand, v.=a rezista
TECHNICAL VOCABULARY
black hole = gaură neagră wave, n.= undă to drag back, v.= a trage; a târî înapoi photon, n.= foton; cuantă de lumină momentum, n.= impuls; moment mecanic curvature, n.= curbă path, n.= traiectorie singularity, n.= punct singular velocity, n.= viteză radius, n. = rază
COMPREHENSION
Answer the following questions: a) Does light travel so fast that we cannot measure its velocity? b) What was Michell’s opinion concerning the influence of gravity on light?
c) How did Einstein’s theory of relativity explain the influence of gravity on light? d) Why are photons affected by gravitational fields? e) Is there anything that can travel faster than light? f) Can you define a black hole? PRACTICE 1. Say which statements are true or false:
a) The theory of relativity states that photons are not affected by gravitational fields because they have no mass. b) John Michell considered that any light emitted by a star’s surface is dragged back by its gravity. c) The path of light changes when the gravitational field of a star acts upon it. d) When a star shrinks, its gravitational field becomes stronger. e) Scientists are now able to calculate precisely the mass of the photon. 2. Fill in the blanks with the following words: gravity momentum velocity gravitation
wave path mass moment
a) Einstein’s theory of relativity modified the ancient opinion of time and space and changed even Newton’s law of ………………….. b) You can easily predict the ……………… of this charged particle once you have used a magnetic field. c) Some materials that possess magnetic properties usually have magnetic …………….. d) …………………. is a force that attracts all bodies towards the center of the earth. e) It is hard to calculate the ……………… of this body since you don’t know all the details of the problem. f) Newton’s laws refer mainly to the motion of particles which have infinite dimensions but finite …………….
g) In the past, many scientists believed that light travelled across the space like ………………. h) Newton had to define the ………………. of a particle before explaining the law of acceleration. 3. Give the synonyms of the following words extracted from the text: WORD
to absorb finite massive to affect path
SYNONYM
………….. ………….. …………. …………. ………….
WORD
specifically compact momentum to withstand to figure out
SYNONYM
…………… …………... …………… …………... …………..
4. Give the missing noun, adjective or verb corresponding to the following words:
NOUN …………………. …………………. gravity/gravitation …………………. ………………….
ADJECTIVE divisible …………………. …………………. …………………. ………………….
VERB ………………….. to respond …………………... to contract to possess
5. Some of the words below are spelt incorrectly; pick them out and write down their correct version:
expectation specificaly gravitational indivisible measurable 6. Crossword puzzle:
emited momentum dragged massive infinitely
to posess radius dimer esence severely
1. a theory according to which space and time are relative. 2. something that is oriented 1
toward the interior of a place 3. a theory concerning light 2 put forward by Newton’s 3 contemporary Huygens 4 4. a region in space where 5 6 the gravity is so great that not even light can escape. 7 5. a luminous point in the 8 sky at night 9 10 6. a quantity expressing 11 the motion of a body 7. something that exists in the space 8. something that is large 9. you usually study it at mathematics when talking about circles 10. a sort of elementary particle of light 11. force of attraction generated by earth 7. Translate into English:
a) Una dintre problemele care i-a preocupat pe oamenii de ştiinţă din toate timpurile a fost să afle dacă lumina are într-adevăr masă.
b) Momentul în care fizicienii au descoperit că viteza luminii poate fi calculată, au înclinat mai mult în favoarea teoriei particulelor decât cea a undelor. c) În 1783, Michell a remarcat că o stea are un câmp gravitaţional atât de puternic încât nici lumina nu poate scăpa. d) Fotonii, particule elementare ale luminii sunt menţinuţi în câmpul gravitaţional din cauza tendinţei acestuia de a modela spaţiul. e) Pe măsură ce o stea se contractă, câmpul gravitaţional devine mai puternic modificând traiectoria luminii.spre interiorul suprafeţei acesteia. FOCUS ON LANGUAGE IF CLAUSES
If clauses or conditional sentences are made up of: a) a main clause b) a conditional or “if” clause introduced by the following conjunctions: if (dacă), unless (dacă nu), in case (în cazul când), even if (chiar dacă), on condition that (cu condiţia ca), provided that (cu condiţia ca), supposing (presupunând că) TYPE
MAIN CLAUSE Future/Present/Imperatif I I’ll go to the seaside probable A child is always happy action Watch this film Present Conditional II They would go to the improbable seaside action III impossible action
IF CLAUSE Present if I have money. if his parents are happy. if homework is done. Past Tense if they had enough money.
Past Conditional Past Perfect They would have gone to if they had had money. the seaside
Remarks on the 1st condition:
1) If “will”, “should”, “would”, “may”, or “can” appear in a conditional clause, they are not auxiliaries of mood helping to form the future or the conditional but modal auxiliaries. If you’ll clean the room, I’ll bake a cake. - (“will”) expresses willingness If you would see a doctor, I’ll take you to the zoo. If you may/can solve this problem we’ll leave earlier. 2) In order to express anteriority to the action of the verb of the main clause we use present perfect If you have finished your homework I’ll call a taxi. Remarks on the 2nd condition: As far as ”to be” is concerned, we use the form ”were” for all persons. If she were here she would help me do the housework. PRACTICE 8. Supply the correct tense of the verbs in brackets:
a) You’ll catch the disease if you (not leave) the hospital at once. b) He (not bring) you the newspaper if he had known that you were sleeping. c) I could find this building very easily if I (know) the town. d) I wouldn’t have bought these clothes if I (see) their price. e) Unless they stop the fire alarm I (call) the Police. f) They might get angry if you (tell) them the news. g) She (not try) to take your place if she had known that you were her sister. h) If he (to be) there he would work hard for this job. i) They would have visited New York if they (to have) enough money. j) She would drive to London if she (to have) a driving licence. 9. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense:
a) b) c) d) e) f)
I shouldn’t drink that wine if I (be) you. If I had realized that the traffic lights were red I (stop). You’ll get pneumonia if you (not change) your wet clothes. If I (had) a map I would have been all right. If you (not belong) to a union you couldn’t get a job. If he had known that the river was dangerous he (not try) to swim across it.
g) If I were sent to prison you (visit) me? h) You would play better bridge if you (not talk) so much. i) You (not get) into trouble if you had obeyed my instructions. j) The flight may be cancelled if the fog (get) thick. (Thomson, A.J.; Martinet, A.V., A Practical English Grammar, Exercises 1, 2 Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1986) 9. Translate into English:
a) Dacă i-ai fi explicat regulile cu răbdare le-ar fi înţeles cu siguranţă. b) Dacă aş fi în locul lui aş învăţa totul pe dinafară. c) Ne vom petrece vacanţa la munte dacă vom reuşi să reparăm maşina. d) Ar absolvi facultatea printre primii dacă ar învăţa mai mult decât colegii săi. e) Nu ar fi privit la televizor în acea seară dacă i-ai fi interzis acest lucru. f) Ar fi stat pe acea bancă toată ziua dacă nu ar fi fost proaspăt vopsită. g) Dacă părinţii tăi pleacă la servici să nu deschizi uşa la nimeni. h) Tatăl tău ar fi făcut infarct dacă te-ai fi căsătorit cu acel bărbat. i) Ea ar plânge ore în şir dacă ar afla că părinţii ei au avut un accident de maşină. j) Ar cânta toată ziua dacă vecinii nu i-ar cere să înceteze. WRITING Explain Einstein’s theory of relativity using your own words (no more than 10 lines) FUN TIME
Why did the chicken cross the road? Albert Einstein: Whether the chicken crossed the road or the road crossed the chicken depends on your frame of reference.
UNIT 12 A CENTURY OF DISCOVERIES IN PHYSICS I THE INFINITIVE
A CENTURY OF DISCOVERIES IN PHYSICS (I)
Given that 1999 is the last year of the second millennium, it is worth enumerating the great physics achievements of the 20 th century, achievements that have transformed the way that humanity views the universe. (1) The Unraveling of the Microscopic Constituents of Matter The concept of the atom had been hypothesized by Greeks two-andhalf millennia ago. In the nineteenth century, the atom was thought to be a spherical blob of more-or-less uniform density. Nowadays, it is known that the atom possesses considerable structure: it consists of a tiny, heavy nucleus around which light-weight, negatively charged electrons swarm. The name atom, which means “indivisible”, has become a misnomer, the atom is not the most fundamental building block since it is constructed out of smaller units. Furthermore, the nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons, both of which weigh almost 2000 times the weight of an electron. As their names imply, the proton is positively charged while the neutron is neutral, having no electrical charge. It was only in 1897 that the existence of the electron was established; previously, electricity was thought to be the flow of a liquid rather than of microscopic particles. Thirty-five years ago, scientists believed that the basic constituents of matter were protons, neutrons and electrons. Since then, high-energy accelerators have revealed that protons and neutrons are made up of three quarks. Quarks are microscopic entities with electric charges that are one-third and two-thirds of the charge of the electron. In summary, scientists have been able to divide matter into ever increasingly smaller units.
