ABA Instructor Manual8113-2011

Abbreviated for SPED 8113 (Spring, 2011) Instructor’s Manual with Test Items to accompany

Applied Behavior Analysis 2nd Edition By John O. Cooper, Timothy Heron, & William Heward Prepared by Stephanie Peterson Idaho State University Renée K. Van Norman University of Nevada-Las Vegas Stephanie Peterson Idaho State University Shannon Crozier University of Nevada-Las Vegas Jessica E. Frieder Idaho State University Peter Molino Idaho State University Heath Ivers Idaho State University Shawn Quigley Idaho State University Megan Bryson University of Nevada-Las Vegas

Instructor’s Manual for Applied Behavior Analysis David Bicard University of Memphis

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Instructor’s Manual for Applied Behavior Analysis Table of Contents Chapter 3: Selecting and Defining Target Behaviors...............................................................................4 Chapter 4: Measuring Behavior................................................................................................................7 Chapter 5: Assessing and Improving the Quality of Behavioral Measurement.....................................10 Chapter 6: Constructing and Interpreting Graphic Displays..................................................................12 Chapter 7: Analyzing Behavior Change: Basic Assumptions and Strategies.......................................16 Chapter 8: Analytic Tactics Using Withdrawal, Reversal, and Alternating Treatment Conditions.......19 Chapter 9: Analytic Tactics Using Multiple Baseline and Changing Criteria.......................................22 Chapter 10: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Research in Applied Behavior Analysis...............25

Test Bank and Answer Keys Chapter 3 Test Bank................................................................................................................................28 Chapter 4 Test Bank................................................................................................................................34 Chapter 5 Test Bank................................................................................................................................41 Chapter 6 Test Bank................................................................................................................................48 Chapter 7 Test Bank................................................................................................................................58 Chapter 8 Test Bank................................................................................................................................65 Chapter 9 Test Bank................................................................................................................................79 Chapter 10 Test Bank..............................................................................................................................84

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Instructor’s Manual for Applied Behavior Analysis

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Preface Organization of the Manual On behalf of Pearson Education, we thank you for adopting Applied Behavior Analysis, 2nd Edition! This Instructor’s Manual is designed to accompany the textbook. This manual, as is the text, is divided into 29 chapters. Each chapter of the Instructor’s Manual includes the following sections:

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Chapter Summary: a brief summary of the key elements of the chapter

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Chapter Objectives: the learning objectives of the chapter

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Focus Questions: five or six main questions that are addressed in the chapter

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Key Terms: a list of the key terms from the chapter

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Suggested Readings/Activities: a list of references to journal articles and books relevant to the chapter Note: There are also PowerPoint slides for each chapter can be found on the Instructor Resource Center for this text. To access these slides and an electronic version of this manual, go to www.prenhall.com and click on the Instructor Support button and then go to the Download Supplements section. Here you will be able to log in or complete a one-time registration for a user name and password. If you have any questions regarding this process or the materials available online, please contact your local Prentice Hall sales representative. There are guided notes that accompany these PowerPoint slides as well. Your students can download these guided notes from the companion website at www.prenhall.com.

Test Bank and Answer Keys A test bank to accompany Applied Behavior Analysis, 2nd Edition is also included in this manual. The test bank is divided into the 29 chapter sections, with an answer key provided at the end of each section. This test bank is available in a computerized version as well. The following types of questions are included: • • • •

Multiple-Choice Matching (when appropriate) True/False Short Answer/Essay


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Chapter 3: Selecting and Defining Behaviors Chapter Summary In applied behavior analysis assessment guides the identification of target behaviors and the development of interventions. A variety of methods are used, including direct observation, interviews, checklists, and tests. Assessment begins with a broad scope and uses the information gathered to narrow its focus. Through a process of screening, defining problems or goals, specifying target behaviors, monitoring, and following up on progress, assessment guides all aspects of behavior change. The four major methods for obtaining assessment information are interviews, checklists, tests, and direct observations. Each of these methods provides a different source of information and is therefore used in conjunction to obtain a more complete understanding of a person’s behavior. Determining the social significance of behavior is a critical step in the assessment process. Behaviors identified for change must be socially significant to the person and contribute to the quality of their daily life. Some of the ways behavior can have social significance include if it is relevant, if it increases the person’s access to their environment, or if it is age-appropriate. Typically there is more than one behavior of interest or concern. When multiple behaviors are identified, they must be prioritized for intervention. This can be done by rating the behaviors against key questions related to the behaviors relative danger, frequency, long-standing existence, potential for reinforcement, relevance for future skill development and independent functioning, reduced negative attention from others, likelihood of success, and cost. Once a target behavior has been identified, it must be carefully and completely defined in observable and measurable terms. A good definition is objective, clear, and discriminative between what is and what is not an example of the target behavior. Wellwritten target behavior definitions are necessary in order to accurately and reliably measure behavior and to aggregate, compare, and interpret data. Well-written definitions are also necessary to guide ongoing program decisions, apply interventions consistently and accurately, and provide accountability. In addition to defining the target behavior, the criteria for changing the behavior must also be defined. The criteria must reflect the social significance of the behavior. The outcome criteria should specify the extent of change before intervention efforts begin. Two ways to determine socially valid performance are to assess the performance of people determined to be highly competent and to experimentally manipulate different levels of performance to determine optimal results.


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Chapter Objectives 1. Understand and explain the role of assessment in applied behavior analysis 2. Identify the ethical and professional standards of professional applied behavior analysis 3. Describe the four major methods for obtaining assessment information 4. Explain the importance of social validity in regard to selecting target behavior 5. Describe procedures for assessing the social significance of potential target behaviors 6. Discuss criteria for prioritizing target behaviors 7. Define behavior in observable and measurable terms 8. Explain the process for setting criteria for behavior change Focus Questions 1. Why is assessment a critical component of applied behavior analysis? 2. What factors should be considered when determining which behaviors should be established, strengthened, or weakened? 3. Why is it important to use observable and measurable terms to describe behavior and intervention outcomes? Chapter Key Terms ABC recording anecdotal recording behavior checklist behavioral assessment behavioral cusp ecological assessment function-based definition habilitation normalization pivotal behavior

reactivity relevance of behavior rule social validity target behavior topography-based definition

Chapter Suggested Readings/Activities 1. Three potential target behaviors have been identified for Jackson, a 5 year old boy with developmental disabilities. The three behaviors are a) When walking to the bus with his teacher, Jackson will run across the street towards the bus to touch the wheels, b) When eating lunch, Jackson will chew with his mouth open, allowing some food to fall out of his mouth, c) When playing in the sandbox at recess, Jackson will grab toys from other children and screams when they resist or try to reclaim the toy. Use the worksheet in Figure 3.5 to prioritize these behaviors for treatment. 2. Think of two different behaviors by children or adults that you know. For each behavior, write a function-based definition and topography-based definition. Compare

Instructor’s Manual for Applied Behavior Analysis your definitions.

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Chapter 4: Measuring Behavior Chapter Summary Measurement is the process of applying quantitative labels to observed properties of events using a standard set of rules. Scientists use measurement to operationalize empiricism. Applied behavior analysts measure behavior to answer questions about the existence and nature of functional relations between socially significant behavior and environmental variables. Practitioners use measurement to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions and to guide decisions regarding treatment. There are three dimensional qualities of behavior: repeatability, temporal extent, and temporal locus. Measures of repeatability include count, rate or frequency, and celeration. Duration is used to measure temporal extent. Measures of temporal locus include response latency and interrresponse time. Derivative measures that combine two forms of data are frequently used in applied behavior analysis, including percentage and trials-to-criterion. Topography and magnitude provide useful information about behavior parameters though they are not fundamental dimensional qualities. Procedures for measuring behavior involve one or more of event recording, timing, and various time sampling methods. Event recording encompasses a variety of procedures for detecting and recording the number of times a behavior is observed. Timing procedures use different timing devices (e.g., stopwatch) and procedures to measure duration, response latency, and interresponse time. Time sampling refers to a variety of methods for observing and recording behavior during intervals or at specific moments in time. Time sampling procedures include whole-interval, partial-interval, momentary time sampling, and planned activity check. Certain behavior can also be measured after it has occurred using permanent products. Computer-assisted measurement has become more sophisticated and easy to use, allowing practitioners to simultaneously record multiple behaviors. Each method will has benefits and will produce its own artifacts due to the way it measures behavior. Therefore measurement methods must be carefully matched to the environmental variables, available resources, and behavior of interest Chapter Objectives 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Describe the functions of measurement in applied behavior analysis. Identify the measurable dimensions of behavior. Describe the different procedures for measuring behavior. Explain the procedure for measuring behavior by permanent products. Explain computer-assisted measurement of behavior. Select the appropriate measurement procedure given the dimensions of the behavior and the logistics of observing and recording.


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Focus Questions 1. 2. 3. 4.

What is the purpose of measurement in applied behavior analysis? What are the measurable dimensions of behavior? What are the different procedures for measuring behavior? How does a behavior analyst select the appropriate procedure for measuring behavior?

Chapter Key Terms artifact celeration celeration time period celeration trend line count discrete trial duration event recording free operant frequency interresponse time (IRT) magnitude measurement by permanent product

momentary time sampling partial-interval recording percentage planned activity check (PLACHECK) rate response latency temporal extent temporal locus time sampling topography trials-to-criterion whole-interval recording

Chapter Suggested Readings/Activities Readings Gardenier, N.C., MacDonald, R., & Green, G. (2004). Comparison of direct observational methods for measuring stereotypic behavior in children with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 25(2), 99118. This article compares momentary time sampling to partial interval recording when measuring stereotypic behaviors in children with autism between 2 and 5 years of age. The results showed that the partial interval recording was more accurate in its measurement while momentary time sampling led to over-estimations of the target response. Hoge, R.D. (1985). The validity of direct observation measures of pupil classroom behavior. Review of Educational Research, 55(4), 469-83. This article compares different direct observation measurement systems. The techniques described in this article are molar (broad), molecular (specific) measures, and molecularcomposite (categorization of specifics). Hoge discusses the validity of these measures and the implications of using them.


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Sanson-Fisher, R.W., Poole, A.D., & Dunn, J. (1980). An empirical method for determining an appropriate interval length for recording behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 13, 493-500. This article discusses the effects of varying interval lengths when recording data on behavior. It suggests that interval length should be individualized for each study; that is, for the most accurate data it is what the investigator is interested in measuring that should dictate the length of the intervals Skrtic, T.M., & Sepler, H.J. (1982). Simplifying continuous monitoring of multipleresponse/multiple-subject classroom interactions. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 15, 183-187. In this investigation the authors used a frequency-within-interval measurement system to code 18 different target responses. The system proved to be reliable, easy to use, and adaptable to different situations. Thomas, C., Holmber, M., & Baer, D.M. (1974). A brief report on a comparison of time sampling procedures. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 7, 623-626. This report discusses the accuracy of different time-sampling measurement systems (i.e., ongoing, contiguous, alternating, and sequential time-sampling methods). Activities 1. Demonstrate the use of different measurement systems by “performing” certain target behaviors in class or by using a videotape of specific target behavior while the class practices using different measurement systems. Discuss the pros and cons of the different systems for the different behaviors being targeted. 2. Demonstrate and practice the use of the time-sampling method of data collection for use with more than one target student. 3. Provide students with completed, raw data sheets and have them summarize (calculate) percentages, cumulative numbers, percentage of intervals, and rate per minute/per second. 4. Assign students an article from the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA) and have each student identify the (a) measurable dimension of the target behavior, and (b) the measurement system. Have students write a brief statement critically evaluating the appropriateness of the selected measurement system. Students should be reminded to base their critique on the material presented in Chapter 4.


