CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter explains the review of related literature, discussing the theory. This chapter is divided into two sub headings. They are discourse analysis and speech act theory. Those two sub headings are clarifi ed as follows.
2.1 Previous Research
As the review of related literature, Leech‟s theory of language is used, Brown and Yule‟s theory of discourse analysis, Wagiman‟s theory of utterence, Crystal and Austin in Soekemi theory of speech acts, and Austin‟s theory for the explanation of locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary acts theories. Furthermore, the theory of classification of speech acts by Searle and Vandervaken is also uses that devide five general function of illocutionary acts, that are assertives, commissives, directives, expressives, and declaratives. In this paper the researcher tries to make a simple description desc ription from previous statements, state ments, in order to easy eas y enough to understand. 2.1.1 Discourse Analysis
Based on Brown and Yule (1983: 1), discourse analysis is the analysis of language in use. They use as a proper way of what language is used for. It means, which utterances are using by people written or spoken. In order to get the real meaning of what is said by the speaker to the hearer. From their written or spoken
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language, they can apply their thoughts to their society especially and deals with the real world communication commonly. 2.1.1.1 Speech Acts as a Discourse
Kinneavy in Azza Imamiyah (2011) The Chronicles of Narnia 2, classifies that the type of discourse based on the aims. The types are: 2.1.1.1.1 Expressive Discourse Expressive Discourse is a type of discourse in which language is used as simple vehicle of expression of some aspects of the encoder‟s personality (the person who encodes a message). The examples are individual conversation, journals, diaries and manifestoes, declaration of independences, myth, utopia plans and religious credos. 2.1.1.1.2 Persuasive Discourse Persuasive Discourse is a type of discourse is focused primary on the decoder that is the other person involved in the process (the receiver of the message). What essential are that encoder; reality and the language itself. All become instrumental to the t he achievement achi evement of some practical practi cal effects in the decoder. Political speech, advertising, religious sermons, and editorial are instance of this type. 2.1.1.1.3 Referential Discourse Referential Discourse is a type of discourse in which the use of language stresses the ability of language to designate or reproduce reality in a manner of speaking, such as exploratory dialogue and seminar, diagnosis, news, nontechnical encyclopedia, article, and text book.
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2.1.1.1.4 Literary Discourse Literary Discourse is a type t ype of discourse in which the text or the product of the work itself the focus of the processes worthy of being appreciated in own right. The examples are short story, lyrics, drama, TV show, movie and jokes. The Killers short story is involved in literary discourse because the text of the conversation is the focus of the processes worthy of being appreciated in own right. 2.1.2 Speech Act Theory
Crystal in Soekemi (2000) Semantics A Work Book (second edition) states that speech act is a term proposed by J. L Austin (1911- 1960) referring to “a theory which analysis the role of utterances in relation to the behavior of speaker and hearer in interpersonal communication”. In another words speech act is written or spoken action from the speaker to the hearer. Speech act can be represented through utterance. It has been stated that when someone makes an utterances containing a speech act, he carries out a certain act. For example, if structure teacher says to her students: “On Monday next week I will give you a structure test on English If- clauses.”, the utterance represents an act of order to study. If a tax‟s chief says to his employee with a reference to taxation: taxation: “Tomorrow is March 30.” the utterance represents an act of reminding to submit the tax report tomorrow at the latest at the tax office. If a student says to his friend in the classroom: “The teacher is angry.” the utterance represents an act of requesting of his friend to stop talking. If a mistress says to
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her servant: servant: “We run out of sugar,” the utterance represents an act ordering the servant to buy sugar. According to Soekemi‟s Soekemi‟s statement, the researcher has the simple opinion that speech act is the statements or utterances that ask someone to do something politely in their interpersonal communication depend on different speakers, hearers, places and occasions. 2.1.2.1 Kinds of Speech Act
Cook in Wagiman (2008: 63) Semantics an introduction to the basic concepts, there are two kinds of speech acts, declaration and performatives. In declaration, the action is the same as the saying, the utterance. The action is expressed by the verb of the utterance. Declarations are limited in member, mostly uttered in ritual, such as religious rites and all forms of ceremony. Some examples are:
I baptize the ship Saint Jude.
I christen the child Mary.
I announce to you that Bobby and Diana are engaged.
I pronounce that they are a couple husband and wife.