(2) Quantum Mechanics One of the greatest scientific achievements of physics in the 20 th century is the discovery of quantum mechanics. It governs the dynamics of microscopic objects such as atoms and electrons. One feature of quantum mechanics is uncertainty. For example, the exact position of an electron in an atom is not knowable, instead the electron’s position is probabilistically determined. Another feature of quantum mechanics is discreteness. For example, an electron in an atom can only assume particular types of motions, which are called states, and particular values for its energy, which are called energy levels. (3) The Discovery of the Vastness of the Universe Few people realize how much our picture of the universe has changed in 100 years. At the end of the 19 th century, the universe was thought to contain only hundreds of thousands of stars arranged in no particularly interesting patterns. The most distant stars were thought to be about 100,000 light years away; 1 light-year is about 10 trillion kilometers. Today, astronomers have observed objects that are about ten billion light years away. Furthermore, they have discovered that the universe contains many interesting structures. Amazingly, it was not until the 1920’s that it was realized that galaxies exist. Galaxies are vast collections of stars. Most galaxies are pancake-shaped. Others are ellipsoidal shaped, and still others are irregular in appearance. The galaxy in which the Sun and the Earth reside is called the Milky Way, a name that arose because the other stars in this spiral galaxy create a band of whitish hue across the heavens, which can be observed with the naked eye on a clear night sky. During the last three decades, astronomers have come to realize that 10 to 1000 galaxies often group together- such a structure is called a galaxy cluster. There are also regions of the universe with relatively few if any galaxies – these are known as giant voids. In summary, the size of the visible universe is about 200,000 times larger than the size the scientists thought it was in 1899. We now have a reasonable picture of the universe. GENERAL VOCABULARY
TECHNICAL VOCABULARY
to unravel, v.= a dezlega; a clarifica (un mister; o enigmă) to swarm, v.= a se înghesui misnomer, n.= termen impropriu furthermore, adv.= mai mult decât atât; în plus pancake, n.= clătită to arise, v.= a se ivi; a apărea
flow, n.= curgere; flux cluster, n.= îngrămădire; roi de stele hue, n.= nuanţă; tentă heavens, n.= cer blob, n.= picătură; strop quark, n.= quark; componentă ipotetică a particulelor elementare void, n.= gol; vid Milky Way, n.= Calea Lactee
COMPREHENSION
Answer the following questions: a. Does the Universe contain only stars? b. What are the main characteristics of quantum mechanics? c. Why is the word “atom” considered to be a misnomer? d. What was the nineteenth century conception regarding the atom? e. Can you define quarks? f. Why is our galaxy called “The Milky Way”? PRACTICE 1. Mark the following sentences true (T) or false (F):
a. Quarks are microscopic particles having no electrical charges. b. Nowadays, the Universe is thought to contain many various structures such as: stars, galaxies, voids. c. Before 1897, people considered electricity to be the flow of microscopic particles. d. Quantum mechanics is marked by uncertainty since we cannot identify the exact position of the electron. e. Protons and electrons are made up of quarks. 2. Give synonyms to the following words extracted from the text:
cluster uncertainty previously humanity -
……………….. ……………….. ……………….. ………………..
achievement impressive constituent void -
……………… ……………… ……………… ………………
amazingly - ……………….. to swarm - ……………….
hue shape -
……………… ………………
3. Give the missing noun, adjective, verb or adverb where possible:
NOUN accelerator ……………. ……………. summary ……………. …………….
ADJECTIVE …………… impressive …………… …………… spiral ……………
VERB ……………… ……………… to hypothesize ……………… ……………… to arrange
ADVERB ……………. ……………. ……………. ……………. ……………. …………….
4. Find the antonyms of the following words extracted from the text by paying attention to prefixes: to increase ………………….. determined …………………. uncertainty …………………. ………………… to unravel discovered ………………… ………………… to charge ………………… regular 5. Spot the mistakes in the following sentences and write down their correct version: The vizible part the universe contain fifty billions galaxyes. Before the developement of quantum mecanics, philosophers thought that peoples’ actions were predetermined by using Newton classic laws. The picture of the atom in the nineteen century is diferent from that of today. th Thanks to the great achievments of the 20 century, we now have a reasonable view of the universe and know our place in these imense world. 6. Fill in the blanks with the following words:
spherical light year millennium ellipsoidal
microscopic quark century
a. The The begin beginni ning ng of the the third third ……………… ……………….... has has broug brought ht many many changes to the world climate as a consequence of the global heating. b. Einstein, one of the greatest physicists of the last ……………., became famous for his Theory of Relativity. c. The Andr Androm omed edaa Gala Galaxy xy is the the thir thirdd nea nearest rest gala galaxy xy to the the Milky Way at a distance of 1,000,000 ………………….. d. In th the 20 20th century the physicists discovered the existence of the ……………. as elementary particles of matter. e. In the the past, past, peopl peoplee belie believe vedd that the the planet planets, s, the star starss and all the other heavenly bodies were set in ……………….. shells. f. Matt Matter er is made made up of ………… ……………. …... elem elemeents nts such such as atom atomss that cannot be seen with the naked eye. g. The pupils pupils were were asked asked to to draw draw a(n) a(n) ……………… ……………………. ……. figu figure re in order to pass the test. 7. Disc Discove overr the the word word writ writte tenn do down wn by solv solvin ingg the the cros crossw swor ordd puzzle: 1
2. a system of stars held together by by
2 3
mutual gravitation 4 3. a group of elements 5 4. having a globular 6 form 7 5. an empty space 8 6. one of the two 9 characteristics of 10 quantum mechanics 11 7. everything that 12 exists in the world including the Earth and its creatures, the heavenly bodies and the space 8. one of the constituents of matter 9. a word that is not appropriate to designate a person or a thing 10. a synonym for ”sky” 11. a branch of mechanics 12. the boundless space 8. Translate into English:
În zilele noastre, termenul „atom” care înseamnă „indivizibil”, nu mai este reprezentativ deoarece s-a descoperit că acesta este format la rândul lui din alte particule microscopice. Mecanica cuantică are mai degrabă implicaţii filozofice din cauza nesiguranţei pe care o presupune în determinarea exactă a poziţiei electronului dintr-un atom. Secolul 20 a adus multe informaţii noi cu privire la dimensiunile şi structura universului. Astronomii au descoperit existenţa galaxiilor în anul 1920 şi au observat că ele au forme neregulate, elipsoidale,etc. Gala Galaxi xiaa noas noastr trăă a fost fost numi numită tă Cale Caleaa Lacte acteee şi poat poatee fi observată cu ochiul liber în nopţile cu cer senin.
FOCUS ON LANGUAGE THE INFINITIVE
- is th the ba basic fo form of of th the ve verb I Form - long infinitive – when preceded by the particle “to”
I want to eat this cake. - short infinitive – not preceded by the particle “to” He doesn’t know her. Active Voice – Simple Aspect – Present Infinitive – to write - Perfect infinitive - to have written - Continuous Aspect – Present Cont. Inf. – to be writing - Perfect Cont. Inf. – to have been writing Passive Voice - Pres Presen entt Pas Passi sive ve Inf. Inf. – to to be be wri writt tten en - Perf Perfec ectt Pas Passi sive ve Inf Inf.. – to to hav havee bee beenn writ writte tenn II. Infinitive Patterns a) Infinitive with Special Verbs without “to” They didn’t arrive yesterday. You can read this magazine. He must be in the hotel. She might miss the bus.