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Chapter 5: Improving and Assessing the Quality of Behavioral Measurement Chapter Summary Most of applied behavior analysis depends on the measurement of behavior. For data to be useful it must be valid, accurate, and reliable. Measurement validity exists when it is focused on a relevant dimension of a socially significant behavior and is obtained under conditions and during times most relevant to the reasons for measuring the behavior. Measurement is accurate when the observed values of an event match the true values of an event. Measurement is reliable when it yields the same values across repeated measurement of the same event. A variety of factors can threaten the validity, reliability, and accuracy of measurement. Threats to measurement validity include indirect measurement, ill-suited behavioral dimensions, and measurement artifacts. Threats to measurement accuracy and reliability include human error, poorly designed measurement systems, inadequate observer training, observer drift, observer expectations, measurement bias, and reactivity. Measuring the accuracy of data can help researchers and practitioners determine the usefulness of data for decision making, detect measurement errors, and communicate the trustworthiness of data. Accuracy is measured by comparing the observed measures to their true values. Reliability of data is a measure of the degree to which observers are consistently applying a valid and accurate system. It is assessed using natural or contrived permanent products. Interobserver agreement (IOA) is the most common indicator of measurement quality in ABA. IOA is the degree which two or more observers report the same observed values after measuring the same events. A variety of techniques exist for calculating IOA depending upon the recording method being used. The techniques vary in their complexity, stringency, and conservativeness. In order to minimize overestimation of agreement, more stringent and conservative methods of IOA calculation should be used. IOA should be collected and reported for all levels of a study. Reporting of IOA can also be combined with indices of accuracy and reliability to provide a more detailed assessment of the quality of the data. Chapter Objectives 1. 2. 3. 4.

State and describe the elements of useful scientific measurement. Identify threats to measurement validity. Describe various threats to the accuracy and reliability of measurement. Identify and explain ways to assess the accuracy and reliability of behavioral measurement. 5. Identify and explain how to assess interobserver agreement (IOA) for a variety of data sets.


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Chapter Focus Questions 1. Describe the relative importance of validity, accuracy, and reliability of behavioral measurement. 2. List and describe the various threats to measurement validity. 3. List and describe the three greatest threats to the accuracy and reliability of behavioral measurement. 4. Discuss procedures used to minimize the threats to the accuracy and reliability of behavioral measurement. 5. Identify benefits for obtaining and reporting interobserver agreement. 6. List and describe the criteria for obtaining valid IOA measures. 7. Describe the various methods for calculating IOA. 8. Identify the most stringent method and formula for calculating IOA for the following methods used for measuring behavioral data: event recording, timing, and interval recording or time sampling. Chapter Key Terms accuracy believability calibration continuous measurement direct measurement discontinuous measurement exact count-per-interval IOA indirect measurement interobserver agreement (IOA) interval-by-interval IOA mean count-per-interval IOA mean duration-per-occurrence IOA measurement bias

naïve observer observed value observer drift observer reactivity reliability scored-interval IOA total count IOA total duration IOA trial-by-trial IOA true value unscored-interval IOA validity

Chapter Suggested Activities 1. Have students calculate IOA using the various methods described in Chapter 5. 2. Give students a variety of data sets and have them select the most appropriate method for calculating IOA. 3. Provide students with a variety of measurement instruments and have students calibrate each instrument to true values. 4. Provide students with a variety of scenarios illustrating the benefits of direct, continuous measurement. 5. Ask students to create a schedule for IOA data collection. 6. Have students create a step-by-step training guide and schedule for observers of various data collection systems.


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Chapter 6: Constructing and Interpreting Graphic Displays of Behavioral Data Chapter Summary Behavior change is a dynamic and ongoing process. Applied behavior analysts are interested in documenting and analyzing repeated measures of behavior change over time. Graphic displays of behavioral data provide a format from which valid and reliable decisions from raw data are best analyzed. Through the visual analysis of graphic displays of behavioral data, applied behavior analysts are able to answer questions related to the meaningfulness of behavior change. The primary function of graphic displays of behavioral data is communication. Graphic displays and visual analysis of behavioral data have several benefits over other displays of behavioral data. First, plotting data immediately following an observation period provides the practitioner with an ongoing and progressive record of participant behavior. Second, graphs are a simple and easily analyzable format for practitioners. Visual analysis of behavioral data is relatively easy to learn, is less time consuming, and does not rely on mathematical or statistical assumptions. Graphic displays and visual analysis help filter out the effects of weak variables and often allow for the identification of robust interventions. In addition, graphic displays of behavioral data encourage applied behavior analysts to draw their own conclusions based on patterns of behavior over time rather than relying on statistical manipulations. There are several types of graphs used to display behavioral data in applied behavior analysis. The visual format selected depends on the type of raw data collected and the primary purpose of the evaluation. Commonly used graphic displays include line graphs, bar graphs, cumulative records, semilogarithmic charts, and scatterplots. Line graphs are the format most commonly used by applied behavior analysts. The basic parts of a properly constructed line graph include accurately labeled vertical and horizontal axes, clearly placed and connected data points, appropriately placed condition labels, and a descriptive figure caption. The visual display of behavioral data provides practitioners with tools to evaluate the social meaningfulness of behavior change and make informed decisions about the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. Visual analysis allows for the inspection of changes in level, trend, and variability both within and across conditions. Chapter Objectives 1. State the purpose and list the benefits of graphic displays of behavioral data. 2. List and describe the types of graphs used in applied behavior analysis. 3. Given a set of behavioral data, select the appropriate data display to communicate quantitative relations. 4. Given an unlabeled line graph, provide the correct labels. 5. Describe and state the purpose of semilogarithmic charts.


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6. Describe and discuss the proper use of a cumulative record. 7. Describe and discuss the proper use of a scatterplot. 8. Given a set of behavioral data, construct and label a line graph. 9. Given a set of behavioral data select the most appropriate graphic display. 10. Given a graphic display of behavioral data, identify the presence or absence of variability, level, and trends. Chapter Focus Questions 1. What are the benefits of graphic display and visual analysis of behavioral data? 2. What are the fundamental properties of behavior change over time? 3. What are the different visual formats for the graphic display of behavioral data? What are the relative strengths and limitations of each visual format? 4. What are the basic parts of a properly constructed line graph? 5. What is the purpose of visual analysis? 6. How is a visual analysis of behavioral data conducted? Chapter Key Terms bar graph cumulative record cumulative recorder data data path dependent variable graph independent variable level

line graph local response rate overall response rate scatterplot semilogarithmic chart split-middle technique standard celeration chart trend variability visual analysis

Chapter Suggested Readings/Activities Bailey, J.S., & Burch, M.R. (2002). Research methods in applied behavior analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Chapter 10 of this book includes guidelines for the design of graphs used in applied behavior analysis. The chapter outlines the guidelines for creating a graph suitable for publication in the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. Carr, J.E., & Burkholder, E.O. (1998). Creating single-subject design graphs with Microsoft Excel. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 31 (2), 245 – 251. This article includes a fairly easy to follow and detailed instructional guide on how to create single-subject design graphs using Microsoft Excel. The article includes directions for an ABAB reversal design, a multiple baseline design, and a multielement or alternating treatments design. Fisher, W. W., Kelley, M.E., & Lomas, J.E. (2003). Visual aides and structured


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Criteria for improving visual inspection and interpretation of single-case designs. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 36, 387 – 406. This article presents strategies to improve the accuracy of visual inspection and interpretation of single-case experimental designs. The article includes a discussion surrounding the accuracy of different methods; training to improve the accuracy of visual analysis; and a description of how to train large groups in the interpretation of single-case designs. Gunter, P. L., Miller, K.A., Venn, M. L., Thomas, K., & House, S. (2000). Selfgraphing to success: Computerized data management. Teaching Exceptional Children, 35(2), 30-34. This article explains the process of teaching children how to graph their goals and achievements using the computer. The article references literature on the effects of selfmonitoring on student behavior. Carr, E. G., Halle, J., Horner, R. H., McGee, G., Odom, S., & Wolery, M. (2005). The use of single-subject research to identify evidence-based practice in special education. Exceptional Children, 71, 165– 179. This article presents the defining features and quality indicators for single-subject research. The authors present a discussion on the important role of single-subject experimental research designs as a method to conduct educational research. Specifically, Chapter 15 of this text presents information on the elements of a graph, visual inspection of graphs, how to use a graph to analyze data, and strategies for training individuals in visual analysis. Johnson, J. M. & Pennypacker, H.S. (1993). Strategies and Tactics of Behavioral Research 2nd Edition. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. This classic text is a must have for behavioral researchers. Johnson and Pennypacker include an in-depth and detailed description of constructing and interpreting graphic displays of behavioral data. Kennedy, C.H. (2005). Single-case designs for educational research. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. This book is written for individuals learning how-to effectively conduct visual analysis of behavioral data presented within single-case experimental designs. Michael, J. (1974). Statistical inference for individual organism research: Mixed blessing or curse? Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 7, 647 – 653. This brief, classical article discusses the potential, harmful effects of over utilizing descriptive and inferential statistics in the analysis and interpretation of behavioral data. Michael discusses the importance and influence of graphic displays of behavioral data on the behavior of the researcher. Parsonson, B.S. (2003). Visual analysis of graphs: Seeing is believing. In K. S. Budd


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& T. Stokes (Eds.), A small matter of proof: The legacy of Donald M. Baer (pp. 35 – 51). Reno, NV: Context Press. This chapter offers readers insight into visual analysis of graphed data. The chapter includes discussion of fine-grained visual analysis, statistical analysis, and stimuli that control visual analysis. The chapter offers applied behavior analysis future directions for visual analysis. Activities 1. Read How to make a graph using Microsoft Excel by Silvestri (2003) online at www.prenhall.com/cooper and create an ABA design line graph on Excel using the following data set: Baseline Intervention Baseline 5 10 10 Hits per minute 10 5 15 (rate) 15 0 20 2. Go to https://psych.athabascau.ca/html/387/OpenModules/Lindsley/ and complete the online Precision Teaching learning module.


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Chapter 7: Analyzing Behavior Change: Basic Assumptions and Strategies Chapter Summary The understanding of human behavior stems from the uncovering of functional relationships between behavior and the environment. Although precise measurement of behavior shows change over time, experimental analyses are critical in determining how a given behavior functions in relation to specific environmental events. Scientific investigations provide three levels of understanding: description, prediction, and control. The goal of experimental analyses in applied behavior analysis is to understand socially significant behaviors. Experimental analyses are conducted to investigate the changes in behavior in relation to environmental events. Experimental control is achieved when a predictable change in the dependent variable (behavior of interest) can be reliably produced by systematic changes in the independent variable (environmental event). Applied behavior analysts are interested in the behavior of individual organisms and utilize within-subject (or single-subject) methods of analysis with repeated measures over time. In behavior analytic research, variability is isolated and experimentally manipulated to better understand the environmental events creating variable responding. Determinism is a major assumption of behavior analysis. Single-subject research designs are the most commonly used research design in applied behavior analysis. Components of experiments in applied behavior analysis include the research question, multiple response measures (dependent variables), precise manipulation of the independent variable, careful observation and measurement, and ongoing visual inspection of resulting data patterns. Behavior analysts employ steady state strategy and baseline logic in the evaluation of behavior change over time. Baseline logic includes three elements: prediction, verification, and replication. Baseline levels of responding are established as an objective basis for evaluating the effects of the independent variable. Affirmation of the consequent lies at the heart of baseline logic – an effective experimental design confirms several if A-then-B possibilities. Chapter Objectives 1. Define and give examples of the basic assumptions underlying the analysis of behavior. 2. List and describe the three levels of scientific understanding. 3. Outline how experiments should be conducted to control for various threats to internal validity. 4. Compare and contrast the role of variability in single-subject versus group research designs. 5. List and define the essential components of experiments in applied behavior analysis research. 6. Write a specific research question given a behavioral phenomenon of interest.