I baptize the baby Michael. In performatives, the saying is also the doing, but the verbs of the actions
are not expressed in the saying. Some utterances have three layers of interpretation, they are:
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a. Locution, it is literal meaning of the utterance, that is the meaning of the utterance which is carried by the words in the utterance and their arrangement or their structure of words. b. Illocution, is the act of the utterance which is performed by saying the utterance. It is the underlying force of the utterance or the interpretation of the utterance by the hearer. c. Perlocution, is the consequent effect of the utterance on the hearer, or the overall aim of the utterance. Some examples of performatives are: (1) Locution: “I have a substantial amount of back money.” Illocution: an act offering the hearer to ask for money, borrow some money, or have a dinner treat, depending on the context. Perlocution: the hearer asks for some money, borrow some money, or asks for a dinner treat. (2) Locution: “Mind your head.” Illocution: an act of warning to stop. Perlocution: The hearer stop. (3) Locution: Traffic is light ahead.” Illocution: an act of encouraging the hearer to drive the car faster. Perlocution: The hearer drives the car faster. Based on Wagiman‟s Wagiman ‟s statements, the researcher can simple describes like this:
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a. Locutionary act is according by the utterances or sentences itself/ the linguistics form. b. Illocutionary act is an intended meaning, asking someone to do something. c. Perlocutionary act is the act of causing a certain effect on the hearer and other, the impact from the illocutionary acts. 2.1.2.2 Sentence Types
In Searle and Vandervaken (1985: 37-62, 179-216) view, there are five fundamental kinds of illocutionary forces and their essential unifying „points‟ are: a. Assertives in which the speaker believes that the proposition expressed represents an actual state of affairs and has grounds for so doing. This class includes accuse, criticize, complain, assert, state, deny, predict, etc. The basic assertive verb is to assert. b. Commissives in which the speaker becomes commited to doing something at some point in the future. The class includes promise, vow, pledge, guarantee, etc. the basic commissives verb is to commit . c. Directives in which the speaker attempts to get the hearer to carry out a future course of action. The class includes request, question, order, coment, beg, suggest, urge, etc. The primitive or basic directives verb is to direct. d. Expressives in which the speaker expresses some psychological state, feeling, or attitudes, about given state of affairs. The class includes apologize, compliment, deplore, praise, complain, etc. No one expressive verb is more basic than the others.
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e. Declaratives in which the speaker brings about some state of affairs (usually an institusional sort) by virtue of the utterance itself. The performance of the act brings about a change in the world. The class includes endorse, resign, nominate, name, appoint, apply, etc. The primitive or basic verb is to declare. In Austin view, proposes the following five general types of speech acts. a. verdictives (type assertion) b. exercitives (type I urge you to do something) s omething) c. commissives (type I promise to do something) d. behabitives (all other social agreements) e. expositives (expressing emotion) In Bach and Harnish: (1979: chap. 3) view, proposes the following five general types of speech acts they are: a. Constatives Assertives, predictives, retrodictives, descriptives, ascriptives, informatives, comfirmatives, convessives, retractives, assentives, dissentives, disputatives, responsives, suggestives, suppositives b. Directives Requestives, questions requirements, prohibitives, permissives, advisories c. Commissives Promises, offers d. Acknowledgements Apologize, condole, greet, congratulate, thank, bid, accept, reject. What seems missing is the large and exciting class of Searle‟s declaratives with all the
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conventional and social wonder words that originally raised Austin‟s interest. All Al l these are relegated into two extra classes which are not further subdivided.
e. Effectives f. Verdictives These speech acts are claimed to be “conventional not communicative” According to Austin, Searle and Vandervaken, Bach and Harnish Searle‟s statement, the researcher can simple describes as follows: a. Assertives/ Representatives is to tell the truth, something happen in reality. Example: “The sun is rises from the east.” b. Commissives to show our commitments or our promises to someone. Example: “I will do the best for the next semester.” “I will pay my dept soon.” c. Directives is ask someone to do something face to face. Example: E xample: “Would “Would you open the door, please!” d. Declaratives is change the word by authority. E xample: The Judge: “I punished you with three year s in jail.” The Teacher: “Get “G et out from my class r ight ight now!” The Priest: Priest: “I pronounce pronounce you as a couple, coup le, now you may kiss your wife.” e. Expressives is to show our feeling. E xample: “You “You know that I do love you from the deepest of my heart.”
