RESEARCH
BY :
INDRASARI 1652044001
ENGLISH EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM FACULTY OF LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE STATE UNIVERSITY OF MAKASSAR 2017
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LIREATURE
This chapter covers the previous related findings, some pertinent ideas, resume, theoretical framework, and hypothesis.
A. Previous Related Findings
There have been a number of studies performed concerning how the use of group work affects the students’ speaking. Agustinah (2010) in her research “Implementation “Implementation of Cooperative Learning Method in Increasing Students’ Achievement in SMP Negeri 12 Malang” found that using cooperative learning enhance the students speaking classroom interaction, and they are not ashamed and afraid of speaking and also because they have self confidence in speaking. Rukmana (2010) found that the use of Think-Pair-Share Th ink-Pair-Share could develop dev elop the students’ speaking performance because there were many positive things that the students the students get during the treatment was conducting. Ilmi (2012) in her research research “Improving Students’ Speaking Performance through Rotating Trio Exchange” found that the students’ speaking performance improved after receiving treatment by using rotating trio exchange and aroused their interest. All the researchers above have similarity similarity to the writer’s research. They found that cooperative learning is an effective way in improving the students’ ability in speaking. in speaking.
B. Some Pertinent Ideas 1.
The Concept of Speaking
a. Defi nitions of Speaking Speaking is mean tools of communication to other or speaking is ways to bring a message from one person to another interact with them. Communication will not be running well without speaking and it is essential way in which the speakers can express themselves through the language. Communication is a collaborate venture in which the interlocutors negotiate meaning in order to achieve their communication ends. Clark and Berbert in Rukmana (2010:5) states that speaking is fundamentally an instrument act speaker talk in order to have some effects on them. They assert things to chance their state of knowledge. Bygate in Chandra (1991:41) suggests that oral interaction can characterized in terms of routines which are conventional ways are p receding information which can either focus on information or interaction. Harmer (1991:46) stated that communication between human is an extremely complex and ever changing phenomenon. There are many variables that involved but there are certain generalizations that we can make about majority of communication events and these will have particular relevance for learning and teaching language. Further he states that when the people are engaged in talking to each other we can be fairly sure that they are doing for good reasons: 1) They want to say something; want is use here in general way to suggest that speaker make definite decision to address other people. Speaking o f course be force upon them, but we can still say that they feel need to speak otherwise they would be keep silent. 2) They have some communicative purpose; speakers say something because they want something to happen as a result of what they say. They may want to charm their listener. They want to give some information or express pleasure, they may decide to be rude, to agree or complain in each of this case. 3) They select from their language store; speakers have an infinite capacity to create new
sentences in order to achieve this communicative purpose they will select from the state of the language that they think is appropriate. 4) They want listen something; once again, want is used in general way. But in order for someone to understand what they are listening or reading, they must have some desire to do so. They are interest in the communication purpose of what is being said. In general people listen to language because they want to find out what the speakers are trying to say. Speaking is very important in communication. Speaking happens in everyday in communication of human interaction.