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7. Define and identify steady or stable rate responding. 8. List and define the three elements of baseline logic. 9. Discuss the value of establishing a steady baseline in applied behavior analysis. 10. Outline guidelines for establishing a steady baseline in applied behavior analysis research. 11. Identify four types of baseline data patterns. 12. Discuss how single-subject research employs the inductive logic known as “affirmation of the consequent.” 13. Systematically manipulate independent variables and analyze their effects on treatment. (Application) Chapter Focus Questions 1. What are the basic assumptions underlying the analysis of behavior? 2. What are the levels of scientific understanding? 3. What is a functional relationship and how is it demonstrated in behavior analytic research? 4. What is the steady state strategy? 5. What is baseline logic? 6. What are the four types of baseline data patterns? 7. What are the essential components of experiments in applied behavior analysis research? Chapter Key Terms affirmation of the consequent ascending baseline baseline baseline logic confounding variable dependent variable descending baseline experimental control experimental question external validity extraneous variable

independent variable internal validity parametric study practice effects prediction replication single-subject designs stable baseline steady state responding variable baseline verification

Chapter Suggested Readings/Activities Bailey, J. S. & Burch, M. R. (2002). Research methods in applied behavior analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. This book offers the readers a step-by-step, “how-to” conduct research in applied behavior analysis. Johnston, J. M. & Pennypacker, H. S. (1993a). Strategies and tactics of behavior research (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.


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This book is a “must have” for individuals interested in conducting single-subject research. Johnston, J. M. & Pennypacker, H. S. (1993b). Readings for Strategies and tactics of behavior research (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Readers should consider using this text as a companion to Strategies and Tactics of Behavior Research for an in-depth understanding of research methods used in behavior analysis. Kazdin, A. E. (1982). Single case research designs: Methods for clinical and applied settings. NY, NY: Oxford University Press. This text offers readers a detailed description of the various research tactics employed in behavior analysis research. Readers should consider this book as a companion to this textbook (Applied Behavior Analysis). Kennedy, C. H. (2005). Single-case designs for educational research. Boston: Allyon and Bacon. This book provides readers a comprehensive look at the use and application of singlesubject research design specifically targeted for educational research questions. This text is a must read for individuals interested in conducting research in applied, educational settings. Sidman, M, (1960/1988). Tactics of scientific research: Evaluating experimental data in psychology. New York: Basic Books/Boston: Authors Cooperative (reprinted). This classic text is a must read for any individual interested in behavioral research.


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Chapter 8: Analytic Tactics - Reversal Chapter Summary This chapter focuses on two experimental tactics commonly used in applied behavior analysis research: the reversal design and the alternating treatments design. An outline of the appropriate use of each design and their variations is provided. An explanation of how the elements of baseline logic (prediction, verification, and replication) are incorporated in each design is presented. Advantages and disadvantages for the use of each experimental tactic are described. Chapter Objectives 1. Analyze the effects of a variety of independent variables using two types of experimental tactics widely used by applied behavior analysts: the reversal design and the alternating treatments design. 2. Select the appropriate experimental tactic based on the research question of interest and the appropriateness of the design. 3. Discuss how the reversal design and the alternating treatments design and their variations incorporate the elements of baseline logic (prediction, verification, and replication). 4. State and describe advantages and disadvantages in using the reversal design and alternating treatments design. 5. Identify practical and ethical considerations in using the reversal design and alternating treatments design. Chapter Focus Questions 1. Describe the three phases of an A-B-A reversal design. 2. Discuss why reintroducing the B condition is the preferred tactic in demonstrating a functional relationship between the independent and dependent variables. 3. Describe how an A-B-A reversal design incorporates baseline logic (prediction, verification, and replication). 4. Discuss why a B-A-B design might be considered a preferable tactic in applied research. 5. Identify possible limitations that may impact the analysis of a multiple treatment reversal design. 6. State a practical advantage to the use of a noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) reversal technique. 7. State a rationale for using either a DRO or DRI/DRA reversal technique. 8. State a major strength of the A-B-A-B reversal design. 9. Discuss two major limitations of the A-B-A-B reversal design. 10. Describe the characteristics of an alternating treatments design. 11. Describe how an alternating treatments design incorporates baseline logic (prediction, verification, and replication).


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12. Discuss how the presence and degree of experimental control is determined when employing an alternating treatments design. 13. Describe variations of the alternating treatments design. 14. List and describe advantages of the alternating treatments design. 15. List and describe possible limitations of the alternating treatments design. 16. Draw a graphic representation of an A-B-A and an A-B-A-B reversal design. 17. Draw a graphic representation of an alternating treatments design. 18. Given graphs illustrating reversal and alternating treatments designs, identify the presence or absence of a functional relationship. Chapter Key Terms A-B-A design A-B-A-B design alternating treatments design B-A-B design DRI/DRA reversal technique DRO reversal technique irreversibility multi-element design

multiple treatment reversal design multiple treatment interference NCR reversal technique reversal design sequence effects visual analysis withdrawal design

Chapter Suggested Readings/Activities Bailey, J. S. & Burch, M. R. (2002). Research methods in applied behavior analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. This book offers the readers a step-by-step, “how-to” conduct research in applied behavior analysis. Kazdin, A. E. (1982). Single case research designs: Methods for clinical and applied settings. NY, NY: Oxford University Press. This text offers readers a detailed description of the various research tactics employed in behavior analysis research. Readers should consider this book as a companion to this textbook (Applied Behavior Analysis). Kennedy, C. H. (2005). Single-case designs for educational research. Boston: Allyon and Bacon. This book provides readers a comprehensive look at the use and application of singlesubject research design specifically targeted for educational research questions. This text is a must read for individuals interested in conducting research in applied, educational settings. Richards, S.B., Taylor, R., Ramasamy, R., Richards, R. (1998). Single-Subject Research: Application in educational and clinical settings. Boston, MA: Wadsworth Publishing. This textbook provides information on the basic concepts and issues in applied behavior

Instructor’s Manual for Applied Behavior Analysis analysis research.

Tawney, J.W. & Gast, D. L. (1984). Single subject research in special education. Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice Hall. This textbook provides information on issues in applied behavior analysis/special education research.

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Chapter 9: Analytic Tactics – Multiple Baseline & Changing Criterion Chapter Summary This chapter describes the multiple baseline design and the changing criterion design. In a multiple baseline design, simultaneous baseline data is collected on two or more behaviors. After stable responding has been achieved, then the independent variable is applied to one of the behaviors while baseline conditions are maintained for the other behaviors. After change has been observed in the first behavior, the independent variable can be applied sequentially to each behavior in the design. Three basic types of the multiple baseline design are (a) the multiple baseline across different behaviors of the same subject, (b) multiple baseline across the same behavior of different subjects, and (c) multiple baseline of the same behavior of one subject across different settings. There are two variations of the multiple baseline design, the multiple probe design and the delayed baseline design. In the multiple probe design, intermittent measures are taken at the beginning of the experiment and thereafter each time a subject has mastered one of the behaviors or sequential skills. True baselines are conducted for each behavior prior to instruction. This design is useful for evaluating the effect of instruction on skill sequences when it is unlikely that the subject will master later steps without instruction. It is also useful for situations where a prolonged baseline could have negative effects for the subject or the experiment. In the delayed baseline design, collection of baseline data for subsequent behaviors is begun after baseline for earlier behaviors. This design may be used when a planned reversal is no longer possible, resources are limited, or a new behavior or subject becomes available. Behaviors of interest must be functionally independent and share a reasonable likelihood of responding to the independent variable. They must be measured concurrently and interventions cannot be applied to the next behavior until the previous behavior change has been established. There should be a significant difference in the length of baseline conditions between the different behaviors and the independent variable should first be applied to the behavior demonstrating the greatest level of stable responding in baseline. There are four advantages and four limitations to using the multiple baseline design. The advantages include the fact that (a) it does not require withdrawing a potentially effective intervention, (b) sequential implementation of the independent variable parallels the practice of many teachers and clinicians, (c) the concurrent measurement of multiple behaviors allows direct monitoring of generalization of behavior change, and (d) the design is relatively easy to conceptualize and implement. Limitations of the design include the fact that (a) if behaviors are not functionally independent, the design may not demonstrate a functional relationship even though one may exist, (b) because verification must be inferred from the lack of change in other behaviors, the design is inherently weaker than the reversal design at demonstrating experimental control, (c) it is more an evaluation of the independent variable’s general effectiveness than an analysis of the behaviors selected for study, and (d) it requires


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considerable time and resources. The second experimental design discussed in the chapter is the changing criterion design. This design can be used to evaluate the effects of a treatment on the gradual or stepwise improvement of a behavior already in the subject’s repertoire. After a stable baseline has been observed, the first intervention phase begins. Reinforcement is typically contingent upon performance at a specified level. The design entails a series of intervention phases, each requiring improved performance by the subject. Experimental control is demonstrated by a combination of the length and number of the criterion changes as well as the magnitude of each change. Two advantages of this design are that it does not require withdrawal of a seemingly effective treatment and that it enables experimental analysis with the context of a gradually improving behavior. Two limitations of the design are that the target behavior must already be in the subject’s repertoire and that the necessary features of the design may impede the natural learning rate. Chapter Objectives 1. 2. 3. 4.

Describe the multiple baseline technique Describe the differences between types of multiple baseline designs Describe the changing criterion design technique Identify the advantages and limitations of multiple baseline design and changing criterion design. 5. Identify and explain the practical and ethical considerations in using various experimental designs. Chapter Focus Questions 1. 2. 3. 4.

What are the features of the multiple baseline design? What are the features of the changing criterion design? What is the importance of systematic manipulation of independent variables? What practical and ethical considerations do behavior analysts need to consider when selecting an experimental design?

Chapter Key Terms changing criterion design delayed multiple baseline design multiple baseline across behaviors design multiple baseline across settings design

Chapter Suggested Readings/Activities

multiple baseline across subjects design multiple baseline design multiple probe design visual analysis


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Bailey, J. S. & Burch, M. R. (2002). Research methods in applied behavior analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. This book offers the readers a step-by-step, “how-to” conduct research in applied behavior analysis. Johnston, J. M. & Pennypacker, H. S. (1993a). Strategies and tactics of behavior research (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. This book is a “must have” for individuals interested in conducting single-subject research. Johnston, J. M. & Pennypacker, H. S. (1993b). Readings for Strategies and tactics of behavior research (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Readers should consider using this text as a companion to Strategies and Tactics of Behavior Research for an in-depth understanding of research methods used in behavior analysis. Kazdin, A. E. (1982). Single case research designs: Methods for clinical and applied settings. NY, NY: Oxford University Press. This text offers readers a detailed description of the various research tactics employed in behavior analysis research. Readers should consider this book as a companion to this textbook (Applied Behavior Analysis). Kennedy, C. H. (2005). Single-case designs for educational research. Boston: Allyon and Bacon. This book provides readers a comprehensive look at the use and application of single-subject research design specifically targeted for educational research questions. This text is a must read for individuals interested in conducting research in applied, educational settings. Sidman, M, (1960/1988). Tactics of scientific research: Evaluating experimental data in psychology. New York: Basic Books/Boston: Authors Cooperative (reprinted). This classic text is a must read for any individual interested in behavioral research.


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Chapter 10: Planning – ABA Research Chapter Summary This chapter supplements the information of previous chapters with a discussion on issues that require consideration when designing, replicating, and evaluating behavioral research. The main ideas presented are (a) the importance of the individual subject, (b) the value of a flexible experimental design, and (c) the importance of identifying and controlling the variables that contribute to the validity and reliability of research. Behavioral research has focused on the behavior of individual subjects to identify effective interventions for socially significant behavior. The strength of within-subject experimental research is the convincing demonstration of a functional relationship between the behavior and the intervention. Research designs that present the average performances of subjects, while appropriate in many situations, do not reveal any information about the performance of individual subjects. Yet the most useful information about an intervention is the affect it has on individuals. Systematic and strategic control of relevant variables is more likely to reveal important information about the effects of treatment variables than attempting to cancel out variability through statistical manipulation. Flexibility in experimental design is important because it allows the researcher to address questions of interest using the most appropriate experimental design rather than attempting to fit all questions into a single design. A good research design is one that manipulates the relevant variables in a manner that produces data to convincingly answer the research questions. Often this may require a combination of analytic tactics. The most effective designs rely on continual evaluation of data from individual subjects as the basis for assessment. The validity and reliability of a research study are measured by examining the internal, social, and external validity of its treatment and outcomes. Experiments that demonstrate a clear relationship between the independent variable and the observed behavior are said to have a high degree of internal validity. Strong experimental designs are those that demonstrate a reliable effect and eliminate the possibility that the effect was due to factors other than the independent variable. Two measures of internal validity are treatment integrity and procedural reliability, the extent to which the independent variable was implemented as planned. Social validity refers to the social significance of the target behavior, the appropriateness of the procedures, and the social importance of the outcomes. Assessment of social validity typically includes evaluation of consumer opinion. External validity refers to the degree to which a functional relationship from a given experiment will hold under different circumstances. In other words, will a treatment demonstrated to be effective here be effective in other conditions. In applied behavior analysis research this generality is assessed through replication of experiments. The chapter concludes with a discussion on the importance of evaluating applied


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behavior analysis research. Evaluation of research is important to establish the quality and value of results. Evaluation of research should include consideration of all aspects of the experiment, from the technological description, to the interpretation of the results, as well as the conceptual framework of the study. Chapter Objectives 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Explain the importance of the individual subject in behavioral research. Explain the importance of flexibility when designing experiments. Identify and design systems for evaluating internal validity. Identify and design systems for evaluating social validity. Identify and design systems for monitoring external validity. Explain the importance of evaluating applied behavior analysis research.