b) Infinitive with “to” They ought to be on time. You’ll have to leave the town. He decided to buy a new house. Verbs followed by Infinitive with “to”: afford; agree; appear; ask; beg; care; decide; expect; forget; hope; learn; like; love; manage; need; offer; promise; refuse; regret; remember; seem; start; try; wait; want; wish; etc c) Verbs followed by a (pro)noun + an infinitive with “to” advise; allow; ask; beg; dare; encourage; expect; force; help; invite; need; order; permit; remind; teach; tell; want; warn; wish She advised me to buy a new camera. I expect you to come on time. d) Verbs followed by a (pro)noun + an infinitive without without “to” Feel; hear; see; notice; watch; make; have; let; observe
I saw him get on the bus. I’ll have him apply for the job. ! They may be followed by the long infinitive (exception “let”) when they are used in the Passive Voice: He was made to sell the car. e) Infinitive with “too” and “enough” I am too old to climb the mountain. I’m not clever enough to find the solution. f) Infinitive after adjectives: 1) to be + sure; glad; happy; surprised; relieved; astonished; sad I’m glad to hear the news. 2) to be + possible; impossible; easy; difficult; hard; necessary + for + pronoun This exercise is too difficult for me to solve it. 3) to be + kind; silly + of + pronoun It was kind of you to come to my party. g) Infinitive after the following verbs in the Passive Voice: believe; consider; know; imagine; think; feel; suppose Shakespeare is considered to be one of the greatest writers. h) Infinitive after: the first; the second; the last; the only He was the last to eat the cake. i) Short infinitive after: would rather; had better I’d rather go to the theatre. You’d better listen to his explanation. PRACTICE 9. Recognize the grammar issues representative for the following sentences extracted from the text and discuss them: The concept of the atom had been hypothesized by Greeks ………… Quarks are microscopic entities with electric charges that are one third and two thirds of the charge of the electron. Given that 1999 is the last year of the second millennium, it is worth enumerating the achievements of the 20th century…. The atom is not the most fundamental building block…..
In summary, scientists have been able to divide matter into smaller units. Quantum mechanics doesn’t provide information with regard to the position of an electron in an atom but the electron’s position is probabilistically determined. It was not until the 1920’s that it was realized that galaxies exist. 10. Translate into English using the words given in parentheses:
a) Părinţii mei nu-şi pot permite să cheltuiască atât de mulţi bani în vacanţă. (afford) b) Aţi putea să-mi daţi informaţii cu privire la zborurile de luni către Paris? (mind) c) Această casă e prea scumpă ca s-o cumpărăm. Hai să căutăm alta. d) I-am cerut să vină cu mine dar m-a refuzat. e) Am reuşit să urc pe munte mai repede decât aş fi crezut. (succeed) f) Prietena mea m-a sfătuit să accept ajutorul părinţilor pentru că altfel voi pierde totul. (advise) g) Nu sunt obişnuită să dansez toată noaptea, dar în această seară voi face o excepţie. (used to) h) Chris şi-a invitat toţi prietenii să vină la petrecerea de aniversare a zilei de naştere. i) Ne-a implorat să-l ajutăm să ajungă la spital pentru că nu-şi mai putea mişca picioarele. (beg) j) Aminteşte-mi, te rog, să iau legătura cu directorul firmei. k) N-am putut să renunţ la ieşirile mele cu prietenii aşa că ne-am despărţit.(give up) l) Mai degrabă aş merge pe jos decât să iau autobuzul. m) Îmi pare rău să aud că ţi-au interzis să mai conduci maşina după tot ce s-a întâmplat. n) Am insistat să angajăm pe cineva bine pregătit în acest domeniu. o) Se preface că nu ştie despre ce vorbim dar te asigur că a aflat totul înaintea noastră. WRITING Imagine that you are a scientist who makes an important discovery. FUN TIME
a) What's the difference between an auto mechanic and a quantum mechanic? The quantum mechanic can get the car inside the garage without opening the door. b) When people run around and around in circles, we say they are crazy. When planets do it, we say they are orbiting. c) The moon is more useful than the sun, because the moon shines at night when you want the light, whereas the sun shines during the day when you don't need it.
UNIT 13 A CENTURY OF DISCOVERIES IN PHYSICS II THE GERUND
A CENTURY OF DISCOVERIES IN PHYSICS (II) (4) Special Relativity Special relativity, as developed by Einstein at the beginning of the 20 th century, determines the dynamics of things traveling at high speeds. The effects of special relativity are only noticeable for objects moving at a reasonable fraction of the speed of light (300,000 kilometers per second). Fast-moving bodies behave in ways that are completely counter-intuitive to us. One effect that has become widely known is the equivalence of mass and energy as embodied in the famous equation E=mc². The destruction of a small amount of mass produces an enormous amount of energy. This is the basis for atomic bombs. It
is also the source of energy and light in a star including our star, the Sun. One interesting consequence of special relativity is the unification of time and space into a four-dimensional world. (5) General Relativity Another great 20th century contribution of Einstein is the general theory of relativity. It provides deep insights into the nature of gravity. In this theory, massive bodies such as the Earth and Sun cause spacetime to curve, in the same way as a bowling ball – when placed on a bed – depresses the bed’s surface. An object in such a curved spacetime no longer moves at a constant speed in a constant direction, it accelerates, just like a marble, when thrown onto the bed with the bowling ball, moves toward the bowling ball. Since, by definition, forces are things that create accelerations, the curvature is seen to be the source of gravitational force. Two interesting consequences of general relativity are the black hole and the expansion of the universe. (6) Subatomic Forces In the 18th century, three fundamental forces were known: gravity, magnetism and the electric force. By the end of the 19 th century, there were only two fundamental forces: the magnetic and electric forces were unified into one force, which is called electromagnetism. It turns that all magnetic fields are created by the motion of charge, and charges are the source of the electric force. In 1899, scientists thought that there were only two fundamental forces: gravity and electromagnetism. But, during the 20th century, two new fundamental interactions were discovered. They are subatomic, meaning that they act at scales much smaller than an atom and inside the nucleus. The strong nuclear force binds three quarks to form the proton and neutron. It also holds together the protons and neutrons in a nucleus. The weak subnuclear force is responsible for certain radioactive decay of nuclei. Nowadays, the weak force and electromagnetism were unified. Thus, the fundamental forces are gravity, the electroweak interactions and the strong nuclear force. (7) The History of the Universe At the end of the 19th century, the age of the Universe was thought to be several hundred million years. Today, it is estimated to be about 15 billion years. Scientists now know that the Earth is 4.6 billion years old and that the first life forms emerged as primitive microscopic organisms 3 billion years ago. In 1899, the ideas of Darwin had begun to be accepted by a majority of people. Today, the relations between the different life forms of the past have been mapped out with
impressive detail. The universe started as an extremely hot concentration of mass and energy. As time advanced, the universe expanded, meaning that the fabric of space stretched. Through this stretching, material was dispersed and the universe cooled. Eventually, gravity took hold of higher concentrations of matter causing them to collapse into galaxy clusters at larger scales and into stars at smaller scales. The process of star formation through gravitational collapse continues today although at a slower rate. GENERAL VOCABULARY
TECHNICAL VOCABULARY
counter, adv. = contrar; opus to curve, v.= a (se) arcui; a (se) to embody, v. = a concretiza; a îndoi reprezenta expansion, n.= extindere insight, n.= cunoaştere to bind, v.= a face legătura; a lega massive, adj.= uriaş; vast decay, n.= dezintegrare radioactivă to depress, v.= a apăsa to emerge, v.= a apărea marble, n.= bilă de granulat fabric, n.= structură impressive, adj.= impresionant to stretch, v.= a (se) extinde to disperse, v.= a (se) împrăştia COMPREHENSION
Answer the following questions: a. b. c. d. e.
Does Einstein’s special theory of relativity affect all objects? Can you mention some consequences of general relativity? How many forces do the scientists recognize today? How old is our planet, the Earth? What was the Universe like at the beginning?
PRACTICE 1. Mark the following sentences true (T) or false (F):
a. Objects that are placed in the curved spacetime created by the Earth and the Sun tend to move at a constant speed.
b. Although the Universe started as a hot concentration of mass and energy, later it cooled as a result of its expansion. c. Einstein’s famous equation E= mc² is used in the creation of atomic bombs. d. Unlike the nuclear force which is strong indeed, the subnuclear one is weak leading to a radioactive decay of the nuclei. e. Forces are things that produce changes in the movement or shape of a body or system. 2. Give synonyms to the following words extracted from the text:
-
to disperse …………… collapse …………… to decay …………… to expand ……………
- to stretch - insight - to emerge - fabric
…………….. ……………. …………… ……………
3. Do you know who won the Nobel Prize for………….
the discovery of energy quanta ? the discovery of the remarkable X rays ? the discovery of spontaneous radioactivity ? his fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics with important consequences for the physics of elementary particles his services to Theoretical Physics and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect ? his work on the elementary charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect ? the discovery of the neutron ?
