QUÍMICA
3 Secundaria
Primer Bimestre
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Índice Pág
Capítulo
1.
Introducción
7
Capítulo
2.
Estructura Estruc tura Molecula Molecularr
15
Capítulo
3.
Números Cuánti Cuánticos cos
21
Capítulo
4.
Configuración Electrónica
27
Capítulo
5.
Tabl abla a Peri Periódic ódica aI
33
Capítulo
6.
Tabl abla a Peri Periódic ódica a II
40
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Colegio “SANTIAGO ANTÚNEZ DE MAYOLO”
Q uímica
CAPÍTULO
1
Introducción
QUÍMICA La Química es la ciencia natural, netamente experimental, que estudia la materia, su composición, sus propiedades, su estructura, los cambios que experimenta y las variaciones de energía que acompañan a dichos procesos. El universo está constituido por materia y energía, siendo ambas manifestaciones diferentes de una misma existencia.
LA MATERIA Es todo aquello que tiene masa y ocupa un lugar en el espacio (presenta inercia y extensión) e impresiona a nuestros sentidos.
materia cuerpo partículas moléculas iones átomos partículas subatómicas
NATURALEZA CORPUSCULAR DE LA MATERIA Está comprobado experimentalmente, en incontables ocasiones, que la materia está constituida por partículas, es decir,, aunque parezca continua y sin interrupción, realmente decir es discontinua y consta de partículas discretas (electrón, protón y neutrón).
CLASIFICACIÓN DE LA MA MATERIA TERIA La forma más directa de iniciar el estudio de la química es examinar algunas formas fundamentales de clasificar y describir la materia. Éstas se pueden basar en su estado físico, en su composición, o de acuerdo al objeto de nuestro estudio.
ESTADOS DE AGREGACIÓN ESTADOS AGREGA CIÓN DE LA MATERIA protón
La materia se presenta en tres estados fundamentales: sólido, líquido y gaseoso, los que se denominan estados de agregación o estados físicos. físicos . Cada estado particular resulta de la acción de dos tipos de fuerzas que se presentan
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Las fuerzas de atracción tienden a unir a las moléculas, de tal manera que ocupen el menor espacio posible, mientras que las fuerzas de repulsión tienden a separarlas. De la intensidad de estos dos tipos de fuerzas dependen los estados físicos de la materia.
Los cuerpos en Estado Gaseoso no presentan forma o volumen propios, adecuándose a la forma y volumen del recipiente que los contiene. Son fácilmente compresibles. compresibles. En ellos, las fuerzas de repulsión molecular prevalecen sobre las de atracción.
Sólido
Fuerza de atracción >> Fuerza de repulsión
Líquido
Fuerza de atracción = Fuerza de repulsión repulsión
Gaseoso
Fuerza de atracción << Fuerza de repulsión
CAMBIOS DE ESTADO Un mismo cuerpo, por efectos de la variación de la temperatura o de la presión, puede pasar de un estado de agregación a otro. Dichos cambios de estado reciben los siguientes nombres: fusión, solidificación, vaporización, licuación y sublimación.
Los sólidos que se encuentran con más frecuencia, como la sal, el azúcar, el cuarzo y los metales son cristalinos cristalinos,, y muestran un orden geométrico en sus partículas. Sólidos como los plásticos, el vidrio y las pastas, se llaman amorfas porque no tienen una configuración interna geométrica regular (amorfo quiere decir ‘‘sin forma’’). En cambio, en los estados líquido y gaseoso, la disposición de las moléculas es más o menos desordenada.
SÓLIDO
LÍQUIDO
GASEOSO ESTADO SÓLIDO
Los cuerpos en Estado Sólido poseen forma propia, la que dentro de ciertos límites subsiste, aun cuando existan fuerzas exteriores que tiendan a deformarlos. Tienen volumen propio. En ellos, las fuerzas de atracción que actúan entre las moléculas prevalecen sobre las de repulsión. Los cuerpos en Estado Líquido no poseen forma propia, aunque sí volumen propio. Adoptan la forma del recipiente que los contiene. Cuando se hallan en reposo,
ESTADO LÍQUIDO
ESTADO ESTA DO GASEOSO
Según el programa de las Naciones Naciones Unidas para la Protección del Medio Ambiente; cada año se
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MEZCLAS Y SUSTANCIAS Diariamente nos ponemos en contacto con incontables tipos de materia. El aire, los alimentos, el agua, las rocas, el suelo, el vidrio y este libro son todos diferentes tipos de materia. De acuerdo a su composición, la materia puede clasificarse según se indica en el siguiente cuadro: UNIVERSO
MATERIA
ENERGÍA Elementos
Oxígeno, carbono, plata, hierro, etc.