Chapter Focus Questions 1. Why is the individual subject of central importance in applied behavior analysis? 2. Why is it important for researchers to be flexible when designing research experiments? 3. How does assessment of internal validity contribute to the strength of a research experiment? 4. What is the importance of social validity in research? 5. How does evaluating the external validity of a study contribute to the field of applied behavior analysis? 6. How does evaluation of research strengthen the field of applied behavior analysis? Chapter Key Terms component analysis direct replication double-blind control placebo control procedural fidelity replication

systematic replication treatment drift treatment integrity type I error type II error visual analysis

Chapter Suggested Readings/Activities Bailey, J. S. & Burch, M. R. (2002). Research methods in applied behavior analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. This book offers the readers a step-by-step, “how-to” conduct research in applied behavior analysis.


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Johnston, J. M. & Pennypacker, H. S. (1993a). Strategies and tactics of behavior research (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. This book is a “must have” for individuals interested in conducting single-subject research. Johnston, J. M. & Pennypacker, H. S. (1993b). Readings for Strategies and tactics of behavior research (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Readers should consider using this text as a companion to Strategies and Tactics of Behavior Research for an in-depth understanding of research methods used in behavior analysis. Kazdin, A. E. (1982). Single case research designs: Methods for clinical and applied settings. NY, NY: Oxford University Press. This text offers readers a detailed description of the various research tactics employed in behavior analysis research. Readers should consider this book as a companion to this textbook (Applied Behavior Analysis). Kennedy, C. H. (2005). Single-case designs for educational research. Boston: Allyon and Bacon. This book provides readers a comprehensive look at the use and application of single-subject research design specifically targeted for educational research questions. This text is a must read for individuals interested in conducting research in applied, educational settings. Sidman, M, (1960/1988). Tactics of scientific research: Evaluating experimental data in psychology. New York: Basic Books/Boston: Authors Cooperative (reprinted). This classic text is a must read for any individual interested in behavioral research.


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Chapter 3: Test Bank Multiple Choice 1. The progression of behavioral assessment can be conceptualized as a __________ shape A Circular B Funnel C Linear D Complex 2. One of the fundamental questions to answer before initiating behavioral assessment is: A Who will conduct the assessment? B Where will observations be conducted? C What is the nature of the problem behavior? D Who has the authority and skill to intervene with the behavior? 3. When interviewing a significant other about a client’s behavior, the behavior analyst should ask variations of all of the following types of questions except A What B How C Why D When 4. The preferred method of behavioral assessment to determine which behaviors to target for change is ____________ _____________. A Ecological assessment B Interviews C Checklists D ABC recording 5. A(n) ________ behavior is a behavior that produces indirect benefits to clients by potentially increasing opportunities for participation in other environments. A Access B Cusp C Key D Invitation 6. A behavior that produces corresponding modifications or co-variations in other adaptive, untrained behaviors is a(n) _____________________. A Behavior cusp B Critical behavior C Initiating behavior D Pivotal behavior


7. Improving academic grades is not a good target behavior because academic grades A Are not a socially valid outcome. B Do not specify the behaviors required to achieve the goal. C Are too complex an outcome for behavior analysis. D Have poorly defined performance criteria. 8. When prioritizing behaviors for change a chronic behavior _____________ when compared to a more recently acquired behavior. A Is easier to change B Takes precedence C Is less important D Requires less intervention 9. One method of priority ranking various potential target behaviors is to use a(n) A Ranking matrix B Standardized test C Interviewing significant others D Behavioral assessment 10. Explicit behavior definitions are important to the practitioner of applied behavior analysis for all of the following except: A Ease of evaluation B Increased likelihood of behavior change C Accurate measurement of behavior D Demonstration of effectiveness 11. A good behavior definition should be _____________, __________, and ____________. A Objective, clear, complete B Concise, specific, limited C Functional, clear, socially valid D Measurable, mentalistic, meaningful True/False 1. TRUE or FALSE. An anecdotal observation is a form of direct, continuous observation of all behaviors of interest and the environmental conditions. 2. TRUE or FALSE. A topographical definition classifies behavior in terms of their common effects on the environment. 3. TRUE or FALSE. The belief that individuals with disabilities should be physically and socially integrated into society to the maximum extent possible is called habilitation.

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4. TRUE or FALSE. Learning a pivotal behavior can result in modification of other behaviors that have not yet been learned. 5. TRUE or FALSE. An ecological assessment is an essential component in applied behavioral analysis. Short answer/Essay 1. Explain the benefits of interviews as a method for obtaining assessment information? 2. Compare the methods of standardized tests and direct observation with regard to how assessment information is obtained, the type of information gathered, and effects on the target behaviors. 3. Describe the causes of reactivity and what measures should behavior analysts undertake to minimize this effect? 4. How does the concept of habilitation help the behavior analyst determine which behavior should be targeted for behavior change? 5. Explain how the concept of normalization influences the selection of target behavior and appropriate interventions. 6. What ethical considerations should a behavior analyst consider before engaging in behavior change procedures? 7. Explain the benefits to practitioners of using observable and measurable terms to describe behaviors and intervention outcomes. 8. Discuss the importance of replacement behavior when reducing or eliminating target behavior. 9. Explain the problems with setting a general goal such as to be more successful as opposed to a more specific goal. 10. Explain the differences between a behavior cusp and a pivotal behavior. 11. Explain the benefits of including client, family, and/or staff in the goal determination process.


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ANSWER KEY Multiple Choice 1. A 2. D 3. C 4. D 5. A 6. D 7. B 8. B 9. A 10. B 11. A True / False 1. True. 2. False. A topographical definition classifies behavior in terms of the shape or form or the behavior. 3. False. The belief that individuals with disabilities should be physically and socially integrated into society to the maximum extent possible is called normalization. 4. True. 5. False. An ecological assessment provides descriptive data about the person’s environment but does not address the basic purpose of behavioral assessment. Short answer/Essay 1. Benefits of interviews include generating list of potential behaviors of concern, direct assessment of verbal behavior, identification of environmental antecedents and consequences, and to determine the extent to which significant others are willing and able to assist in intervention. 2. Standardized tests are administered in a specific way with consistent scoring procedures. Some tests assess behavior in relation to population norms. Many are indirect measures of behavior and most do not produce results that can be directly translated into target behavior. Curriculum-based assessments can be direct measure of academic behavior. Administration of standardized tests is often controlled by licensing requirements. Direct observation consists of direct and repeated observation of the client’s behavior in their natural environment. Observation requires the full attention of the observer on the person of interest for a specified period of time.


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Direct observation yields a descriptive, temporally sequenced account of antecedents, behavior, and consequences. Observations contain descriptions of target behaviors that can be used for intervention. 3. Reactivity refers to the effects of an assessment procedure on the behavior being assessed. It is more likely when observations are obtrusive and the person is aware of the observation. The presence of the observer in the setting is a potential source of reactivity. Unobtrusive observation procedures reduce the likelihood of reactivity. Behavior analysts should use observation methods that are as unobtrusive as possible. Repeating observations reduces the effects of reactivity. Effects of reactivity should be taken into account when interpreting data. 4. Habilitation is the degree to which a client’s repertoire maximizes short and long term reinforcers and minimizes short and long term punishers for that person and for others. Behavior analysts can use this principle to guide the selection of target behavior by prioritizing behavior that will increase a client’s access to reinforcers and decrease their exposure to punishers. The behavior analyst must try to identify behavior that will be the most useful to the client. 5. Normalization refers to the use of progressively more typical environments, expectations, and procedures to develop behavior in clients that is as close to the cultural norm as possible. It is a philosophy rather than a specific technique. Normalization impacts how behavior analysts select behavior and interventions. Age and setting appropriate behavior and interventions should be selected and outcomes should focus on the normalization of the client’s experience in relation to their community. This may result in different behavior or interventions being selected than would be chosen in a clinical environment. 6. Ethical considerations for the behavior analyst include whether they have the right to intervene, who has the authority to grant permission for assessment and intervention, whether that permission has been granted, whether the target behavior is socially valid, effects on the client and stakeholders of intervention, and whether or not the client’s functional needs will be met through intervention. 7. Observable and measurable terms are beneficial because they promote agreement among practitioners and stakeholders regarding the target behavior, the nature of the intervention, the replacement behavior, and the environmental variables related to the behavior. This agreement promotes greater understanding and can build consensus in relation to identifying target behaviors, determining outcomes, and evaluating progress towards those outcomes. 8. If a problem behavior is to be eliminated or reduced, the practitioner must identify an adaptive replacement behavior and develop contingencies in the intervention plan to ensure the new behavior is learned. This is important because problem behavior serves a function for the client and to eliminate the behavior without replacing it means that access to reinforcement or escape from punishers will be denied.


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9. A general goal can result in the focus of intervention being placed on related and indirect behaviors that are not really the intended outcomes of the intervention. A more specific outcome goal should be used that addresses the specific, observable behavior which, when mastered, will result in the more global goal being achieved. For example, a general goal of on-task behavior can be achieved by directly targeting attention to materials, task completion, and remaining seated. 10. A behavior cusp is a behavior that exposes the person to new environments, specifically to new reinforcers and punishers, new responses, new stimulus controls, and new communities of maintaining or destructive contingencies. For example, learning to read. A pivotal behavior is a behavior that produces corresponding modifications or co-variations in other adaptive, untrained behaviors. For example, attending behavior. Including clients, family, and/or staff in the goal determination process can minimize and resolve conflicts in the priorities of different stakeholders. Active participation can avoid and resolve goal conflicts by increasing communication and awareness of assessment outcomes. A process that allows each participant to provide input on the merits of potential goals or target behavior can often result.

Instructor’s Manual for Applied Behavior Analysis Chapter 4: Test Bank Multiple choice 1. A feature of an event that can be measured is called a(n) a. Unit b. Dimension c. Quality d. Characteristic 2. All of the following are measurable dimensional quantities except: a. Repeatability b. Temporal extent c. Temporal locus d. Topography 3. If you are interested in amount of time it takes a student to begin a task after the teacher has given an instruction you would measure _________________. a. Response latency b. Interresponse time c. Trials-to-criterion d. Duration 4. The force or intensity of a behavioral response is called a. Topography b. Magnitude c. Strength d. Power 5. The procedure of observing and recording behavior during intervals or at specific moments in time is called ___________. a. Time sampling b. Temporal extent c. Celeration d. Measurement artifact 6. A procedure that can be used to measure a continuous behavior such as academic engagement is _____________________. a. Event b. Whole interval c. Permanent product d. Response latency 7. All of the following behaviors could be assessed using natural permanent product measurement except:

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Instructor’s Manual for Applied Behavior Analysis a. b. c. d.