4. Discover the word written down by solving the crossword puzzle: 1
2.the glow frequently 2 seen in the sky after 3 sunset 4 3. to change the 5 velocity of an 6 object 7 4.the branch of 8 astronomy that deals 9 with the structure 10 and evolution of the 11 universe 5. is in essence a point in space where the curvature of the space-time is infinite. 6. forces that bind particles inside the atomic nucleus. 7. the forces and motions that characterize a system. 8. consisting of a large mass 9. the plural form of the word “nucleus” 10. time and three dimensional space treated together as a single fourdimensional object 11.to change spontaneously into one or more different nuclei in a process in which particles are emitted from the nucleus, electrons are captured or lost. 5. Translate into English: a) Ideea de bază a teoriei relativităţii este că timpul şi distanţele unui eveniment măsurate de doi observatori au, în general, valori diferite dar se supun întotdeauna aceloraşi legi fizice. b) Relativitatea generală postulează că prezenţa de masă şi energie conduce la „curbura” spaţiului şi că această curbură influenţează
traiectoria altor obiecte, inclusiv a luminii, în urma forţelor gravitaţionale. c) Teoria Universului în expansiune reprezintă versiunea cea mai recentă care explică modul cum a luat naştere Universul: o sferă măruntă s-a aprins dintr-o dată şi a explodat dând naştere la sori, planete şi galaxii luminoase. d) Forţa tare nucleară asigură coeziunea nucleelor atomice; ea este legată de comprimarea quarkurilor şi nucleonilor, fuziunea şi fisiunea nucleelor şi poate fi detectată doar în imediata vecinătate a particulelor. e) Universul conţine circa un miliard de roiuri de galaxii, iar un roi mediu de galaxii include circa o mie de galaxii. Galaxiile sunt considerate ca fiind atomii universului. FOCUS ON LANGUAGE THE GERUND - is formed by adding the “-ING” suffix to the verb - expresses an action that is simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb I enjoyed reading her book. The gerund is used after: a) transitive verbs: to avoid; to forgive; to excuse; to enjoy; to intend; to prefer; to keep; to stop, to suggest, to admit, to deny; to imagine; to mind You must avoid staying up till late. b) prepositional verbs: to agree on; to insist on; to complain about/on; to succeed in; to aim at; to accuse of; to believe in; to prevent from; to rely on He succeeded in repairing the car. c) adjectives + preposition : to be afraid of; to be proud of; to be responsible for; to be good at She is afraid of leaving him. d) nouns + preposition : difficulty (in); reason (for); objection (to); apology (for); astonishment (at) My brothers have difficulty in reading. e) expressions: can’t stand; can’t help; it’s no use; it’s no good; it’s worth I can’t bear Tom leaving so soon.
THE “ING” PARTICIPLE - is formed by adding the suffix “-ING” to the verb The Present Participle is used : a) to form continuous tenses : She is reading now. b) as adjective: the sleeping child; the rising temperature; etc c) after: 1) verbs of perception: to hear; to notice; to see; to observe; to smell He heard his father screaming loudly.
2) causative verbs: to get; to have He had us all crying. 3) verbs such as: to catch; to find; to keep; to leave; to spend; to waste He caught her reading his diary. 4) after “to go”: She went shopping. PRACTICE 6. Put the verbs between brackets in the gerund: a) I don’t mind (to clean) the windows but I’d like to eat first. b) He stopped (to cry) when he heard his mother’s voice. c) I don’t feel like (to sleep) when I know that he is sad. d) She couldn’t help (to buy) those dresses. e) Is it worth (to pay) so much for this trip to England? f) I hate (to lie) to him but I have no other choice. g) I’m looking forward (to read) your first novel. h) He advised (to put) her toys in the children’s room. i) I got used (to write) my homework late in the evening. j) I enjoy (to travel), (to dance) and (to swim). 7. Choose the correct answer:
1. (Aţi putea să-mi daţi) the sugar? a. Do you mind passing me c. Would you mind passing me b. Do you mind to pass me d. Would you mind to pass me 2. George (nu obişnuieşte să bea) coffee for breakfast. a. isn’t used to drinking c. doesn’t use to drink b. isn’t used to drink d. doesn’t use to drinking 3. I can’t remember (ca eu să fi discutat) this problem with Tom. a. discussing c. that I discussed b. to discuss d. me to discuss
4. I’m sure that your mother saw you (aruncând) the bottle through the window. a. to throw c. threw b. thrown d. throwing 5. (Ne pare rău să vă informăm) that we haven’t received your application yet. a. We regret to inform you c. We regret to inform you b. We regret informing you d. We regret in informing you 6. Jim’s wife is a teacher and she (nu se poate abţine să-I spună) her husband what to do. a. can’t help from telling c. can’t help tell b. can’t help to tell d. can’t help telling 7. (E inutil să încerci) to make him change his mind. He’s very stubborn. a. It’s no use try c. It’s no use to try b. It’s no use in trying d. It’s no use trying 8. The meeting had been going on for more than two hours when the chairman suggested (să se ia o pauză de cafea) a. having a coffee break c. to have a coffee break b. have a coffee break d. that we’ll have a coffee break 9. (Nu intenţionam să mănânc) anything but the cake looked so good that I couldn’t say “No”. a. I didn’t mean eating c. I didn’t mean to eat b. I didn’t mean that I’ll eat d. I didn’t mean eat 10. (De ce te împotriveşti cumpărării) a new computer for our office? a. Why do you object to buy c. Why do you object to buying b. Why do you object we buy d. Why do you object that you buy (Pawlowska, Barbara; Kempinski, Zbigniew, Teste de limba engleză, Ed. Teora, Bucureşti, 1997) 8. Translate into English by using a gerund or a gerundial construction: a) Nu are rost să mergi pe jos, te voi duce eu cu maşina. b) Nu pot să-mi permit să cumpăr toate aceste cărţi. c) Mama a continuat să spere că Tom se va întoarce cândva acasă. d) Aţi putea să-mi spuneţi unde pot să-l găsesc pe directorul băncii? e) Ei au terminat de scris compunerile pe la 10 dar încă le mai corectează. f) Sunt atât de obosită! Nu am chef să ies în oraş cu prietenii.
g) Meri Merită tă să-ţ să-ţii petr petrec ecii vaca vacanţ nţaa pe lito litora rall în acea aceast stăă peri perioa oadă dă a anului. h) Am suger ugerat at să dăm dăm o petr petrec ecer eree pent pentru ru a sărb sărbăt ător orii cel cel mai mai important eveniment din viaţa lui. i) Ea este este obiş obişnuit nuităă să vorb vorbeas ească că ore ore între întregi gi fără fără să oboseas obosească. că. j) El preferă să se plimbe cu bicicleta decât să-şi facă temele. k) Nu-mi Nu-mi place place să să iau iau micul micul dejun dejun atât atât de de devrem devreme. e. l) A renunţ renunţat at să fumeze fumeze când când a aflat aflat că era era grav grav bolnavă bolnavă.. m) Regret Regret că i-am spus spus adevărul adevărul despre moartea moartea tatălui tatălui ei. ei. n) Îmi Îmi amint amintes escc că am auzi auzitt un zgomo zgomott în camera camera de alătu alături ri în timp ce vorbeam la telefon. o) M-am săturat săturat să-i explic explic adevărate adevăratele le motive motive ale ale demisiei demisiei mele. p) Mary se plânge că nu are suficiente probe ca să-l bage la închisoare. q) Am evita evitatt să-i răspu răspund nd la telef telefoan oanee atunci atunci când când m-am m-am mutat mutat în alt oraş. r) Risc Riscăm ăm să ne pier pierde dem m toţi bani baniii dacă dacă conti continu nuăm ăm să pari pariem em la cursele de cai. s) Este ste mând mândru ru să joac joacee alătu lături ri de cei cei mai mai tale talent ntaţ aţii acto actori ri ai teatrului din Bucureşti. t) Nu sun suntt resp respons onsab abil ilăă de plec plecar area ea lui lui la Par Paris is.. 9. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form: When I caught him (steal) money from the drawer, he begged me (not tell) his family about it. He admitted (commit) the crime but he refused (talk) to a lawyer. It’s no use (ask) Mary (take care) of your pets. She dislikes (feed) them. He made me (pay) a fine for (drive) fast. After (get on) the train he realized that he didn’t really enjoy (travel) and began (think) of a way (return) home. They offered (lend) me money and suggested (take) a short vacation. He’d better (learn) the rules by heart because teachers don’t tolerate (cheat) during an examination. It’s difficult for me (argue) with the boss because I’m afraid of (lose) my job. He was expected (arrive) at 6 o’clock but he came later and apologized for (keep) us (wait).