b. Speaki ng Performance When someone speaks, he produces some verbal aspect likes word, pronunciation, grammatical, pattern (Amin, 2004: 7). He saying and expressing ideas, opinion, or emotion. He not only use knowledge about the language he speak itself, but also empowers and enhances strength to show about how the language he speak can be understood and meaningful. This called speaking performances. Speaking performance covers accuracy, fluency, and comprehensibility. As speaker in any practical situation, someone will try to reach communicative purpose because it is not only about others can understand what the point he speak but also he is required to speak as appropriately as he can. Speaking performance actually covers accuracy, fluency, and comprehensibility. When we acquire a language, we do not only learn how to compose and comprehends correct sentences and as isolated linguistic unit of random occurrence, we also learn how to use language appropriately to achieve a communicative purpose. In speaking, we do not only concern about the grammar but also make good pronunciation. 1) Accuracy Accuracy in speaking performance deals with pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary. Brown (1994) defined accuracy in speaking performance as the extent of the
speakers to focus on the elements of phonology, grammar, and discourse in their spoken output. Beside that accuracy also defined as exactness, exact conformity to truth, or correctness, or a precision. a) Pronunciation Pronunciation is stress, rhythm, and intonation within the role of articulation in word. The utterance do not flow as like what the language learner convey necessarily but the utterance are functioned as the role of organ speech to pronoun the acceptable articulation of the words. Simon and Schuster in Amin, 2004:8 define pronunciation is: i) The act or manner of pronouncing words with reference to the production of sound, the placing of stress, intonation, etc. ii) The manner of uttering a discourse or oration. Besides that, pronunciation is an act or result of producing the sound of speech including articulation, vowel formation, accent and reflection, often with reference to some standard of consents or acceptability. The concept of ‘pronunciation’ may be said to include: i) The sound of the language Some of the sound of the language may well meaningless. If you said /t/ (the line show that this is phonetic scrip) a few times, e.g. tu,tu,tu it will not mean in English. Neither will be sound /k/, /a/, or /s/. ii) Stress Native speaker of a language unconsciously know about the stress and how it works. They know which syllables of words are stressed and they know how to use stress, to change the meaning of phrases, sentences and questions. iii) Intonation Intonation is clearly important item and competent user of the language recognize what meaning it has and can change the meaning of word they say
through using it in different ways. When we taught English, students need to use rhythm and stress correctly if they are to be understood.
b) Grammar Grammar is the system of sentences analysis, rules, and labeling, (Allen, Brown, & Yatvin, (1986:121). It is rather the way of speaker to construct sentences in speech. Simon and Schuster (1979:792) defined grammar as in the following: i)
The study of language which deals with the form and the structure of words (morphology), and their customary arrangement in phrases, and sentences (syntax),
ii)
The system of word structures and word arrangement of a given language at a given time,
iii) A system of rules for speaking and writing a given language, iv) A book containing such rules, v)
One’s manner of speaking or writing. It has to be learned because the valuable transmission in speech through the understanding of structural pattern. Other definition, grammar as subject matter is the organization of words into
various combinations, often representing many layers of structure, such as phrases, sentences, and complete utterances (Ba’dulu, 2001:15). The fact however, shows that the learners’ mastery of English structure is still less as found by some previous researchers.
c) Vocabulary Vocabulary put any words of speech to be understood. The language learners should produce the appropriate utterance to be und erstood. In the sense of word choice,
he must choose the appropriate word as in the context. Since the words reveal the meaning of the utterances, the language learners labors under the necessity of using the words that relates to the need of what he is talking about in the communicative context. Simon and Schuster (1979:2046) defined vocabulary is: i) A list of word and sometimes phrases usually arranged in alphabetical order and defined; a dictionary, a glossary, a lexicon, ii) All the words of a language, iii) All the words used by a particular person, class, profession, etc. Rivers (1991:117) argues that the articulation of an adequate vocabulary is essential for successful second language use because without an extensive vocabulary. We will unable to use the structures and functions that we have learned for comprehensible communication.
2) Fluency Based on Webster Dictionary (1961), fluency is ready an expressive in the use of language. Fluency, that is highly complex ration relate mainly to smoothness of continuity in discourse, it is include a consideration of how sentence pattern vary in word-order and omit element of structure, and also certain aspect of the prosily of discourse (Heaton, 1988). Based on the definitions above we can conclude that fluency refers to be able to speak, to write, or to read smoothly and easily. Fluency is probably best ach ieved by allowing the “stream” of speech to “flow” them, as some of this speech spills over beyond comprehensibility, the smoothness of instruction on some details of phonology, grammar or discourse.