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Test scores Washing dishes Raising hand in class Picking up garbage

8. Permanent product measurement may be more accurate, complete, and continuous for all of the following reasons except: a. The observer can take their time b. The behavior definitions are more precise c. The observer can review the product more than once d. Measurement can be conducted when there are no distractions 9. A procedure that allows for the simultaneously recording of multiple behaviors across multiple dimensions is called ______________. a. Whole interval b. Event c. Momentary time sampling d. Computer-assisted 10. A teacher is interested in measuring the engagement of groups of students at certain times of the day. An appropriate measurement procedure for this would be a. Momentary time sampling b. Permanent product c. Planned activity check d. Event 11. _________________ measurement facilitates data collection for interobserver agreement and treatment integrity. a. Measurement artifact b. Permanent product c. Direct observation d. Time sampling True/False 1. Measurement is the process of applying qualitative labels to events. 2. The number of response opportunities needed to achieve a predetermined level of performance is called trials-to-criterion. 3. A feature of data that appears to exist because of the way the data is measured or examined is called an artifact. 4. The amount of time that elapses between two consecutive instances of a response class is called response latency.


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5. One benefit of measurement is that it helps practitioners verify the legitimacy of different treatments. Matching 1. ______ Number of responses emitted during an observation period 2. ______ The amount of time in which behavior occurs. 3. ______ The amount of time that elapses between two consecutive instances of a response class. 4. ______ The intensity of behavior responding. 5. ______ A variety of procedures for detecting and recording the number of times a behavior is observed. 6. ______ Procedure in which the observer records whether each individual in a group is engaged in the target behavior. 7. ______ Procedure for measuring the effect of behavior on the environment after it has occurred. 8. ______ The change in rate of responding per unit of time. 9. ______ The number of response opportunities needed to achieve a predetermined level of performance. 10. ______ Measurement of the elapsed time between the onset of a stimulus and the initiation of a subsequent response. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j.

Duration Magnitude Response latency Event recording Count Permanent product Trials-to-criterion Interresponse time Celeration Planned activity check

Short answer/Essay 1. Provide a brief explanation of why applied behavior analysts measure behavior. 2. What are two benefits of measurement for practitioners? 3. Define event recording and give three examples of devices or procedures used to collect event data. 4. Describe the difference between whole-interval and partial-interval recording. 5. Describe one example of when a trials-to-criterion method could be used to evaluate outcome.


6. Define the two definitional measures of behavior. 7. For what type of behavior is duration recording an appropriate method? 8. What observation problem do time sampling procedures address? 9. What is the main advantage of using the momentary time sampling procedure over other recording procedures? 10. What is artifactual variability? 11. Identify two ways that measurement by permanent product differs from the other procedures for measuring behavior?

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ANSWER KEY Multiple Choice 1. B 2. D 3. A 4. B 5. A 6. B 7. C 8. B 9. D 10. C 11. B True/False 1. 2. 3. 4.

FALSE. Measurement is the process of applying quantitative labels to events. TRUE. TRUE. FALSE. The amount of time that elapses between two consecutive instances of a response class is called interresponse time. 5. TRUE. Matching 1. e 2. a 3. h 4. b 5. d 6. j 7. f 8. i 9. g 10. c Short answer/Essay 1. Answer should include the following: to obtain answers to questions about the existence and nature of functional relations between socially significant behavior and environment variables. 2. Answer should include some of the following: optimizing effectiveness, verify the legitimacy of practices touted as “evidence-based”, identify treatments based on


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pseudoscience, fad, fashion, or ideology, be accountable to clients, consumers, employers, and society, or achieve ethical standards. 3. Answer should include the following: a variety of procedures for detecting and recording the number of times a behavior of interest is observed. Devices include wrist counter, digital counters abacus wrist and shoestring counters, masking tape, pennies, buttons, paper clips, and pocket calculators. 4. Answer should include the following: whole-interval recording divides the observation into a series of equal time intervals and at the end of each interval they record whether the target behavior occurred throughout the entire interview. Partialinterval recording divides the observation period into a series of equal time intervals and at the end of each interval they record whether the behavior occurred at any point during the interval. 5. Answer should include one of the following: comparing the relative efficiency of two or more treatments or instructional methods, assessing learner competence in acquiring a set of concepts, as a dependent measure of a specific skill. 6. Answer should include: topography which refers to the physical form or shape of a behavior and magnitude which refers to the force or intensity with which a response is emitted. 7. Answer should include: Duration is appropriate for behavior which occurs continuously over extended periods of time (e.g., play). It is also appropriate if the goal of intervention is to increase or decrease the length of time a target behavior occurs. 8. Answer should include: The procedures were developed because it is not possible or feasible to observe behavior continuously and therefore frequent, brief intervals for observation are more manageable. 9. Answer should include: The main advantage of momentary time sampling procedures is that the observer does not have to attend to the participant(s) or behavior continuously as they must with other measurement systems. They are only required to attend for a brief, specific moment in time. 10. Answer should include the following: The variability in data that exists because of the way that it is measured and examined. All time sampling procedures provide an estimate of the actual occurrence of behavior. The procedure used will effect the data collected. 11. Answer should include the following: Measurement by permanent product measures the impact of a behavior on the environment by examining a durable product that remains after the behavior is finished. It is not a specific procedure but refers to the time that the behavior is measured (i.e., after instead of during). Permanent products

Instructor’s Manual for Applied Behavior Analysis can be natural, like completed worksheets, or contrived, like video tape.

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Chapter 5: Test Bank Multiple Choice 1. Measurement is ___________ when it yields the same values across repeated measurement of the same event. a. Indirect b. Direct c. Reliable d. Valid 2. Measurement __________________ are data that give an unwarranted or misleading picture of the behavior because of the way measurement was conducted. a. Checks b. IOA c. Standards d. Artifacts 3. __________________ _____________ is the biggest threat to the accuracy and reliability of data. a. Indirect measurement b. Human error c. Calibration mistakes d. Direct measurement 4. Observer _____________ is an unintended change in the way an observer uses a measurement system over the course of an investigation. a. Reactions b. Tide c. Drift d. Direction 5. _______________ ____________________ is the degree to which two or more independent observers report the same observed values after measuring the same events. a. Interobserver Agreement (IOA) b. Interobserver Accuracy (IOA) c. Observer Drift (OD) d. Observation Indicators (OI) 6. Which is a false statement about the requirements of IOA? a. IOA observers must use the same observation code b. IOA observers must measure the same participants and events c. IOA observers must always score videotapes together d. IOA observers must observe and record the behavior independent of influence by other observers 7. Measurement that is _____________ , ________________, and reliable yields the most trustworthy and useful data for science and science-based practices. a. Direct, indirect b. Valid, accurate c. True, actual


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d. Calibrated, direct 8. Which of the following is not a factor that contributes to measurement error? a. Poorly designed measurement systems b. Observer Drift c. Expectations about what the data should look like d. Well-trained observers 9. Measurement bias caused by observer expectations can be avoided by using _______ observers. a. Informed b. Inadequately trained c. Many d. Naïve 10. __________________ ______ ___________________ between observers is the most common convention for reporting IOA in ABA. a. Percentage of Agreement b. Point-by-point c. Interval by interval d. Overall agreement 11. Scored – interval IOA is recommended for behaviors that occur at relative _________frequencies; unscored – interval IOA is recommended for behaviors that occur at relative _____________frequencies. a. High, low b. Moderate, high c. Low, moderate d. Low, high True/False 1. Measurement is accurate when observed values, the data produced by measuring an event, match the true state, or true values, of the event. 2. Observers should not receive systematic training prior to data collection because training will cause observer bias. 3. Observers should receive feedback about the extent to which their data confirm or run counter to hypothesized results or treatment goals. 4. True values for some behaviors (e.g., compliance) are difficult because the process for determining true value must be different from the measurement procedures used to obtain the data one wishes to compare to the true value. 5. A mean of 80% agreement means the data are accurate.

Instructor’s Manual for Applied Behavior Analysis Matching Match the method of IOA calculation for event recordings with its formula. 1. Exact Count-perA Int 1 IOA + Int 2 IOA + Int N IOA X 100 Interval IOA N Intervals 2. Total Count IOA B Number of Intervals of 100% IOA X 100 N Intervals 3. Trial-by-Trial C Smaller Count X 100 IOA Larger Count 4. Mean Count-perD Number of trials (items) agreement X 100 Interval IOA Total number of trials (items) Match each term with its definition 5. Accuracy (of A. Any procedure used to measurement) evaluate the accuracy of a measurement system and, when sources of error are found, to use that information to correct or improve the measurement system 6. Calibration B. Measurement conducted in a manner such that some instances of the response class(es) of interest may not be detected 7. Continuous C. Occurs when the behavior measurement that is actually measured is the same as the behavior that is the focus of the investigation 8. Direct measurement D. Occurs when the behavior that is actually measured is in some way different from the behavior of interest 9. Indirect measurement E. Measurement conducted in a manner such that all instances of the response class(es) of interest are detected during the observation period 10. Discontinuous F. The extent to which observed measurement values, the data produced by measuring an event, match the true state, or true values, of the event as it exists in nature

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Short Answer/Essay 1. List and describe the three elements of valid measurement in Applied Behavior Analysis. 2. Describe three threats to the validity of measurement in Applied Behavior Analysis. 3. State and describe three common causes of measurement artifacts. 4. Identify three factors that contribute to human measurement error. 5. Describe ways to reduce the negative effects of a complex measurement system. 6. List skills observers must learn prior to collecting data for an experiment. 7. Discuss the difference between observer drift and observer reactivity. 8. Describe four purposes for conducting accuracy assessments. 9. Describe the importance of calibrating measurement instruments as it relates to accurate measurement. Discuss how you would calibrate a timing instrument – such as a watch. 10. List and describe four benefits and uses of IOA. 11. How often should IOA be obtained? 12. For what variables should IOA be obtained and reported? 13. Which method of calculating IOA should be used and what is an acceptable level of IOA?


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ANSWER KEY Multiple Choice 1. C 2. D 3. B 4. C 5. A 6. C 7. B 8. D 9. D 10. A 11. D True/False 1. TRUE 2. FALSE: Observers should receive systematic training prior to data collection. 3. FALSE: Observers should be naïve and should not receive feedback about the extent to which their data confirm or run counter to hypothesized results or treatment goals. 4. TRUE 5. FALSE: A mean of 80% agreement does not imply accuracy – IOA simply means that 2 or more observers agreed that the behavior occurred or did not occur. Accuracy must be evaluated against a true value. Matching 1. B 2. C 3. D 4. A 5. F 6. A 7. E 8. C 9. D 10. B Short Answer/Essay 1. Valid measurement requires the following elements: measuring directly socially significant target behaviors, measuring a dimensions of the target behavior relevant to the question or concern about the behavior, and ensuring that the data are representative of the behavior’s occurrence under conditions and during times that are


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most relevant to the question or concern about behavior. Validity is compromised when any of these elements are suspect. 2. Three threats to measurement validity in Applied Behavior Analysis include the following: when measurement is indirect, when the wrong dimension of the target behavior is measured, or when measurement is conducted in such a way that the data it produces are an artifact of actual events. 3. Three common causes of measurement artifacts include: discontinuous measurement, poorly scheduled measurement periods, and using insensitive or limiting measurement scales. 4. Factors that contribute to human measurement error: poorly designed measurement systems, inadequate observer training, and expectations about what the data should look like. 5. Ways to reduce the negative effects of a complex measurement system include: decrease the number of simultaneously observed individuals or behaviors, decrease the duration of observation sessions, increase the duration of time intervals. Consider requiring additional practice during observer training, establish a high criterion for mastery of the observational code, and provide frequent feedback to observers. 6. Observer skills include learning the following: definitions for each response class or event to be measured, a code or symbol for each variable, a common set of recording procedures, and a method for correcting mistakes. 7. Observer drift usually entails a shift in the observer’s interpretation of the definition of the target behavior from that used in training. The drift causes unintended changes in the way data are collected and may produce measurement error. Observer reactivity may also cause measurement errors, however these errors are the result of the observer’s awareness that others are evaluating the data. 8. Four purposes for conducting accuracy assessments: 1. To determine early on in an analysis whether the data are good enough to serve as the basis for making experimental or treatment decisions, 2. Enable the discovery and correction of specific instances of measurement error, 3. To reveal consistent patterns of measurement error, which should lead to the overall improvement of the measurement system, 4. To assure consumers that the data are accurate. 9. Calibrating measurement instruments entails comparing the data obtained by the measurement tool against a true value. It is important to calibrate a measurement instrument, human or mechanical device so that measures are more accurate. Calibration of timing devices such as a stopwatch or countdown timer could be made against a known standard such as the “atomic clock.” 10. Four benefits for calculating interobserver agreement (IOA): 1. IOA may be used as a


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basis for determining the competence of new observers, 2. IOA over the course of an experiment can assist in the detection of observer drift, 3. A high level of interobserver agreement increases the confidence that the definition of the target behavior was clear and unambiguous and the measurement system not too difficult, 4. Consistently high levels of IOA across multiple observers increases the confidence that variability in the data is not a function of which observers are collecting data 11. Interobserver agreement should be assessed during each condition and phase of a study and be distributed across days of the week, times of day, settings, and observers. 12. Researchers should obtain and report IOA at the same levels at which they report and discuss the results of their study. 13. More stringent and conservative methods of calculating IOA should be used over methods that are likely to overestimate actual agreement as a result of chance. In addition, the degree of behavior change revealed by the data should also be considered when determining an acceptable level of IOA.