Compuestos
Agua, sal de mesa, amoniaco, alcohol, etc.
Mezclas Homogéneas (Soluciones)
Azúcar en agua, vodka, gasolina, etc.
Mezclas Heterogéneas
Pan de pasas, polvo, granito, madera, etc.
Sustancias puras
Toda la materia
Mezclas
UNIVERSO
ELEMENTO
En general es todo aquello que nos rodea. El universo está constituido por materia y energía, siendo ambas manifestaciones diferentes de una misma existencia.
Sustancia que no puede descomponerse en sustancias más simples mediante ensayos químicos. Ejemplo: aluminio, nitrógeno, etc. Se le representa por un símbolo. Actualmente se conocen 112. COMPUESTO Sustancia constituida por 2 o más tipos de elementos diferentes en una relación definida que queda explícita en una fórmula.
SUSTANCIAS
Pueden descomponerse por medios químicos en sustancias más simples y/o elementos. Estos componentes más sencillos
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EJERCICIOS RESUELTOS
MEZCLA Materia conformada por 2 o más sustancias en proporciones variables (aunque puede determinarse su composición). No se le puede representar por una fórmula química. Los componentes de una mezcla pueden separarse mediante métodos físicos. Los componentes al formar la mezcla no pierden su identidad, es decir, no se transforman en nuevas sustancias. sustancias. Se clasifican clasi fican en homogéneas y heterogéneas. Ejemplo: aire, agua de mar, etc. MEZCLA HOMOGÉNEA Mezclas que presentan una sola fase. Suelen denominarse soluciones. Ejemplo: azúcar disuelto en agua, gaseosas (Inca Kola, Ko la, Coca Cola), etc.
Ejemplo 1 Clasifica las siguientes mezclas en homogéneas y heterogéneas. a) b) c) d)
Petróleo y agua. Petróleo Aceite y vinagre doméstico. Azúcar totalmente totalmente disuelta en agua. Agua y alcohol.
Solución: Homogéneas : c y d Heterogéneas: a y b
Ejemplo 2 De las siguientes afirmaciones, ¿cuáles son verdaderas? a) Los compuestos están formados formados por una sola clase de de átomos. b) Un compuesto tiene una composición constante y definida. c) Una mezcla puede ser separada por por operaciones físicas simples. Solución: MEZCLA HETEROGÉNEA Mezcla que no presenta uniformidad de las propiedades en toda su extensión, es es decir, decir, presentan dos o más fases. Ejemplo: granito, mezcla de limaduras de hierro y oro, etc.
Sólo b y c.
Ejemplo 3 Se encierran herméticamente en un frasco una muestra de agua helada y un trozo de hielo. Si se conoce que los líquidos se evaporan a cualquier temperatura, ¿cuántas fases hay en el sistema? (excluya el recipiente), y ¿cuántas sustancias? Solución: El sistema es heterogéneo, donde existen tres fases: el agua líquida, el agua sólida (hielo) y el vapor de agua. Sólo hay una sustancia, por lo tanto no es una mezcla.
Demostración
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Resolviendo en clase 1
Completa los cuadros vacíos.
3
Completa los cuadros. 3
SÓLIDO
4
Gas
Sólido
LÍQUIDO
1
2
5
6
GASEOSO Líquido
Sólido
1. ____________________________________ 2. ____________________________________ 3. ____________________________________ 4. ____________________________________ 5. ____________________________________ 6. ____________________________________
Licuación Gas Resolución:
Resolución:
Rpta:
2
Rpta:
Indica verdadero (V) o falso (F), según corresponda. Una mezcla mezcla heterogénea heterogénea es el agua potable.( ) Una mezcla homogénea es el acero.