2. The Concept of Rotating Trio Exchange
a. Definition of Rotating Trio Exchange Many kinds of grouping students’ strategies are developed since classroom management give some advantages. Silberman in Khanafiyah (2011:99 ), said that active learning is one of set of comprehensive learning strategies to make students active from the beginning, through group work activities, so in short time, make them think about the material. Sardiman (2007: 14) said that learning by doing or practice and face it directly will be an effective way to improve the attitude, skill, and way of thinking, rather than only memorize. Scannapieco in Kennedy (2007) said that active learning can improve the ability of complex thinking. One of the ways to activate learning is using cooperative learning. Cooperative learning is an instructional strategy where small teams of students, usually two to six members, work together to maximize their individual and collective learning. After team members are organized into these small groups and receive instruction from their teacher, students within the team cooperate with one another and work through the assignment until each team member successfully understands and completes it (Foltz, 2009:1). Beside that cooperative learning also defined as the instructional use of small groups that allows students to work together to maximize their own and each other as learning (Johnson, 1994:3). One of cooperative learning types is rotating trio exchange (Isjoni, 2010:51). Some key elements of cooperative learning are (Bennet in Isjoni, 2010:41): 1) Positive interdependence occurs when a gain for one student is associated with gains for other students. 2) Face to face interaction occurs when students meet each other physically (eye to eye and knee to knee) to promote each support’s learning contributing and sharing. 3) Individual accountability begins from standing on the main purpose that the students need to increase their academic achievement therefore posing the m study the lesson and responsible for each given task will put them in their accountability individually.
4) Social skills include the ways of students interact with each other to achieve activity or task objectives (asking and explaining) and the ways of students interact as teammates (example praising and recognition). Since the students will be free to express their ideas to the others, others will appreciate and help if necessary. 5) Group processing (whereby the students are assessed of what they have learned, how they have learned best, and how they might do better as a learning group or team. This will be one of wonderful impressions that each students in a team tries to master the material or the lesson. Rotating trio exchange is one of cooperative discussion technique that applied in many lessons. This is an in-depth way for participants to discuss issues with some (but usually not all) of their fellow participants. The exchanges can be easily geared to the subject matter of the teaching or learning (Silberman, 2005:92). Rotating Trio Exchange also can be said as a way where teacher or trainer composes a variety of questions that help students begin discussion of the course content, (Wolfe, 2010:5). The question should be questions that can be discuss, not only need yes or no answers. As Wolfe, (2010:5) said that in giving question for students in form of rotating trio exchange should use questions with no right or wrong answers. Divide students into trios. Arrange them around the room so that each trio can clearly see a trio to the right and left. Give each trio an opening question that the same for each trio to discuss. It is similar to explanation of rotating trio exchange procedure in S ilberman 2005:92-93. Rotating trio exchange is one of direct learning models. It can be applied for all lessons or subjects, (Yelismasu, 2011: 1). This technique is a way for students to discuss a problem by using three students in a group. The application of this technique that contains three people guided to the subject material or lesson material that will be taught in the classroom. Rotating trio exchange technique is a detail way for students to discuss a topic to some but usually not all of the other students in the classroom. The students’ opinion change can be guided easily to materials that taught in the classroom, (Yelismasu, 2011: 1). Darkenwald and Merriam (2011:1), said that in l earning by using exchange the role is similar to (self-directed learning) and private learning. The other definition is someone learns the material and practice the skill with the other people as
a learner and source for learning. Rotating trio exchange technique principally has many similarities with the other learning strategies concept. Learning exchange as a learning way that emphasize to context of group dynamics, and behavior changes, (Yelismasu, 2011:1). Rotating trio exchange is one of technique where the students can share with other friends. It is a technique that allow students to discuss a topic to some but usually not all of the other students in the classroom.