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Chapter 6: Test Questions Multiple Choice 1. Behavior change is considered a ________ and _______ process, therefore it is important to maintain direct and continuous contact with the behavior under investigation. A. B. C. D.

Simple, easy Time-consuming, affordable Dynamic, on-going Cumulative, static

2. _____________ are relatively simple formats for visually displaying relationships among and between a series of measurements and relevant variables. A. B. C. D.

Lists Tables Number groupings Graphs

3. The three fundamental properties of behavior illustrated on a graph include: A. B. C. D.

Level, trend, variability Movement, on-going, continual Line, bar, cumulative Series, numerical, data

4. Graphs are considered a _______________ _______________; devices that help the practitioner or experimenter interpret the results of a study or treatment. A. B. C. D.

Proper decision Statistical tool Treatment aid Judgmental aid

5. The __________ graph is the most common graphic format for displaying data in applied behavior analysis. A. B. C. D.

Bar Cumulative record Line Scatterplot


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6. Bar graphs sacrifice the presentation of the ____________ and ___________ in behavior. A. B. C. D.

Level, number Variability, trends Data, time Peak, valley

7. On a cumulative record the steeper the slope, ____________ the response rate. 5. 6. 7. 8.

The higher The lower More level More intense

8. Logarithmic scales are well suited to display and communicate ______________________ change. A. B. C. D.

Sequential Simple Proportional Traditional

9. This type of graph provides a standardized means of charting and analyzing how the frequency of behavior changes over time. A. B. C. D.

Celeration graph Bar graph Scatterplot Standard Celeration Chart

10. Precision teaching focuses on ________________ rather than the specific frequency of correct and incorrect responses. A. B. C. D.

Time Celeration Rate Speed


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11. Behavior analysts typically use _________________ ____________________ to interpret graphically displayed data. A. B. C. D.

Statistical analysis Numerical analysis Visual analysis Graphic analysis

12. The value on the vertical axis scale around which a set of behavior measures converge is called ______________. A. B. C. D.

Trend Rate Variability Level

13. The overall direction taken by a data path is its __________________. A. B. C. D.

Trend Rate Variability Level

True/False 1. Graphs are not considered an effective source of feedback to the person whose behavior change is represented. 2. A cumulative record should be used if the target behavior can only occur once per measurement period. 3. You should always connect data points on a line graph, even if there is a condition change line. 4. Overall response rate refers to the average rate of response over a given time period. 5. If you believe the data on a graph are distorted by the scaling of the axes you should re-plot the data on a new graph before continuing with visual analysis.


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For each scenario select the most appropriate data display to communicate quantitative relations. A. Line B. Bar C. Cumulative D. Standard E. Scatterplot graph Graph Record Celeration Chart 7. During this analysis you are interested in evaluating the effects of the independent variable on a dependent variable that can only occur once per measurement period, for example the participant either engages in the behavior or does not, therefore your data collection is limited to recoding a yes or a no. 8. You are interested in comparing the effects of intervention A with intervention B on the aggressive behaviors displayed by one student in your classroom. In other words, you are interested in looking at the same behavior under different and alternating experimental conditions. 9. You completed a study on the effects of peer tutoring on the acquisition of irregular sight words and would like to summarize the performance of the entire class under baseline and intervention conditions. 10. You are conducting 1-minute timings with a student who is practicing multiplication facts. You are interested in the student’s accuracy and speed in acquiring new multiplication facts – that is, you are interested in the student’s multiplication fact fluency. 11. You are interested in finding out if there is a correlation between your students’ missing naptime and the display of afternoon problem behavior. 12. You are interested in investigating the effects of a motivational system on a student’s appropriate and inappropriate behavior. 13. You’ve decided to create a personal behavior management system to increase the number of minutes you exercise each day. You would like to include a graphic feedback device for motivation.

Instructor’s Manual for Applied Behavior Analysis Short Answer 1. Write a brief statement describing the level and variability of responding depicted in the graph.

2. Write a brief statement summarizing the trend and degree of variability depicted in the graph.

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5. What is one benefit to graphic displays over other displays of behavioral data? 6. List the three fundamental properties common to all behavioral data. 7. State a strength and state a limitation of using bar graphs for displaying behavioral data. 8. State one situation in which a cumulative graph would be preferable to a noncumulative line graph. 9. State one reason why it is important for applied behavior analysts to maintain direct and continual contact with the behavior under investigation.


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ANSWER KEY Multiple Choice 1. C 2. D 3. A 4. D 5. C 6. B 7. A 8. C 9. D 10. B 11. C 12. D 13. A True/False 1. False. Graphs are considered an excellent tool for feedback and use during personal behavior management programs. 2. True. 3. False. You should not connect data points across condition change lines; when a significant span of time has passed without data collection; across discontinuities of time; if data were lost or destroyed; or if data represent follow-up or postcheck measurements. 4. True 5. True Matching 1. B 2. F 3. A 4. D 5. E 6. C 7. C 8. A 9. B 10. D 11. E 12. A 13. C


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Short Answer/Essay 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7.

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A low, stable level of responding Rapidly increasing, variable trend Gradually increasing, stable trend Unable to discuss trend or variability using a bar graph The benefits of graphic displays over other displays of behavioral data include: Provides practitioner with immediate access to ongoing and dynamic behavior change; allows for the exploration of interesting variations in behavior; device to aid in the interpretation of behavior change; conservative method for determining the significance of behavior change; graphs and visual analyses encourage and enable independent judgments about behavior change; graphs can serve as an effective source of feedback in personal behavior management plans The fundamental properties common to all behavioral data include level, trend, and variability Strengths of using bar graphs include: Quick and easy comparison of performance across participants or conditions; useful for displaying and comparing discrete sets of data that are not related to one another by a common underlying dimension by which the horizontal axis can be scaled; provides visual summary of different conditions of an experiment (e.g., baseline/intervention for a group of participants) Limitations of using bar graphs include: Bar graph does not have distinct data points representing successive response measures through time; Unable to discuss variability or trends in data paths Cumulative graphs are preferable when the total number of responses made over time is important; when progress toward a specific goal can be measured in cumulative units of behavior; when the graph is used as a source of feedback for the participant; when the target behavior can occur or not occur only once per observation session It is important for Applied Behavior Analysts to maintain direct and continual contact with the behavior under investigation because behavior is a dynamic and on-going process; changes in the behavior under investigation/targeted for change forms the empirical basis for important decision making, for example, whether to continue with the current procedure, to try a different intervention, or to reinstitute a previous condition.


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Chapter 7: Test Questions Multiple Choice 1. ___________ ________ enhances the understanding of natural phenomena by enabling scientists to describe behavior accurately. A. systematic observation B. independent observation C. variable presentation D. subjective observation 2. Science enables understanding at these three levels A. see, hear, report B. description, prediction, and control C. experimentation, manipulation, documentation D. external, internal, uncontrolled 3. The highest level of scientific understanding A. Observation B. Documentation C. Specification D. Experimental control 4. An experiment has a high degree of ___________ __________ when it shows convincingly that changes in behavior are a function of the independent variable and not the result of unknown variables. A. Reliability control B. Stability and rigor C. Insightful applications D. Internal validity 5. An applied analysis of behavior requires that the target behavior be a _____________ of an environmental event that can be practically and ethically manipulated. A. Sample B. Part C. Function D. Predictor


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6. A student’s changing level of interest and background knowledge in algebra, during a study on the effects of response card quiz reviews on next-day quiz performance is a potential _____________ _____________ to the investigation and should be monitored. A. Application variable B. Systems variable C. Confounding variable D. Reliability variable 7. A science of behavior contributes to a useful technology of behavior change to the extent that it discovers functional relations with __________ across individuals A. Prediction B. Control C. Variability D. Generality 8. A well-planned scientific investigation begins with _____________ A. Systematic observation B. Target behavior selection C. Experimental question D. Intervention 9. ________________ are demonstrated when observed variations in behavior can be attributed to manipulations of the independent variable. A. Functional relations B. Identified correlations C. Predictions D. Experimental operations


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10. Unplanned environmental variations which may impact the experimenters demonstration of experimental control are called ___________________ A. Manipulated variables B. Dependent variables C. Independent variables D. Extraneous variables 11. _________________________ refers to the arrangement of conditions in a study so that meaningful comparisons of the effects of the independent variable can be made. A. Intervention B. Experimental design C. Single-subject design D. Group comparison design 12. A ______________ study seeks to discover the differential effects of a range of values on the independent variable on the dependent variable of interest. A. Component analysis B. Group analysis C. Single-case D. Parametric True or False 1. Single-subject research designs always involve only a single participant. 2. Baseline data collection is important because it results in a certain level of needed subjectivity. 3. All experiments in ABA include at least one behavior and at least one treatment or intervention condition. 4. Within-subject design and intra-subject design are alternate terms used to describe single-subject experimental designs. 5. Nothing is gained by collecting unduly long baselines of behavior that cannot reasonably be expected to be in a subject’s repertoire.


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Matching For each graph indicate if an ascending (A), Descending (D), or Variable (V) baseline is depicted: 1. ____ 2. ___

3. ___

4. ___

5. ____

Indicate if an independent (I) or dependent (D) variable is depicted in the bold type. ______ 6. The effects of study cards on the rate of homework completion ______ 7. A self-management intervention increases students’ task engagement. ______ 8. Use of an electronic signal device during classroom instruction increases the number of praise statements made by the teacher ______ 9. The effects of a token reinforcement plus praise treatment package on student hand raising ______10. Number of words spelled correctly following a spelling quiz review


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Short Answer/Essay 1. List the assumptions underlying the analysis of behavior. 2. Name and briefly describe three levels of scientific understanding. 3. Discuss the two defining features of behavior and the two assumptions about the nature of behavior which guides the experimental methods of behavior analysis. 4. The experimental approach most commonly used in social and behavioral sciences makes two assumptions about variability. What are these assumptions and what methodological implications result from following these assumptions? 5. Discuss two methodological implications of the following assumption: “behavioral variability is the result of an environmental influence.” 6. List the essential components of all experiments in applied behavior analysis. 7. Write an experimental question – be sure to identify the dependent and independent variables of interest. 8. Discuss the importance of steady or stable state responding as it relates to singlesubject designs. 9. Identify the purposes of establishing a baseline level of responding in singlesubject research. 10. Describe the three components of experimental reasoning used in single-subject research designs.