4
Coloca los ejemplos dados en la siguiente clasificación: – Latón – ZnCl2 – Agua y aceite – Ag
( ) MATERIA
El cobre es una sustancia sustancia compuesta.
( )
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5
Relaciona usando flechas.
6
Fósforo Blanco
Mezcla Homogénea
Cal Viva
Cambio Químicoo Químic
Vaporización del Agua
Sustancia Simple
Relaciona mediante flechas:
Cambio Físico
Bronce
Glucosa
Mezcla
Grafito
Compuesto
Vino
Sustancia Simple
Resolución:
Fotosíntesis
Compuesto
Resolución: Rpta:
Rpta:
Ahora en tu cuaderno
7. Completa: 7. El agua regia está formada por una mezcla de _________________ y __________________. *
De la lectura siguiente: El estaño, se conoce desde hace por lo menos 5500 años. El mineral más conocido de estaño es el SnO 2, conocido como casiterita. Desde la antigüedad se
8. Enumera las sustancias simples.
9. Enumera los compuestos químicos.
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11. Enumera los cambios químicos.
12. Enumera los cambios físicos.
Para reforzar
1. Señala una mezcla homogénea: a) Gelatina d) Gaseosa
b) Amalgama c) Grafito e) Alcohol
2. Señala una sustancia simple: a) C, Mg, K d) CH3
b) CH4
3. Indica una fuente de energía: a) b) c) d) e)
Física química Solar Sublimación Evaporización Licuación
c) H2O e) ZnCl2
4. Del ENUNCIADO 1: ¿En cuál de las tres faces la fuerza de cohesión será mayor? a) Liquida c) Plasmatico d) Ultrafrio
b) Gaseosa e) Solido
5. Del ENUNCIADO 1: ¿En cuál de las tres faces la fuerza de repulsión será mayor? a) Liquida c) Plasmatico d) Ultrafrio
b) Gaseosa e) Solido
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*
ENUNCIADO 2:
9. Del ENUNCIADO 2: Señala un cambio químico.
Los licores son bebidas alcohólicas que llevan azúcar y productos aromáticos tales como extractos de plantas y frutas. En la antigüedad se sabía que tenía la propiedad de arder cuando se vertía sobre piedras incandescentes. En la Edad Media se descubrieron los principios físicos de la destilación, lo que permitió que los alquimistas de la época llevaran a cabo la separación de los componentes volátiles (alcohólicos) de los no volátiles (extracto) del vino. Por otra parte, solo se pueden usar aparatos y recipientes que no tengan hierro ni zinc, porque los ácidos de las frutas reaccionan con estos metales. El zumo se oscurecería mucho y no sería apto para el consumo. 7. Del ENUNCIADO 2: Señala una mezcla.
a) Zn d) Cl2
b) Vino
c) SnO2 e) Cu
8. Del ENUNCIADO 2: Señala un compuesto.
a) Zn d) Cl2
b) Vino
c) SnO2 e) Cu
a) N2+H2= H2 O b) Zn + Fe = Latón c) C + Zn = Amalgama d) Cu+Sn=Bronce e) N. A.
10. Del ENUNCIADO 2: Señala un cambio físico. a) b) c) d) e)
Se oxidan los metales El Papel Papel se quema El Bronce se vuelve polvo a 13°C La sublimación de solido a liquido N. A.
11. El latón está formado por una aleación de 11. ________________ y ______________ . a) C – Fe d) Cu – Fe
b) Fe – Zn
c) Cl – N2 e) N. A
12. El acero está formado por una aleación de 12. _______________ y ______________ . a) C – Fe d) Cu – Fe
b) Cu – Zn
c) Cl – N2 e) N. A
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Colegio “SANTIAGO ANTÚNEZ DE MAYOLO”
Q uímica
CAPÍTULO
2
Estructura Molecular
CONCEPTO La palabra átomo fue propuesta por los griegos Leucipo y Demócrito (A = sin, TOMO = división), división), considerando que la materia estaba constituida por átomos y que éstos eran indivisibles. Planteaban la discontinuidad de la materia.