b. The Role of R otating Trio E xchange Silberman (2005:92), stated that procedures of doing rotating trio exchange are: 1) Compose a variety of questions that help participants begin discussion of the course content. 2) Divide participants into trios. Position the trios in the room so that each trio can clearly see other trios to its right and to its left. (The best configuration of trios is a cycle or square.) 3) Give each trio an opening question (the same question for each trio) to d iscuss. Select the least threatening question you have devised to begin the trio exchange. Suggest that each person in the trio take a turn answering the question. 4) After a suitable period of discussion, ask the trios to assign a 0, 1, or 2 to each of their members. Direct the participants with the number 1 to rotate one trio clockwise or the participants with the number 2 to rotate two trios clockwise. Ask the participants with the number 0 to remain seated. They will be permanent members of a trio site. Have them raise their hands high so that rotating participants can find them. The result of each rotation will be entirely new trios. 5) Start each new exchange with a new question. Increase the difficulty or sensitivity of the questions as you proceed. 6) Instructor can rotate trios as many times as he has questions to pose and the discussion
time to allot. Use the same rotation procedure each time. Yelismasu (2011:1) describe the procedure of doing rotating trio exchange are: 1) Teacher gives question to help students begin the discussion the lesson material. 2) Teacher should avoid the questions that only have yes or no answers. 3) Teacher divides students into three groups (trios). Position the trios in the room so that each trio can clearly see other trios to its right and to its left 4) Teacher gives every trio first question. It should be the same questions for each group to discuss as soon as possible. To make it more effective, teacher can give students exact time. 5) Teacher chooses the easiest question to begin the opinion share of students. Every student in the group trios has to get his or her turn to answer the question. 6) After students doing the discussion based on the time given by teacher, teacher asks each group to assign number for each member, for example 0, 1, and 2. 7) Teacher asks student 1 to move to other trios clockwise and or the participants with the number 2 to rotate two trios clockwise. Ask the participants with the number 0 to remain seated. (This exchange happen when teacher give other question or new question to every trios). 8) Teacher asks every student to raise their hands. It is way to make sure every student has gotten their new trio. The result is there will be new trios in the classroom. Teacher can ask the students to discuss again b y using the new question. 9) Teacher better give the different difficulties for each new question. Teacher can do the rotation as many as the question or topic, or make it suitable with the time. Teacher also should use the same steps or procedures. 10) Let students do the discussion in the classroom. Based on explanation, it can be conclude that there are three main steps in rotating trio exchange:
1) Preparation Compose a variety of questions and divide participants into trios. The best configuration of groups is circle or square. 2) Main activities Give each group an opening question to discuss. After a suitable period of discussion, ask the groups to assign each of their members. After one section, give the students rotation. Start each new exchange with a new question. Increase the difficulty or sensitivity of the questions as you proceed. 3) Closing Closing consists of general discussion and evaluation of the activity. Here is the example of rotating trio exchange design when it is applied in the classroom:
c. Variations of R otating Tr io E xchange Silberman, (2005: 92), said that there are some variations in appl ying rotating trio exchange technique. They are: 1) After each round of questions, quickly poll the participants about their responses before rotating individuals to new trios. 2) Use pairs or quartets or other number instead of trios. The variations that will be applied must be suitable for the students. Th at’s why the teacher has to consider many things before use of these variations. For example, to apply the variation of using other number instead of trios, the teacher should make it suitable with the number of students in the classroom.
d. Advantages of Rotating Trio E xchange Rotating trio exchange has some advantages. Silberman in Silberman 3 pdf, (2011:219) listed advantages of positive aspects of change: 1) Can be a growth opportunity for individuals and the company 2) Can provide challenges 3) Can allow the organization to remain competitive 4) Can help solve problems 5) Can be a means of reaching higher goals There are some of advantages of using change. All the positive aspects hoped can give positive effects too for teaching and learning process, especially for students to reach their motivation in the classroom so they can join the teaching and learning process well. Further, the advantages of rotating trio exchange are: 1) Rotating trio exchange itself a) The technique can be applied for all lessons, (Yelismasu, 2011: 1). Rotating trio exchange, like other cooperative learning, can used in all curriculum areas and important of the creativity of the teachers. This structure along with number head together is an excellent substitute for the normally competitive structures in a question and answer session. b) Rotating trio exchange gives student chance to share with friends even to different group in regulated time. Beside that students can do this activity communally. They also have many chances to process the information and increase their communicative skill (Anggraeni 2010: 33-34). c) It is flexible since gives some variations. It is not restricted only for three students in a group. According to Silberman, (2005: 92) the teacher or trainer can use pairs or quartets instead of trios in appl ying rotating trio exchange.