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ANSWER KEY Multiple Choice 1. A 2. B 3. D 4. D 5. C 6. C 7. D 8. C 9. A 10. D 11. B 12. D True/False 1. False, although at least one subject is involved most studies involve more than one participant 2. False, Subjectivity is not warranted, a needed level of objectivity will result from collecting baseline data 3. True 4. True 5. True Matching 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

D A V D, V D, V

Short Answer/Essay 1. Determinism, empiricism, experimentation, parsimony, philosophic doubt 2. Description: yields a collection of facts about observed events; Prediction: Observations result in the discovery that two or more events consistently co-vary; Experimental control: Highest level of understanding, achieved when a predictable change in behavior can be reliably produced by the systematic manipulation of some aspect of the person’s environment. 3. Two defining features: (1) behavior is an individual phenomenon and (2) behavior is a continuous phenomenon; Two assumptions about the nature of behavior: (1)


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behavior is determined and (2) behavioral variability is extrinsic to the organism. 4. Two assumptions: behavioral variability is an intrinsic characteristic of the organism and behavioral variability is distributed randomly among individuals in any given population. The methodological implications of following these assumptions include: the time needed to investigate variability may be time better spent and the practice of averaging the performance of individual subjects within large groups attempting to “statistically” cancel out variability are both detrimental practices to a science of behavior. 5. Find the sources of variability and attempt to control those variables to better understand behavior. Identify new experimental questions about the nature of behavior. 6. Essential components of all experiments in ABA: at least one subject, at least one behavior, at least one setting, a system for measuring behavior and ongoing visual analysis of data, at least one treatment or intervention condition, manipulations of the independent variable so that its effects on the dependent variable, if any, can be detected (experimental design) 7. Student answers will vary. Student should identify a measurable and observable dependent variable and an independent variable able to be manipulated. 8. Steady state strategy requires repeatedly exposing a participant to a given condition while trying to eliminate or control extraneous influence on the behavior and obtaining a stable pattern of responding before introducing the new condition. 9. The purposes of establishing a baseline level of responding: use the subject’s performance in the absence of the independent variable as an objective basis for detecting the effects of the independent variable when introduced in the future. Provides the opportunity to look for and record environmental events that occur just before and just after the behavior (antecedent-behavior-consequent relations); provides valuable guidance in setting the initial criteria for reinforcement; provides a level of objective measurement. 10. Three components of experimental reasoning used in single-subject research designs: Prediction (stability of baseline responding over time), verification (demonstrating that the prior level of baseline responding would have remained unchanged has the independent variable not been introduced), replication (repeating independent variable manipulations conducted previously in the investigation and obtaining similar outcomes).


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Chapter 8: Test Bank Multiple Choice 1. Which of the following illustrates the 3 consecutive phases of a reversal design? A. 10 8 6 4 2 0 1

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2. This design compares two or more distinct treatments while their effects on the target behavior are measured. A. Reversal Design B. Alternating Treatments Design C. Withdrawal Design D. Multiple Treatment Reversal Design 3. Which of the following is considered a limitation in the use of a multiple treatment reversal design? A. Sequence effects B. Observer drift C. Rapid alternation effects D. Variability 4. In an alternating treatments design the extent of any differential effects produced by two treatments is determined by the _________ distance between their respective data paths and quantified by the __________ axis scale. A. Horizontal, vertical B. Horizontal, horizontal C. Vertical, vertical D. Vertical, X 5. ___________ effects are the effects on a subject’s behavior in a given condition that are the result of the subject’s experience with a prior condition. A. Interference B. Observer C. Treatment D. Sequence 6. Which of the following statements is a practical rationale for using a B-A-B reversal design? A. Experimenter is interested in quickly understanding the effects of two different treatments B. Behavior of interest is dangerous and withholding an effective treatment would be unethical C. Treatment is already in place D. B & C E. None of the above 7. When it is not possible or appropriate to completely eliminate the event or activity used as a contingent reinforcer this variation of the reversal design can be employed. A. B-A-B B. B-A-C-A C. NCR Reversal D. Multiple Treatment Reversal


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8. Behavioral ____________ means that the level of behavior observed in an earlier phase cannot be reproduced even though experimental conditions are the same as they were during earlier phases. A. Irreversibility B. Effects C. Trend D. Sequencing 9. Which of the following experimental questions is/are most appropriate for a reversal design? A. The effect of choice versus no choice on the disruptive behavior displayed by students with developmental disabilities B. The effect of response cost on talk outs in an elementary classroom C. The effect of math instruction on student engagement D. A & B E. None of the above 10. Which of the following is NOT an advantage of the alternating treatments design? A. Can be used to compare one or more treatments B. Minimizes the possibility of multiple treatment interference C. Does not require treatment withdrawal D. Minimizes sequence effects True/False 1. True or False. An experiment that incorporates multiple reversals often presents a more convincing and compelling demonstration of a functional relation than does an experiment with one reversal. 2. True or False. Extended designs, such as an A-B-C-B-C-A-C-A-C-A-C multiple treatment reversal designs are most often preplanned by the experimenter. 3. True or False. A reversal design would be an effective element of an experiment investigating the effects of a variable that cannot be withdrawn once it has been presented (for example instruction). 4. True or False. When considering educational and clinical issues surrounding the use of a reversal design it may be appropriate to conduct only two or three brief reversals as a demonstration of experimental control. 5. True or False. A properly conducted alternating treatments design minimizes the extent to which an experimenter’s results are confounded by sequence effects. 6. True or False. An alternating treatments design should not be used with unstable data.


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Matching Match the name of the experimental tactic described in each of the following: A A-B-A design B A-B-A-B design C Alternating treatments design D B-A-B design E DRI/DRA reversal technique F DRO reversal technique 1. This design allows for a quick comparison of interventions. 2. Baseline, intervention, and a return to baseline phase. 3. After steady state responding is attained in the first treatment, the independent variable is withdrawn and baseline conditions are reestablished. 4. A major advantage of this design is that it does not require treatment withdrawal. 5. This design is widely used in applied behavior analysis due to its ability to expose variables for what they are – strong and reliable or weak and unstable. The behavior analyst is able to turn on and off the behavior of interest through repeated applications of the independent variable. 6. This design is useful in situations where two or more treatments are being compared. 7. Sequence effects cannot be ruled out when using this design because no preintervention performance data are collected. 8. These two tactics are considered “control” procedures and might be employed when a “no-reinforcement” baseline condition is not possible. 9. When implemented completely an advantage of this variation of a reversal design ends with the treatment condition in place. 10. This analytic tactic is also referred to in the literature as a multi-element design, multiple schedule design, concurrent schedule design, and simultaneous treatment design. Short Answer 1. Given the following experimental designs diagram an example of how it would be implemented. a. A-B-A b. A-B-A-B c. Alternating Treatments Design d. Multiple Treatment Reversal Design 2. Given the following experimental designs describe the logic and how experimental control would be demonstrated. a. Reversal design b. Alternating Treatments Design


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3. Given the following experimental designs state an advantage and disadvantage. a. A-B-A b. Alternating Treatments Design 4. Given a research question describe an appropriate research design. a. You are interested in the effects of contingent attention on students’ study behaviors. b. You are interested in comparing the effects of two distinctly different study session procedures on next session quiz scores. c. You are interested in the effects of response cost on students’ disruptive behaviors. 5. Given a graph illustrating an experimental design identify the design and describe the next steps to demonstrate experimental control. (a)

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Instructor’s Manual for Applied Behavior Analysis ANSWER KEY Multiple Choice 1. D 2. B 3. A 4. C 5. D 6. D 7. C 8. A 9. D 10. B True/False 1. True 2. False. Extended designs, such as an A-B-C-B-C-A-C-A-C-A-C multiple treatment reversal designs are most often not preplanned by the experimenter. 3. False. A reversal design would not be an effective element of an experiment investigating the effects of a variable that cannot be withdrawn once it has been presented (for example instruction). 4. True. 5. True. 6. False. An alternating treatments design can be used with unstable data. Matching 1. C 2. A 3. A 4. C 5. B 6. C 7. D 8. E & F 9. B 10. C

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Instructor’s Manual for Applied Behavior Analysis Short Answer/Essay 1. Given the following experimental designs diagram an example of how it would be implemented. a. A-B-A 10 8 6 4 2 0 1

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2. Given the following experimental designs describe the logic and how experimental control would be demonstrated. a. Reversal design Insert/Refer to Figure 8-2 with caption. Experimental control is demonstrated with each additional presentation and withdrawal that reproduces the previously observed effects on the behavior increases the likelihood that the behavior changes are the result of manipulating the independent variable. b. Alternating Treatments Design Insert/Refer to Figure 8-9. In an alternating treatments design, each successive data point for a specific treatment plays all three roles. It provides a basis for the prediction of future levels of responding under that treatment, it provides potential


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verification of the previous prediction of performance under that treatment, and the opportunity for replication of previous effects produced by that treatment. 3. Given the following experimental designs state an advantage and disadvantage. a. A-B-A Advantage: Most powerful single-subject design for demonstrating functional relationships Disadvantages: Cannot be used in evaluating the effectiveness of treatment variables that cannot be withdrawn; behaviors may not reverse to baseline levels (irreversibility); social, educational, and ethical concerns may not allow for the withdrawal of an effective treatment; sequence effects b. Alternating Treatments Design Advantages: Does not require treatment withdrawal; allows for quick comparison of the relative effects of treatments; minimizes sequence effects; can be used with unstable data patterns; can be used to assess generalization of effects; intervention can begin immediately Disadvantages: susceptible to multiple treatment interference; rapid back-andforth alternation of treatments does not reflect the way interventions are typically applied which may be viewed as artificial or undesirable 4. Given a research question describe an appropriate research design. a. You are interested in the effects of contingent attention on students’ study behaviors. A-B-A-B reversal design would be appropriate d. You are interested in comparing the effects of two distinctly different study session procedures on next session quiz scores. An alternating treatments design (study session 1 compared to study session 2 procedures) would be appropriate. e. You are interested in the effects of response cost on students’ disruptive behaviors. An A-B-A-B reversal design would be appropriate if social, educational, and ethical considerations have been addressed.


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5. Given a graph illustrating an experimental design identify the design and describe the next steps to demonstrate experimental control. (a) A-B design - Reverse back to A and then, once the baseline state has been recaptured reintroduce B

(b) A-B design - Reverse back to A and then, once the baseline state has been recaptured reintroduce B 10 8 6 4 2 0 1

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Instructor’s Manual for Applied Behavior Analysis (c) A-B-A-B reversal design. Continue replications if necessary.

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(d) Alternating treatments design. Reintroduce each condition if necessary; however differential effects are shown for the condition represented by the square data path in comparison to all other data paths.

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Chapter 9: Test Bank Multiple Choice 1. The ______________ design is the most widely used experimental design in applied behavior analysis. A. Multiple baseline B. Reversal C. Changing criterion D. Multielement designs 2. When each behavior changes when, and only when, the independent variable is applied then _______________ has been demonstrated. A. Extraneous control B. Experimental control C. Control of relevant variables D. Effective intervention 3. The multiple probe design is effective for situations in which A. An intervention can be easily withdrawn from an environment B. The participant’s skills are expected to increase incrementally over time C. Prolonged baselines are not appropriate D. The participant is expected to acquire discrete behaviors 4. All of the following are variations of the multiple baseline design except _________. A. Multiple baseline across behaviors B. Multiple baseline across participants C. Multiple baseline across settings D. Multiple baseline across interventions 5. Behaviors selected for study with a multiple baseline design should A. Be functionally independent B. Be easy to change C. Co-vary D. Be related to one another 6. The independent variable should be applied to the behavior that A. Shows the most stable level during baseline B. Was identified first C. Is measured earlier in the day D. Has the greatest likelihood of responding to the intervention 7. The ______________ design can be used to evaluate the effects of treatment on the gradual improvement of behavior already in the participant’s repertoire. A. Multiple baseline B. Reversal


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C. Changing criterion D. Multielement designs 8. In a changing criterion design, reinforcement is usually contingent upon A. Duration of intervention B. Establishment of experimental control C. Number of experimental sessions D. Performance at a specified level 9. In a changing criterion design, when the participant’s behavior closely conforms to the gradually changing performance criteria, then ___________ has been established. A. Magnitude of behavior change B. Experimental control C. Effective intervention D. Reliability 10. All of the following are required to determine the potential of a changing criterion design to demonstrate experimental control except the A. Length of phase B. Latency of criterion changes C. Number of criterion changes D. Magnitude of criterion changes 11. Which of the following are the advantages of the changing criterion design? A. It is the least complicated experimental B. It does not require a withdrawal phase C. It allows for experimental analysis while gradually improving behavior D. Both B and C. True/False 1. TRUE or FALSE. The length of the baseline phases for the different behaviors in a multiple baseline design should differ significantly. 2. TRUE or FALSE. One advantage of a multiple baseline design is possibility of covariation between different behaviors. 3. TRUE or FALSE. The believability of the changing criterion design is enhanced if a previous criterion is reinstated and the participant’s behavior reverses to the previous level. 4. TRUE or FALSE. An advantage of the changing criterion design is that the behavior must already be in the participant’s repertoire. 5. TRUE or FALSE. Conducting a reversal phase in one or more tiers of a multiple baseline design can weaken the demonstration of experimental control.