Litio
Proceso Mecánico
Átomo de Litio
Observamos :
Protones = 3 = Z Neutrones= 4 = n 7 = A
Se deduce:
A = Z + n°
Donde: Z : Carga Nuclear n° : Número de Neutrones A : Número de Masa NOTACIÓN :
Partículas
A Z E
A : Número de masa Z : Número atómico
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ÁTOMOS NEUTROS. Se cumple: # protones = # electrones = Z ISÓTOPOS (Z) 1 1 H
2 1 H
3 1 H
Protio
Deuterio
Tritio
12 6 C
13 6 C
14 6 C
Según aseguran los historiadores, la ciencia tal y como la describimos hoy nace en Grecia hace unos 2500 años con Tales de Mileto. Puede que eso sea hilar muy fino pero lo cierto es que los griegos aportaron muchos de los pilares de la ciencia actual. Intentaron dar una explicación a todo lo que les rodeaba sin derivar hacia el misticismo, tratando casi siempre de ser lo más racionales posibles.
ISÓBAROS (A) 40 20 Ca
40 18Ca
55 24 Cr
55 25Mn
ISÓTONOS (nº) 23 11 Na
24 12Mg
IONES CATIÓN
ANIÓN
# prot protone oness > # elec electro trones nes
# elect electron rones es > # pro protone toness
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Colegio “SANTIAGO ANTÚNEZ DE MAYOLO”
EJERCICIOS RESUELTOS
Ejemplo 3 Si un átomo pierde 2 electrones, ¿disminuye su número atómico?
Ejemplo 1 El átomo 53A posee 27 neutrones y es isótopo con el A 2+. Halla el número de electrones de A2–.
Solución: «No», ya que el número atómico no cambia por la pérdida de electrones.
Solución: Ejemplo 4 Sabemos que: 53 ZA →
53 – Z = 27
→
Z = 26
Como son isótopos se conserva el valor de Z. Z. 2+ 26A
26A
°
2– 26A
(posee 24e–) → (posee 26e–)→(posee 28e–) ∴
A2– posee 28 electrones.
Ejemplo 2 Relaciona: I) Átomos con igual número atómico atómico pero diferente
Si
40 +2 20X
halla la suma de partículas fundamentales. Solución: Las partículas fundamentales son: p+ = 20 nº = 40 –20 = 20 e– = 20 – 2 = 18 Suma : 20 + 20 + 18 = 58 Ejemplo 5 Si
50 X 20
isótono
halla los nucleones de «Y».
21Y
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Colegio “SANTIAGO ANTÚNEZ DE MAYOLO”
Resolviendo en clase 1
Halla p++ n° + e– en Resolución:
40
Ca+2
20
3
+ Si p = 3 ,además el número n0 5
de neutrones es 80. Halla las partículas neutras. Resolución:
Rpta:
Rpta:
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Colegio “SANTIAGO ANTÚNEZ DE MAYOLO”
5
Halla los neutrones de L. 30X
isoelectrónico
Resolución:
Rpta:
Ahora en tu cuaderno
6
Halla el número de masa masa de L.
66L+2
15L
isótono
Resolución:
Rpta:
18 J
isóbaro
39 K
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Colegio “SANTIAGO ANTÚNEZ DE MAYOLO”
Para reforzar 35 1. Indica la carga nuclear del núclido 17 Cl .
a) 15 d) 16
b) 35
c) 17 e) 18
p+ 3 2. Si n = 4 y A = 70, halla los protones. a) 10 d) 70
b) 60
c) 30 e) 50
3. En el núclido 4b +3b1X + 3 n° =10, halla los electrones. a) 21 d) 25
b) 24
c) 22 e) 23
4. Un átomo neutro tiene 55 electrones y su su número número de masa es el doble más 8 unidades que su número atómico. Halla el número de neutrones.