2) Students benefits With rotating trio exchange, the students are given time to think through their own answers to the question. They can also share the information and discuss it with other friends, and can give them a new and an interesting technique. This, in turn, increases their sense of involvement in classroom learning and also their interests. 3) Teacher benefits Students spend their time to ask and listen, in this case do discussion to each other more when they are in rotating trio exchange activities. More students are willing to respond in large group after they have thought about something then share it with others. The quality of the students’ responses also improves. Since rotating trio exchange is a new technique, it gives students time to work actively with the other friends, and make them more interested in the learning process.
e. Tips to Solve Some Problem May Occur Like other cooperative learning types, some problem may occur when rotating trio exchange applied in the classroom. There are some problems and tips in rotating trio exchange activity (Anggraeni, 2010: 33-34). 1) In doing the activity, the topic that they talk may extend, so teacher can give limited time to do discussion in each rotation. 2) Discussion possibly dominated by one student and others only become passive members of the activity so teacher should give the rule to students that everyone must understand about the topic and be active in doing the activity because it will be given recognition or reward. 3) Many rotations can make student dizzy or confuse. To decrease the rotation, teacher can give more than one topic for each rotation.
f. Supported F actors in Rotating Trio E xchange There are some factors that can affect the application of rotating trio exchange (Yelismasu, 2011:1) 1) Teacher role: A teacher has important role to reach the success in the classroom, especially in application of rotating trio exchange technique. A teacher should have good relation with the students. Teacher demanded develop learning activities as much as possible make students enjoy it, should not make students feel under pressure, because it is like a tradition when students are keep in the traditional ways of teaching, where students just receive, make note, and save the materials. A teacher also needs to know about the students’ competence, because every student has their own competence. 2) Students: Every student has their characteristics. To aware this fact, there should be a cooperation of all class role. In rotating trio exchange this problem tried to solve, because in rotating trio exchange, as in many other developed strategies and methods, prioritize the students’ involvement in teaching and learning activities. By using this technique, students try to work and solve problem together. 3) Media: Media also has important role for students to be success. Media can be use as a tool for students in learning process. Media not only from school, but can be developed by teacher, like card, picture, etc, because by using media, teaching and learning process hoped can be more interesting and isn’t boring for teacher and students. 4) Environment: Education environment as one factors in supporting the success of teaching and learning process, should be planned and arranged well. It can become one of ways to make students enjoy the learning process. Before begin the class; class should become a safe, comfort, and motivated plac e. In this environment, student will open self and open mind to receive and do some new case. It is an ideal condition to do teaching and learning process optimally. After that we begin introduce them an academics skill. Of course to make students become well, not only in the beginning and while learning process, but after that activity, especially for society in the future time. Rotating trio exchange is one of techniques that can be applied in the classroom. In doing the activity, other factors must be considered, like teacher role, students, media, and environment.