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Short Answer 1. Compare the three basic forms of the multiple baseline design. 2. Explain how experimental control is demonstrated in a multiple baseline across settings design. 3. Identify two conditions that make a multiple probe design appropriate for evaluating behavior change. 4. Identify three potential limitations to using a delayed multiple baseline. 5. Describe the basic methodology of implementing a multiple baseline design across behaviors. 6. Describe the basic methodology of implementing a multiple probe design and what type of analysis for which it is particularly suited. 7. Explain the capacity and limitations of baseline measures of each tier in a delayed multiple baseline design to verify predictions for subsequent behaviors. 8. What are three situations in which a delayed multiple baseline provides an appropriate tactic for analyzing behavior? 9. Describe the three features of a changing criterion design that combine to demonstrate experimental control. 10. What two problems can occur if the criterion changes are too large from one phase to another?


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ANSWER KEY Multiple Choice 1. A 2. B 3. C 4. D 5. A 6. A 7. C 8. D 9. B 10. C 11. D True/False 1. TRUE. 2. FALSE. The possibility of co-variation between different behaviors is a limitation of a multiple baseline design. 3. TRUE. 4. FALSE. The fact that the behavior must already be in the participant’s repertoire is a limitation of the changing criterion design. 5. FALSE. Conducting a reversal phase in one or more tiers of a multiple baseline design can strengthen the demonstration of a functional relation. Short Answer/Essay 1. Answer should include: multiple baseline across behaviors to evaluate effects of intervention on two or more different behaviors of the same participant; multiple baseline across settings to evaluate effects of intervention on the same behavior of the same participant in two or more different settings; and a multiple baseline across participants design to evaluate the same behavior of two or more different participants. 2. Answer should include: Experimental control is demonstrated when each behavior is changed when and only when the independent variable is applied to the new setting. 3. Answer should include: One condition, multiple probe design is effective for evaluating the effects of instruction on skill sequences in which it is highly unlikely that the participant’s performance on later steps of the sequence could improve without instruction or mastery of earlier steps. A second condition is when prolonged baseline measurement may prove reactive, impractical, or too costly. 4. Answer should include: Limitations include (a) having to wait too long to modify


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certain behaviors, (b) a tendency for baseline phases to contain too few data points and (c) the fact that baselines begun after the independent variable has been applied to earlier baselines can mask the interdependence of behaviors. 5. Answer should include: Two or more different behaviors for one participant are selected and baseline measurement for each behavior is conducted. After steady state responding is obtained in baseline, the independent variable is applied to one behavior while maintaining baseline conditions for the other(s). When steady state or criterion-level performance is reached for the first behavior, the independent variable is applied to the next behavior. 6. Answer should include: A multiple probe design is used to analyze the relationship between an independent variable and the acquisition of a successive approximation or a sequence of behaviors. Intermittent measures, or probes, are taken on all behaviors at beginning of experiment. Probes are then taken each time the participant has achieved mastery of one of the behaviors or skills in the sequence. Just prior to instruction on each behavior, a true baseline measure is taken until stability is achieved. 7. Answer should include: Baselines begun after the independent variable has been applied to previous behaviors, settings, or subjects cannot be used to verify predictions based on earlier tiers of the design. Only baselines begun while the earlier behavior is still under baseline conditions can be used to verify predictions made for earlier behaviors. 8. Answer should include: Three situations include when a planned reversal is not desired or possible, limited resources preclude a full-scale multiple baseline design, and a new behavior, setting, or subject appropriate for a multiple baseline analysis becomes available. 9. Answer should include: the length of the phases, the magnitude of the criterion changes, and the number of criterion changes. 10. Answer should include: First problem is that large changes may not permit the inclusion of a sufficient number of changes in the design because the terminal level of performance is reached sooner. The second problem is that criterion changes cannot be so large that they contradict good instructional practices. They changes must be detectable but achievable.


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Chapter 10: Test Bank Multiple Choice 1. The subject matter of behavior analysis is the: a. Activity of living organisms b. Challenging behavior of individuals with disabilities c. Conditioned behavior d. Effective behavior change treatments 2. All of the following are concerns with typical group-comparison designs except a. Group data may not represent the performance of individuals b. Group data masks variability c. Performance averages are not statistically significant d. Intrasubject replication is not present 3. All of the following are elements of baseline-logic except a. Prediction b. Functional Relation c. Replication d. Verification 4. The term used to signify a researcher’s ability to reliably produce a specified behavior change by manipulating an independent variable is a. Internal validity b. External validity c. Control of behavior d. Experimental control 5. All of the following are potential confounds to internal validity except a. Generalization b. Maturation c. Observer drift d. Treatment drift 6. The extent to which the independent variable is implemented as planned is called a. Treatment integrity b. Procedural fidelity c. Experimental control d. Both A and B e. Both A and C 7. Which of the following is not a measure of the social validity of in applied behavior analysis? a. The social significance of the target behavior b. The appropriateness of the procedures


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c. The magnitude of behavior change d. The social importance of the results 8. The generality of research findings in applied behavior analysis is assessed, established, and specified through a. Verification of baseline logic b. Replication c. Social validation d. External validity 9. The most frequently used method of demonstrating generality in the applied behavior analysis research literature is a. Direct replication b. Systematic replication c. Intrasubject verification d. Treatment reversal 10. In order to evaluate the internal validity of applied behavior analysis research, all of the following should be considered except a. Meaningfulness of baseline conditions b. Experimental design c. Measurement procedures d. Conceptual sense True/False 1. TRUE OR FALSE. Statistical manipulation can control the variables responsible for variability in the data. 2. TRUE OR FALSE. With proper experimental design, the experimenter can control all aspects of a subject’s behavior. 3. TRUE OR FALSE. Placebo control is designed to separate any effects that may be produced by a subject’s expectations of improvement due to treatment from actual effects of treatment. 4. TRUE OR FALSE. External validity refers to the degree to which a functional relation found reliable and socially valid in one circumstance will hold under different conditions. 5. TRUE OR FALSE. All studies that demonstrate a functional relation between the independent variable and a socially important target behavior make a significant contribution to the field of applied behavior analysis. Short Answer 1. Explain why the behavior of individual subjects is of primary interest in applied behavior analysis. 2. Compare the different ways that variability in the data is treated with individual subject designs and group comparison designs.


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3. What are two reasons that is it important to know the individual tactics of experimental designs even though there are no strict rules for experimental design in applied behavior analysis? 4. Define treatment drift and explain the threat it poses to research outcomes. 5. Why is a precise operational definition of the target behavior critical in applied behavior analysis? 6. Define external validity and describe how the generality of research findings is established in applied behavior analysis. 7. Describe three methods for measuring social validity of a behavior change. 8. Compare and contrast two methods for validating the social importance of behavior change. 9. What are the four factors that favor visual analysis of data over tests of statistical significance in applied behavior analysis? 10. Baer, Wolf, and Risley (1987) argue that applied behavior analysis must shift its emphasis away from simply demonstrating behavior change. What is the more important focus in their opinion?


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ANSWER KEY Multiple Choice 1. A 2. C 3. B 4. D 5. A 6. D 7. C 8. B 9. B 10. D True/False 1. FALSE. Attempting to cancel out variability through statistical manipulation neither eliminates its presence in the data nor controls the variables responsible for it. 2. FALSE. The phrase control of behavior is technically inaccurate because the experimenter controls only some aspect of the subject’s environment. 3. TRUE. 4. TRUE. 5. FALSE. A study can demonstrate a functional relation between the independent variable and a socially important target behavior – and thus be significant from an applied perspective – and yet contribute little to the advancement of the field. Short Answer/Essay 1. Answer should include: A focus on individual subject behavior has enabled behavior analysts to discover and refine effective interventions for a range of socially significant behavior. The most useful information about a treatment is how individuals who have come in contact with it are affected by it. Information on group performance averages does not provide useful information for developing behavior change interventions. 2. Answer should include: Individual subject designs attempt to identify sources of variability and either control or manipulated them as an independent variable. Data that contains a lot of variability is likely to indicate to the behavior analyst that more research is required to identify the sources of that variability. In group comparison designs, statistical manipulation is used to cancel out variability. Causes of variability are attributed to chance and are not identified through statistical treatments.


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3. Answer should include: First, the majority of studies that have advanced the field of applied behavior analysis have used experimental designs that incorporated one or more of those tactics. Second, examination of isolated experimental tactics is one step in learning the assumptions and principles that guide selection and arrangement of those tactics into an effective experimental design for a particular research question. 4. Answer should include: Treatment drift occurs when the application of the independent variable during later stages of the experiment differs from the way the treatment as applied at the outset of the study. Treatment drift is a threat to the internal validity of a study. Low treatment integrity is a major source of confound in an experiment, making it difficult, or impossible, to interpret the results with confidence. 5. Answer should include: External validity refers to the degree to which a functional relation found reliable and socially valid in a given experiment will hold under different conditions. The generality of findings in applied behavior analysis research is assessed, established, and specified through replication of experiments, both direct and systematic. 6. Answer should include: A complete and precise operational definition is the first step to achieving a high level of treatment integrity. It provides the basis for training for those who will implement the intervention and those who will judge the level of treatment integrity obtained. Precise definitions are a requisite for meeting technological dimension of applied behavior analysis. Failure to provide a precise operational definition hampers dissemination and proper use of the intervention. Lack of one makes replication and validation of the experiment impossible. 7. Answer should include three of the following: Seeking consumer opinion through surveys, questionnaires, performance scales, or interviews; empirically assessing the performance of individuals judged to be highly competent and experimentally manipulating different levels of performance to determine socially valid outcomes; comparing participants’ performance to normative standards; using a standardized assessment tool; asking experts to evaluate participant performance; testing participants’ new behavior in the natural environment. 8. Answer should include: The use of normative samples compares participants’ performance to the performance of a normative sample group; consumer opinion of behavior change and treatments can be assessed through questionnaires or interviews; an expert in the field can be called upon to judge the social validity of a some behavior changes; a standardized test instrument can be used to assess a participant’s performance or behavior in a particular area; the real world test involves assessing a participant’s newly acquired level of performance in the natural environment to evaluate mastery and generalization of the behavior change. 9. Answer should include: First, applied behavior analysts are concerned with


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producing socially significant, not statistically significant change. If a problem is solved, you can see that in the data. If the change is so small or unclear that statistical treatment is necessary, the problem has not been solved. Second, visual analysis is well suited for identifying variables that produce strong, large, and reliable results. Less likely to produce Type I and Type II errors. Third, statistical methods remove or cancel out variability in the data. If there is a significant amount of variability, more analysis should be conducted as the answer to the problem is not yet clear. Fourth, statistical tests require the data to conform to predetermined criteria for analysis. This results in less flexibility in experimental design which is highly valued in applied behavior analysis. 10. Answer should include: A more complete analysis and conceptual understanding of the principles that underlie successful demonstrations of behavior change. The field’s concept of analytic has changed. Applied behavior analysis is now considered analytic when it makes convincing demonstrations of behavior change and when the behavior change methods make systematic and conceptual sense. It must now be clear why things have worked.

ABA Instructor Manual8113-2011

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