He allowed us (watch) the film in his room although he was too tired (stay up) at that hour.
FUN TIME A theory is something nobody believes, except the person who made it. An experiment is something everybody believes, except the person who made it.
UNIT 14 THE CONTRIBUTION OF PHYSICS TO THE INFORMATION AGE (I) THE ARTICLE
THE CONTRIBUTION OF PHYSICS TO THE INFORMATION AGE (I)
Some people may believe that 20th and 21st century physics research has less of a direct impact on their daily lives than biology, chemistry, engineering, and other fields. Perhaps they think of physics as an abstract, enigmatic, or purely academic endeavor. Nearly everyone would agree that the computer, the transistor, and the World Wide Web are among the greatest inventions of the 20th century. Economists and laymen alike know that today's entire world economy is inextricably linked to these technologies. The daily lives of a large large fract fractio ionn of Eart Earth's h's inha inhabi bita tants nts woul wouldd be subs substa tant ntia iall llyy different were it not for their inventions. Most would agree that America's preeminence in computer and information technology is at least partly responsible for its status as an "economic superpower." The wealth of other nations such as Japan, Taiwan, countries in Western Europe, and others is also due, in part, to their embracement of and contributions to the information age. The electronic digital computer, the transistor, the laser, and even the World Wide Web were all invented by physicists. These inventions make up the foundation of modern technology. Computers The first electronic digital computer was built in the basement of the physics department at Iowa State University in 1939 by Professor John Atanasoff, who had a Ph.D. in theoretical physics and his physics grad gradua uate te stud studen entt Clif Cliffo ford rd Berr Berry. y. It is amaz amazin ingg to thin thinkk that that the the computer industry, now worth in the hundreds of billions of dollars, owes its existence to a brilliant physics professor and his talented
graduate student. Their computer used 300 vacuum tubes to perform calculations, capacitors to store binary data and punched cards to communicate input/output. Unlike the old mechanical adding machines which used direct counting, the new computer utilized logical operations to perform addition and subtraction. TheTransistor In 1947, young physicists at Bell Laboratories in New Jersey inserted two gold contacts 1/64th of an inch apart from each other into a slab of germanium and, by wiring up some electronics, discovered that the signal coming out of this semiconductor had at least 18 times the power of the signal going in -- in other words, they had achieved amplification! The physicists—John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley had invented the transistor, which opened the way to the telecommunications revolution and the information age. The transistor is thought by many to be the most important invention of the 20th century. Some consider its invention to have marked the beginning of the field of solid state physics one of the most active and important areas of physics research today. The transistor is the building block of all modern electronics and computers (everything from a battery operated watch, to a coffee maker, to a cell phone, to a supercomputer). Microprocessors for modern personal computers contain around 55 million transistors each. GENERAL VOCABULARY
TECHNICAL VOCABULARY
endeavor, n.= efort; strădanie layman, n.= nespecialist inextricably, adv.= în aşa fel că nu se poate descurca preeminence, n.= întâietate embracement, n.= adoptare basement, n.= subsol; to owe, v.= a datora
vacuum tube n.= tub electronic cu vid capacitor, n.= condensator to store, v.= a memora; a înregistra punch card, n.= cartelă perforată; mijloc învechit de introducere a datelor în calculator input/output, n.= intrare/ieşire slab, n.= foaie to wire up, v.= a conecta
building block, n.= element de bază; element constitutiv
COMPREHENSION
Answer the following questions: a. How would our lives be without the invention of the electronic digital computer? b. Who invented the electronic digital computer? c. What were the three basic component elements of the first computer? d. How did the discovery of the transistor influence communications? e. How did the three young physicists achieve amplification? PRACTICE 1. Mark the following sentences true (T) or false (F):
a. Some countries are considered to be “economic superpowers” due to their contributions to the information age. b. Modern computers still use vacuum tubes in order to perform math operations. c. The first computer could perform calculations using logical operations. d. Since its discovery, the transistor has become an essential component of all modern electronics and computers. e. A microprocessor contains around 55 billion transistors. 2. Use the words below to form sentences:
components/ process/ them/ are/ with/ ability/ from/ to/ endow/ the/ made/ computers/ information/ that. problem/into/most/system/rendering/translated/relevant/binary/ mathematical/computers/terms/information/all/by/numeral/first /in/into/is/the (2 times) computers/could/so/science/identified/Turing/computer/mathe matical/founded/by/in/and/problems/that/be/theoretical/not/sol ved/doing/he. Eniac/tons/occupied/operators/function/entire/that/successfully /was/ and/rooms/to/device/many/huge/a/the/required/weighed. component/had/particular/bugs/very/inoperative/electronic/co mputer/because/many/failure/frequently/in/was/early/it/and/the (2 times)/of (2 times) cards(2times)/had/out/no(2times)/fed/and(3times)/printer/by/ first/in/computer/it/was/the. 6. Discover the word written down by solving the crossword puzzle: 1
2 3
4 5
6 7 8 9
10 11
12 2. a machine for making calculations or controlling operations that are expressible in numerical or logical terms. 3. to deduct 4. the primary medium for data storage and processing 5. a computer file or data stream interpreted as a sequence of encoded numerical values. 6. a handheld pointing device for computers 7. a device that stores energy in the electric field 8. to handle papers or records by systematically organizing them 9. a device used to amplify or modify a signal 10. one of the output devices 11. one of the input devices 12. a data storage device that stores data on a magnetic surface 5. Find the meaning of the following computer abbreviation:
PC .................................. IBM ................................. CD-ROM .......................... www ......................... URL .........................
HTML RAM USB IT DOS
............................... ............................... .............................. .............................. ..............................
HTTP
DVD
..............................
.........................
6. Complete the missing words in the paragraph using vocabulary items from the text studied above: The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC), constructed in the _ _ _ _ m _ _ _ of the Physics Building at Iowa State University took over two years to complete due to lack of funds. The computer weighed more than 320 kg, contained 1.6 km of _ _ _ _ and 280 dual-triode _ _ _ u_ _ _ _ b_ _ . The memory of the Atanasoff-Berry Computer was a pair of drums, each containing 1600 _ _ _ a _ _ _ _ _ _ .The machine used _ i _ _ _ _ digits to represent all numbers and data and performed calculations using _ _ _ c _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . Because of its innovative use
of electronics for arithmetical calculation, it has been described as the first electronic _ _ _ _ _a _ computer. 7. Give synonyms to the following words extracted from the text:
computer to insert signal talented modern
………………… ………………… ………………... ……………….. ……………….
capacitor ……………………. to communicate …………….. impact ……………………… endeavor …………………… subtraction …………………
8. Pay attention to the following phrasal verb extracted from the text studied above: TO MAKE to make away with = to get rid of; to destroy; to make out = to understand; to imply; to suggest to make over = to transfer; to give; to transform to make for = to go forward; to approach to make up = to prepare to make up for = to compensate for; to make good to make of = to understand; to interpret to be made up of = to be composed 9. Translate the following sentences into English using “make” as a phrasal verb: Bătrânul doctor a donat toate bunurile sale orfelinatului din oraşul său natal. Ştiu că este urât dar are alte calităţi care compensează defectele fizice. Niciodată nu pot să înţeleg ce-mi scrie doctorul pe reţetă. Deşi amestecul a fost preparat conform indicaţiilor bucătarului, prăjitura nu a ieşit aşa cum trebuia. S-a opri să vorbească cu mine apoi s-a îndreptat direct spre Universitate pentru a vedea rezultatele examenului. Procurorul a distrus toate dovezile care-l incriminau pe nepotul său. Moleculele sunt formate din particule mai mici numite atomi.