3. The Concept of Interest
a. I nterest Interest usually refers to an activity that a person prefers to engage in would not avoid and would choose in preference to many others activities. Interest also refers to the kinds of thing we appreciate and enjoy (Eggen and Kauchak, 1997: 1). Thus, the selection of any occupation and satisfaction we get from our work usually depend more on our interest than our ability. Interest and ability are closely related but our interest gives us motivation to use our ability. If we are strongly in doing something, we will work hard at it than if we are not interested in. Good (1959) states that an interest is a subjective-objective aptitude concern or condition involving a perception or an idea in attention and combination of a feeling consciousness may temporary or permanent, based on active curiosity, conditioned by experience. Basically interest is positive attitude toward something that we are really like and enjoy. Caplin (in Jalil, 1989) says that interest is an attitude which continuously accompanist one’s attention in choosing an interesting object, is a feeling which determines activities, liking or disliking object that are aims. Robert (1968) says that interest is response of liking or disliking. It is present when we are aware of an object or when we are aware of our disposition towards the object we like, the object we prepare to react to. Hilgard and Atkinson (1967) see interest as a part of personality that is usually defined according to objects or activities, that is one maybe interested in reading, music, or sport. Basically, interest mentally condition of someone produces a response to particular situation an object that gives pleasure as well as satisfaction. So, in this case, interest should be considered because of whatever the students do, they will not do it well unless they are interested in what they are doing as Palmer in Byrne (1989) states that people learn anything well unless they are interested in what they are learning.
b. Types of I nterest James et al (1982) categorize interest into four types, they are: 1) Expressed interest In general expressed interest is the verbal expression of liking or disliking something. This expression term is related to maturity and experience. 2) Manifest interest Manifest interest is what is observable because of individuals participation in a given activity may be necessary or certain fringe benefit to occur. It is usually valuable to observe the activities related to the event as well as the individual participation the degree manifest interest. 3) Tested interest Tested interest can be curtained by measuring the knowledge of vocabulary or other information the examinee has in specific interest idea. This measure is based on the accumulation of the relevant information as well as specialized vocabulary. 4) Inventoried interest Inventoried interest is those determined by interest checklist. Usually an examinee is asked to check whether he or she likes or dislikes certain activities or situation. Pattern of high or low interest normally result, so that the test taker can began to areas of liking or disliking.
c. F actor I nfluencing Student I nterest Junaid (1992) says that basically, there are two factors that can influence the students’ motivation as well as their interest in learning, they are: internal and external factors. Internal factors such as the students’ attitude toward a subject and the students’ aptitude or linguistic ability. External factors such as school factor, which may involve the teachers, the students, and the lesson material. Family factors such as: mental support and social environmental factors.
Jalil (1989) said that generally there are two factors that can influence students’ interest. They are internal factors and external factors. The first one such as: students’ attitude, aptitude, physical condition and sex. And the latter is the teacher’s method in teaching, material used and environment.
d. The Measurement of I nterest Interest is about two dimensions, strong or weak. There are two principle procedures in the measurement of interest. First, the items dealt with the respondents’ liking or dislike for a wide variety of specific activities, objects, or types of person that he or she commonly encountered in daily. Second, the reason was empirically keyed for different occupation (Anastasia,1982) This interest inventoried were those among the first tests to employ criterions on keying of items. It was found that person engaged in different occupation was characterized by among interest that differentiated them from person in other occupations. These difference in interest extended not only to matter sprinkling directly to job activities but also to school subjects, hobbies, sports, types of plays or books the individual enjoyed, social relation and many others facets of everyday life. It thus proved feasible to prepare on inventory that explore an individual’s interest in familiar things and thereby to determine how closely his or her interest as seemed those of persons successfully engage in particular occu pation in subjects. The students’ interest has received its strongest input from educational and career counseling. In general, interest inventoried compare an individual expressed interest with these typical of person engaged in different occupations, this is done ether in the scoring of individual item responses or in the interpretation of scores in board interest areas, or both. Bidu (2000:11) introduced some various ways to get information of someone interest of preferences. Some those ways as follow: 1) Asking people what they are interest. People may have little insight into what they are interest or what particular occupation detail.
2) Observing person behavior in various situation or participation in various activities, inferring interest from knowledge of specific occupation, administer, and interest inventory. In addition, Mapparrewa (2002: 9) introduced one way to measure the students’ interest. To know one interest, the researcher can u se questionnaire that consist some questions that may be positive or negative statements. We can score for positive alternative answers have high score, and for negative alternative answers have low score.