7. Tres isótopos poseen números de masa consecutivos y presentan en total 123 neutrones. Calcula el número de neutrones del isótopo pesado. a) 41 d) 39
b) 43
c) 40 e) 42
8. Un catión divalente presenta 78 electrones y 120 neutrones. Calcula su número de masa. a) 198 d) 194
b) 196
c) 200 e) 205
9. Un elemento químico posee 2 isótopos cuyos números de masa son 80 y 82, respectivamente. Si el número total de neutrones es 92, calcula el número atómico del elemento. a) 31 d) 35
b) 34
c) 32 e) 33
10. La suma de los los cuadrados de de los números de masa
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Colegio “SANTIAGO ANTÚNEZ DE MAYOLO”
Q uímica
CAPÍTULO
3
Números Cuánticos
NÚMEROS CUÁNTICOS Son conjuntos de números que describe los posibles estados del electrón. DENOMINACIÓN
SIGNIFICADO
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Colegio “SANTIAGO ANTÚNEZ DE MAYOLO”
C) NÚMERO CUÁNTICO MAGNÉTICOP (ml) Nos indica indica la orientación del orbital orbital en en el espacio para cada cada subnivel subnivel de de energía. energía.
–l
≤
m
≤
+l
D) NÚMERO CUÁNTICO DE SPIN (ms) El spin representa dos estados posibles del electrón, por lo tanto, asume 2 valores.
ms= +1/2
ms= –1/2
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Colegio “SANTIAGO ANTÚNEZ DE MAYOLO”
EJERCICIOS RESUELTOS Ejemplo 1 Halla los números cuánticos del Z= 1. n= 1 2 3 4
Ejemplo 3 Halla los electrones como máximo para el subnivel l = 1. Solución: #e– max = 2(2l + 1) = 2(2(1)+1) = 6
– núcleo
Ejemplo 4
Solución:
Hallar los 4 números cuánticos del último electrón para 4p5.
Su número cuántico principal es 1 porque este electrón se ubica en el primer nivel de energía. Su número cuántico secundario es ‘‘0’’, porque este electrón se encuentra en un subnivel de forma esférica que le corresponde el número cuántico cero.
Solución: n=4 m
l = 1
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Colegio “SANTIAGO ANTÚNEZ DE MAYOLO”
Resolviendo en clase 1
El número de orbitales para para l = 3 es: Resolución:
3
La forma geométrica del subnivel l = 2 es: Resolución:
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Colegio “SANTIAGO ANTÚNEZ DE MAYOLO”
5
Halla m y ms para 6p4 del penúltimo electrón. l
Resolución:
6
Halla la energía relativa para para 3d2 y 4p4. Resolución:
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Colegio “SANTIAGO ANTÚNEZ DE MAYOLO”
Para reforzar
1. Indica los valores de «n», «l» y «m » para un orbital 3p. l
a) 3, 0, 0, –1/2
b) 4, 0, 1, –1/2
7. Halla los 4 números cuánticos para el penúltimo electrón en 6p6. a) 6, 2, 0, –1/2 c) 6, 1, –1, +1/2
b) 6, 1, +1, –1/2
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Colegio “SANTIAGO ANTÚNEZ DE MAYOLO”
CAPÍTULO
4
Q uímica
Configuración Electrónica
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Colegio “SANTIAGO ANTÚNEZ DE MAYOLO”
REGLA DE SARRUS O MOLLER (SERRUCHO) Los electrones se distribuyen en las diferentes regiones de menor a mayor energía relativa. Nivel n
K 1 s2
L 2 s2
M 3
N 4
O 5
s2
s2
s2
P 6
Q 7 s2
s2
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Colegio “SANTIAGO ANTÚNEZ DE MAYOLO”
Ejemplo 3
Ejemplo 5
Determina el número de niveles y subniveles ocupados para la siguiente distribución electrónica: 17Cl = 1s
22s22p63s23p5
3 niveles ocupados 5 subniveles ocupados
En el orbital 3px hay 2 electrones apareados, los orbitales 3p y y 3pz contienen 1 electrón electrón desapareado cada uno. ¿Qué subnivel posee mayor energía relativa? a) 3s b) 4d c) 4p
d) 5s e) 1s
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Colegio “SANTIAGO ANTÚNEZ DE MAYOLO”
Resolviendo en clase 1
Indica verdadero (V) o falso (F): En la te terce rcera ra cap capaa hay com comoo máxi máximo mo 18 electrones.
3
(
)
Para Z = 10, la C.E. correcta es: a) 1s2 2s2 2p8 b) 1s2 2s2 2p6
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