10. Spot the mistakes in the following sentences and write down their correct version: The basic distinction among modern computers and early mechanic devices is that this devices could only be used to make a limited number of tasks. Modern electronic computers have enormous speed and capacity for informations procesing. The team who developped ENIAC, recognising his flaws, came out with a more flexible and elegant design which is the basis from which all modern computers were derived. Computers designed during the 1950’s were eventualy replaced with transistor-based computers which were smaler, more faster and more reliable. A tipical personal computer include input and output devices. 11. Translate into English:
a) Computerul modern este un sistem electronic de prelucrare a informaţiilor pe baza unor operaţii complexe. b) Un computer este format din partea de hardware şi cea de software. Hardware-ul cuprinde toate elementele ce compun un computer, adică circuitele care leagă între ele tranzistoare. c) Parte de software se referă la toate programele şi datele utilizate de computer. d) Hardware-ul este alcătuit dintr-o unitate centrală, din dispozitive de intrare (tastatură; mouse; scanner), dispozitive de ieşire (monitor; imprimantă), dispozitive de stocare şi modem. e) Trebuie să facem o distincţie clară între computer şi alte dispozitive electronice cum ar fi calculatoarele de buzunar care pot executa numai câteva operaţii matematice. f) Cel dintâi computer electronic ABC a avut probleme în special la sistemul de alimentare cu cartele perforate.
FOCUS ON LANGUAGE THE ARTICLE
The Definite Article Uses 1. with nouns mentioned or known 2. with nouns considered unique 3. with nouns used in their most general sense 4. is used before superlatives
5. with nouns converted from adjectives, nationality and group nouns 6. is used before ordinal numerals 7. with proper nouns denoting a whole family 8. with proper nouns denoting countries; islands; chains of mountains; deserts; oceans; seas; rivers; trains; newspapers; magazines 9.with nouns followed by a prepositional phrase, a relative clause, or an apposition 10. in phrases
Examples My brother has a new car. The car is big and red. The Earth moves round the Sun. The monkey is a funny creature.
He is the most handsome boy in the class. He should obey the rich. the French; the middle class the first; the second the Browns the United States; the Bahamas; the Alps; the Sahara; the Pacific Ocean; the Black Sea; the Thames; the Orient Express; the Time The letter from London; the woman who gave me the newspaper; Tom, the postman, To tell the time; by the way; on the whole
The Indefinite Article
1. to introduce a new piece of information. 2. instead of the numeral “one” 3. with nouns used in their most general sense 4. in expressions of measurement 5. with nouns denoting a profession; religion; class
There is a mistake in your exercise. I’ve bought a book and five pencils. A baby requires special care. 10$ a kilo; three times a week He is a teacher. She is a Christian.
6. with proper nouns denoting an unknown person or a person with certain characteristics 7. in phrases The Zero Article Uses 1. with uncountable nouns or plural nouns used in the general sense 2. before vocatives 3. indefinite numeric function 4. with nouns like: school; church; hospital; prison when they are used for their primary purpose Exceptions: cathedral; theatre; office; cinema 5. with numerals 6. with nouns denoting meals; seasons 7. with proper nouns denoting: continents; countries; towns mountains; lakes; buildings; streets; bridges; magazines; periodicals; the months of the year; the days of the week; languages
A Mr. Smith came to see you. He is a Don Juan. once in a while; all of a sudden; as a matter of fact; etc Examples Oil is lighter than water.
Listen John! They ate bananas. She goes to school.(to learn). !! Father goes to the school every week to talk to my teachers.
Page7; chapter 11 I have breakfast at ten. Winter is my favorite season. Europe; England; Mount Everest; Lake Superior; Covent Garden; Oxford Street; Newsweek; January; lunch; French
PRACTICE 12. Insert definite, indefinite or zero articles: Your sister is ……. excellent teacher; I’ll ask her to help me understand ……. rules. On Mondays, my parents generally have ……… breakfast early in ……. morning in order not to be late to work. Our rent is 150$ …….. month but if you want to live in …….. center of ……. city the rooms are much more expensive.
I’d like to go to …… United States but I don’t have enough money to buy …….. airplane ticket. He invited me to spend a whole week in ……… England and hire a boat to go for a trip along ……….. coast. In the past, on Sundays, …… people usually went to ……. church and pray for their fellow men. I can’t tell you …….. exact day of his anniversary but I think it’s in …….. January. He had …….. terrible car accident last week because of ……. fog. ……… most people pay by check when they buy ……. car. We made ……. terrible mistake when we talked to his lawyer. I need …… orange and two apples to make a juice. The manager left for …….. couple of days in ……. Europe to consult with his partner on …… company’s advertising campaign. The shop you are looking for is just at …… corner of ……. oldest building in ……. London. ……… money you gave me last week is on ……. table in ……. living-room. When ……… increase, ……. poor are always suffering.
13. Insert definite, indefinite or zero articles: a) Out of ignorance he made ……….. mistake after ……… mistake. b) They sailed through ……….. Straits of Magellan. c) I thought about it ………. day and ……….. night. d) I went from ……….. to ………. singing. e) She settled down to sip ………. tea from ……….. cup. f) ………….. Chinese language is totally unlike Japanese. g) His second book , just on ……….. market in France is due for ……….. publication in Britain in February. h) The novel created …………. great sensation. i) He was killed in ……….. battle. j) She is on ………….. vacation in ……… Hebrides.
(***, Limba engleză – exerciţii pentru admiterea în învăţământul superior, Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1978) 14. Translate into English:
a) A venit la mine acasă şi m-a rugat să-l ajut, aşa că l-am poftit să ia loc şi să-mi spună despre ce este vorba. b) Pe de o parte aş vrea să rămân în România alături de familia mea dar pe de altă parte Franţa îmi oferă mai multe posibilităţi de a-mi găsi o slujbă bine plătită. c) Apropo, ştii unde pot să găsesc un mecanic bun care să-mi repare maşina? d) N-am timp să mă cert cu tine acum. Sunt grăbită să ajung la gară. e) Luni seara sunt invitată să iau cina la familia Brown. f) August este luna mea favorită din an când plec la mare cu prietenii. g) Nu face pe prostul cu mine. Ştii bine că totul se va afla mai devreme sau mai târziu. h) Calul este un animal frumos şi folositor dar şi periculos. i) Dintr-o dată l-am auzit ţipând în camera de alături. j) Mă doare capul îngrozitor din cauza vremii. Nu sunt obişnuită să plouă tot timpul. k) Un anume domn Smith te-a căutat ieri pe la 5 dupăamiază şi ţi-a lăsat acest bilet. l) Am luat o altă valiză din greşeală şi nu ştiu cum să i-o returnez posesorului. m) Cel mai ambiţios băiat din clasă este foarte timid şi nuşi face prea mulţi prieteni. n) Ei ar pleca în excursie dacă vremea ar fi frumoasă. o) Au discutat toate problemele şi în cele din urmă s-au împăcat şi şi-au dat mâna.
UNIT 15
THE CONTRIBUTION OF PHYSICS TO THE INFORMATION AGE (II) DIRECT SPEECH/ INDIRECT (REPORTED) SPEECH
THE CONTRIBUTION OF PHYSICS TO THE INFORMATION AGE ( II )
Before the invention of the transistor, computers used vacuum tubes. It took one of these large vacuum tubes to do the same job as a transistor, the smallest of which today are only 80 atoms wide. Computers using vacuum tubes filled huge rooms, but were not powerful by today's standards. In 1945 the U.S. Army built a vacuum tube computer called the Eniac, proposed by and developed in part by physicist John Mauchly who borrowed many of the ideas and design
from physicist John Atanasoff. The ENIAC cost about $500,000, took up a room the size of a suburban home, used 18,000 vacuum tubes and was the fastest computer of its time. The vacuum tubes and cooling system used huge amounts of electric power. But despite its size and cost, the vacuum tube-based ENIAC was only capable of about 1000 math operations per second, compared to around 1 billion operations per second for today's transistor-based computers. Thanks to transistors, today's personal computers can pack all their computational power into a tiny microchip the size of cracker that costs only a couple hundreds bucks and uses very little electricity. If a modern notebook computer were made using vacuum tubes, the tubes, power system, wiring and cooling equipment would fill an entire skyscraper! It has also been calculated that a cell phone would be the size of the George Washington monument. Vacuum tubes were not only big, expensive, and hot, they were also unreliable and would burn out frequently. Because the tubes actually glowed and gave off heat, they attracted moths and other bugs, which caused short circuits. Scientists would have to periodically "debug," which literally meant shutting down the computer and cleaning out the dead bugs. The affordability, small size, and power of modern computers and electronics would never have been achieved without the invention of the transistor. The information age as we know it simply would not exist. The World Wide Web In the 1980s, the thousands of physicists at CERN Particle Physics Laboratory in Geneva needed a better way to exchange information with their colleagues working in different universities all over the world. Tim Berners, a graduate from Oxford University in Physics, invented the World Wide Web in 1990 to meet this demand. Along with creating the first web browser and web server, he developed the software conventions that are keys to the Web's usefulness, with acronyms like URL and HTTP. Between 1990 and 1993, the Web was mostly used by scientists to collaborate their research. In 1993 it began to spread to the rest of the world, and now already the majority of Americans surf the Web. The number of websites has grown from just 130 in June 1993 to around 9 million in 2002. Now over a trillion dollars worth of commerce takes place over the Internet every year! Much of this e-commerce is done over the World Wide Web. (As you may know, the terms Web and
Internet do not mean the same thing. The Web uses the Internet but is not the only communication service on it. Before the invention of the Web, few people in the general population used the Internet, but it did exist. What began as a better way for physicists to manage information and communicate--the World Wide Web--is now a vast "global information superhighway," accessible to all. In 1999 Time magazine dubbed Berners-Lee one of the 100 greatest minds of the century. In 2004, he won the first annual Millennium Technology Prize, an "international acknowledgement of outstanding technological innovation that directly promotes people's quality of life," with an award of $1.2 million. GENERAL VOCABULARY TECHNICAL VOCABULARY to borrow, v.= a împrumuta to pack, v.= a depune mai multe cracker, n.= biscuit informaţii în aceeaşi unitate de skyscraper, n.= zgârie-nori stocare unreliable, adj.= nesigur to debug, v.= a detecta erorile moth, n.= molie unei componente hardware bug, n.= insectă to shut down, v.= a închide un acknowledgement,n.= recunoaş- program sau sistem de operare tere web browser, n.= aplicaţie care outstanding, adj.= remarcabil permite unui utilizator să vizualizeze documentele din “world wide web” web server, n.= server ce utilizează HTTP pt. a livra documente şi fişiere atunci când este solicitat acronym, n.= prescurtare computational power = putere de calcul COMPREHENSION
Answer the following questions: a. b. c. d. e.
Why did ENIAC cost so much? What were the main disadvantages of vacuum tubes? Was the World Wide Web a necessary invention? Why? Why did the first computers need to be periodically debugged? Are the internet and the web one and the same thing?
PRACTICE 1. Mark the following sentences true (T) or false (F):
a. The ENIAC was built during the World War II being inspired by Atanasoff’s computer. b. The ENIAC was really efficient using small amounts of electric power. c. It was the discovery of the transistor that led to the development of modern computers. d. The World Wide Web was created as a necessity of scientists to communicate. e. The Web has become an accessible source of information all over the world. 2. Read the text and find synonyms for the following words: WORD to cooperate recognition remarkable to assign
SYNONYM …………… …………… …………… ……………
WORD high-priced biscuit to suggest abbreviation
SYNONYM …………… …………… …………… ……………
3. Pay attention to the following phrasal verb extracted from the text studied above: TO TAKE to take after = to resemble to take back = to return something to take down = to write down to take for = to assume to be to take from = to subtract to take in = to accept; to deceive; to provide lodging for; to observe to take off = to remove; to leave the ground (as an airplane); to withdraw from service to take on = to hire; to employ; to undertake/to assume responsibilities to take out = to withdraw/ to remove (a handkerchief)/ to invite somebody for a walk to take up = to occupy oneself with the study of smth.; to occupy (space/time)
4. Fill in the blanks using “take” as a phrasal verb:
I’d like to take your sister ………. from time to time but she always refuses my invitation. I must take ……… French again if I want to go to France. The plane will take ………… in half an hour. I don’t think John takes ……….. his father. It is difficult for a seven-year old child to take six ……… twelve. My job takes ……… too much time so I can’t visit you too often. As she didn’t like the author, she took the book ………to the library. He took out a small ring and gave it to his little sister. She took the girl’s testimony ………… in shorthand. He doesn’t want to have a child because he doesn’t like to take ………….. responsibilities. I can’t do that! Do you take me ……… a fool?
5. Complete the missing words in the paragraph using vocabulary items from the text studied above:
ENIAC was the first electronic _ _ _ _u_ _ _ capable of solving a full range of computing problems. It was _ e_ _ _ _ _ _ _ and built by Mauchly in May 1943. However, physically, ENIAC was a monster; it contained 17,468 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _, 10,000 _ _ _ a_ _ _ _ _ _ and consumed 160 kw of _ _ _ e_. The first problems run on the ENIAC were related to the use of vacuum tubes. They _ u_ _ _ _ out almost every day, leaving the computer nonfunctional about half the time. Most of these failures occurred during the _ a_ _ up and _ o_ _ down periods. The longest continuous period of operation without a failure was close to five days. Given to the _ e_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ available at the time, the failure rate was remarkably low and stands as a tribute to the precise engineering of ENIAC. 6. Spot the mistakes in the following sentences and write down their correct version:
ENIAC - Electronical Numeric Integrator Analyser and Computer - was a monument of enginering. ENIAC was complete in 1945 being up to a thousands times faster then its predecesors in executing aditions, multiplications and divisions. ENIAC’s main drawback was that its programing took two days by esentialy rewireing it with punch cards. ENIAC operated only 70% of the time because engineers turned the computer out at least one time in a week and these tended to cause tubes to blow. The more important effect of ENIAC on scientifical users were its fostering the grow of computation sollutions to scientific problems.
7. Match the following words with their descriptions:
desktop computer laptop palmtop
pocket computer wearable computer personal digital assistant
a) this is a small portable computer designed to be worn on the body during use under the form of a wristwatch or a hands free cell phone b) a computer that is larger than a personal digital assistant (PDA) but smaller than a laptop c) a small mobile computer that has a flat panel display and keyboard requiring a seated position and both hands d) the most affordable and common computers used by businesses, schools, etc e) a computer that is usually held in one hand and operated with the other; it includes a clock; date book; address; a simple calculator and a memo pad
f) a small calculator-sized computer programmable in Basic and mostly used in the 1980’s. 8. Use the words below to form sentences:
vacuum/signal/invented/as/regulator/three/replaced/Lab oratories/scientists/in/an/transistor/at/electronic/tube/ra pidly/1947/Bell/the (3 times) power/of/vacuumtubes/require/supplies/they/include/bu lky/disadvantages/that/major/fact/the (2 times) semiconductor/consists/of(3times)/material/each/carryi ng/layers/capable/current/three/transistor/a (3 times) integrated/circuitry/consist/elements/interconnected/wh ich/basic/number/of(2times)/large/circuits/very/in/are/t he/with/transistors (2times) current/designed/as/resistor/device/electronic/to/control ling/and/was/a/transmitter/first/both/act/transistor/the (2 times)
9. Translate into English:
a) Descoperirea transistorului este considerată una dintre cele mai mari descoperiri ale erei moderne fiind folosit pentru a amplifica, comuta, stabiliza şi modula diverse semnale. b) Webul este un sistem hipertext ce operează pe internet şi care este vizualizat cu ajutorul unui program numit browser. c) Protocolul HTTP este cea mai folosită metodă de accesare a informaţiilor. d) HTML ul ajută la prezentarea documentelor text pe o singură pagină, folosind browserul web. e) Computerele ies relativ repede din actualitate datorită apariţiei unor tehnologii noi ce oferă posibilitatea de a mări puterea unor computere de dimensiuni mici. FOCUS ON LANGUAGE DIRECT / REPORTED (INDIRECT) SPEECH I. Tense Changes
Direct Speech
Indirect Speech
Present Simple (e.g. I want to read) Present Continuous ( e.g. I am reading) Present Perfect Simple (e.g. I have just eaten) Present Perfect Continuous ( e.g. I have been studying for 3 hours) Past Simple (e.g. I watched TV)
Past Simple (e.g. She said she wanted to read) Past Continuous (e.g. She said she was reading) Past Perfect (e.g. She said she had just eaten) Past Perfect Continuous (e.g. She said she had been studying for 3 hours) Past Perfect (e.g. She said she had watched TV) Past Perfect Continuous (e.g. I Past Perfect Continuous ( She had been reading a lot) said she had been reading a lot) Future (e.g. I’ll read a book)
Future in the Past (e.g. She said she would read a book)
II. Other changes
Direct Speech 1. Imperative (e.g. Watch TV!) 2. Changes of today yesterday adverbs
the day before yesterday last night/week tomorrow
Indirect Speech Infinitive (e.g. She told me to watch TV) that day the previous day; the day before two days before the previous night/week the next day/the following day then there before could might should would
now here ago 3. Changes of can may modal verbs shall will These rules are not observed in certain cases: 1. When the statement in the reported clause contains a natural law, a universal assertion, an eternal truth The teacher told them that English is an analytic language.
2. “Would”, “should”, “ought (to)”, “used (to)”, “must”, “need” do not change. I advised her that she should be more careful. 3. In conditional clauses PRACTICE 10. Indirect speech: mixed types
a) “Don’t worry about a few mistakes,” said Peter. “I make mistakes all the time”. “Do you learn from your mistakes?” I asked. “Or do you keep making the same ones?” b) “I’m looking for a man called Albert, who drinks in this bar,” I said. “I should keep away from Albert if I were you,” said the barman. “He doesn’t like strangers”. c) “You woke everyone up last night”, said my mother. “You must try to be quieter tonight”. “We will,” I promised. d) “The soup is cold again,” complained Mr. Jones. “Why do I never have hot soup?” “Because the kitchen is so far from the dining room,” explained his wife. e) “Your licence is out of date,” said the policeman. “It is,” I admitted, “but I have applied for a new one.” f) “It’s your turn to baby-sit tonight,” they told Ann. “It can’t be!” said Ann indignantly. “I baby-sat last night! And the night before!” g) “I’ve run out of stamps,” said my father. “Have you got any?” “No, but I’ll go out and get you some if you like,” I said. h) “Why are you looking so depressed, Jack?” I said. “Because I’ve just asked Ann to marry me and she’s refused,” he said sadly. i) “Are you ill? He said coldly “No.” I said “Did you sleep well last night?” “Yes,” I said. “Then why are you sitting about when all the others are working? Go out at once and give them a hand.” j) “What shall I do with my wet shoes? said the boy.
“You’d better put them near the fire!” (Thomson, A.J.; Martinet, A.V., A Practical English Grammar, Exercises 1, 2 Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1986) 11. Change the following from Direct to Indirect Speech using some of the reporting verbs at the head of the exercise:
threatened asked accepted agreed promised
advised apologized complained suggested wondered
told admitted exclaimed invited claimed
a) My sister said “Don’t swim in the river; it’s too deep and you might get drowned”. b) “Come in and take a seat; you must wait for Tom because he wants to tell you something important” said Jane. c) “If you don’t give me money, I’ll sell the car” said John. d) “Let’s go out and have some fun” said Mary. e) “You are five minutes late and your eyes are red. It’s obvious that you have been crying again” said John. f) “I’ll buy you this car, I promise” my father said to me. g) “You’ve completely changed since the last time I saw you” Mary exclaimed with delight. h) My father asked me “What are you doing with this hammer?” i) My elder sister said “I’ve been watching TV the whole afternoon”. j) The teacher asked him “Why didn’t you bring me your test paper?” FUN TIME Q: "How many computer scientists does it take to change a light bulb?" A: "Five. Two write the specifications, one to prove their validity and two to implement it." Q: "Well, how many hackers does it take?" A: "One. But, hackers don't turn on the lights." LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS
Infinitive
Past Tense
Past Participle
Traducere
be
was / were
been
a fi
beat
beat
beaten
a bate
become
became
become
a deveni
begin
began
begun
a începe
bend
bent
bent
a se îndoi
bind
bound
bound
a lega
bite
bit
bitten
a musca
bleed
bled
bled
a sângera
blow
blew
blown
a sufla, a bate
break
broke
broken
a sparge
bring
brought
brought
a aduce
build
built
built
a construi
burn
burned burnt
burned burnt
a arde
burst
burst
burst
a izbucni
buy
bought
bought
a cumpăra
cast
cast
cast
a arunca
catch
caught
caught
a prinde
choose
chose
chosen
a alege
come
came
come
a veni
cost
cost
cost
a costa
cut
cut
cut
a tăia
deal
dealt
dealt
a se ocupa de
dig
dug
dug
a săpa
do
did
done
a face
draw
drew
drawn
a trage, a desena
dream
dreamed dreamt
dreamed dreamt
a visa
drink
drank
drunk
a bea
drive
drove
driven
a conduce maşina
eat
ate
eaten
a mânca
fall
fell
fallen
a cădea
feed
fed
fed
a hrăni
feel
felt
felt
a (se) simti
fight
fought
fought
a (se) lupta
find
found
found
a găsi
fit
fit
fit
a se potrivi
fly
flew
flown
a zbura
forbid
forbade
forbidden
a interzice
forget
forgot
forgotten
a uita
forgive
forgave
forgiven
a ierta
freeze
froze
frozen
a îngheta
get
got
gotten
a primi,
give
gave
given
a da
go
went
gone
a merge
grow
grew
grown
a creste
have
had
had
a avea
hear
heard
heard
a auzi
hide
hid
hidden
a (se) ascunde
hit
hit
hit
a lovi
hold
held
held
a tine
hurt
hurt
hurt
a lovi, a răni, a durea
keep
kept
kept
a tine, a păstra
know
knew
known
a sti, a cunoaşte
lay
laid
laid
a pune, a aseza
lead
led
led
a conduce
learn
learned
learned
a învăta
learnt
learnt
leave
left
left
a pleca, a lăsa
lend
lent
lent
a da cu împrumut
let
let
let
a lăsa, a permite
lie
lay
lain
a zăcea, a se afla
light
lit lighted
lit lighted
a aprinde
lose
lost
lost
a pierde
make
made
made
a face
mean
meant
meant
a însemna
meet
met
met
a (se) întâlni
mistake
mistook
mistaken
a gresi
misunderstand misunderstood misunderstood
a întelege gresit
pay
paid
paid
a plăti
put
put
put
a pune
read
read
read
a citi
ride
rode
ridden
a călări
ring
rang
rung
a suna
rise
rose
risen
a răsări, a se ridica
run
ran
run
a fugi
say
said
said
a spune
see
saw
seen
a vedea
seek
sought
sought
a căuta
sell
sold
sold
a vinde
send
sent
sent
a trimite
set
set
set
a pune
shake
shook
shaken
a scutura, a tremura
shoot
shot
shot
a împusca
show
showed
shown
a arăta
shut
shut
shut
a închide
sing
sang
sung
a cânta
sink
sank sunk
sunk
a (se) scufunda
sit
sat
sat
a sedea
sleep
slept
slept
a dormi
smell
smelled smelt
smelled smelt
a mirosi
speak
spoke
spoken
a vorbi
speed
sped speeded
sped speeded
a grăbi, a accelera
spell
spelled spelt
spelled spelt
a ortografia
spend
spent
spent
a cheltui, a petrece
spread
spread
spread
a (se) întinde
stand
stood
stood
a sta (în picioare)
steal
stole
stolen
a fura, a se furisa
stick
stuck
stuck
a lipi
sting
stung
stung
a înţepa
strike
struck
struck
a lovi
swear
swore
sworn
a jura, a înjura
swim
swam
swum
a înota
take
took
taken
a lua
teach
taught
taught
a preda
tear
tore
torn
a rupe, a sfâsia
tell
told
told
a spune, a povesti
think
thought
thought
a (se) gândi
throw
threw
thrown
a arunca
wake
woke waked
woken waked
a se trezi
wear
wore
worn
a purta
win
won
won
a câstiga
withdraw
withdrew
withdrawn
a (se) retrage
write
wrote
written
a scrie
BIBLIOGRAFIE 1. Bantaş, Andrei; Porţeanu, Rodica; Vîlceanu-Ionescu, Irina; Ciobanu, Georgeta; Tudor, Florin M; Bejan Nicolae, Limba engleză pentru ştiinţă şi tehnică, Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1981 2. Benson, Morton; Benson, Evelyn; Ilson, Robert, The BBI Combinatory Dictionary of English, a Guide to Word Combinations, John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1991 3. Catedra de limbă şi literatură engleză, Universitatea din Timişoara, Limba şi literatura engleză. Sinteze şi exerciţii pentru examenele de bacalureat şi admitere, Ed. Amarcord, Timişoara, 1996 4. Chilărescu, Mihaela; Paidos, Constantin, Proficiency in English, Institutul European, 2001 5. Dănilă, Viorica, Engleza pentru ingineri şi tehnicieni, Ed. Tehnică, Bucureşti, 1967 6. Gălăţeanu, Georgiana, Exerciţii de gramatică engleză, timpurile verbale, Ed. Albatros, Bucureşti, 1979 7. Gălăţeanu, Georgiana; Comişel, Ecaterina, Gramatica limbii engleze pentru uz şcolar , Ed. Didactică şi pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1982 8. Hassey H. S., The New Age in Physics, London Ed. Mouton and Co., 1960
