Uma Sekaran

SUMMARY: UMA SEKARAN

CHAPTER

I

WHAT IS RESEARCH??? Research: is Research: is simply the process of finding solutions to a problem after a thorough study and analysis of the situational factors.

Business Business research: research: system systemati atic c and and organi organized zed effort effort to inves investig tigate ate a specif specific ic problem encountered in the work setting, that needs a solution. It comprises a series of steps designed and executed, with the goal of finding answers to the issues that are of concern to the manager in the work environment.

Business Business research: research: organized, systematic, data-based critical, objective, scientific inquir inquiry y or inve investi stigat gation ion into into a specif specific ic probl problem, em, undert undertak aken en with with the purpos purpose e of finding answers or solutions to it.

Yeah, ga usah bingung sama yang namanya mahluk bernama PENELITIAN. Intinya: penelitian itu kan nyelidikin suatu nyelidikin suatu masalah buat masalah buat nemuin solusi nemuin solusi nya. nya. Prosesnya ga jauh beda sama usaha kita nyari kebenaran suatu gossip atau ari in!o tentang oran orang g yang yang kita kita gebe gebet. t. "eda "edany nya: a: #I$E #I$ET T "I$N "I$NI$ I$ ini ini haru harus s diker dikerja jain in sea seara ra sistematis , datanya jelas, dan ada dalil%dalil keilmuan yang sudah diakui dan terbukti keabsahannya. $antai& semua orang pasti bisa menaklukan binatang yang bernama PENELITIAN ini' khususnya $(#IP$I )buat mahasis*a $+. -hayo Pasti bisa

TYPE OF BUSINESS RESEARCH wo different purpses ! research! research ! •

to solve a current problem faced by the manager in the work setting, demanding a timely solution" )applied researh. researh .

•

to generate a body of knowledge by trying to comprehend how certain problems that occur in organizations can be solved" )basi researh. researh .

App"ie# research: research research: research done with the intention of applying the results of the findings to solve specific problems currently being experienced in the organization.

FITRI UTAMI NIN$RUM %&%'%%())* +%%,-+%%* 5h Se.aran/ U0a1 2+%%341 Research Me5h#s !r Business/ ' E#1 USA: Wi"e6


Basic7!un#a Basic7!un#a0en5a 0en5a"7pur "7pure e

research: research: res researc earch h

done done chie chiefl fly y

to enha enhanc nce e

the the

understanding of certain problems that commonly occur in organizational settings, and seek methods of solving them.

CHAPTER

II

THE HA88MARKS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH he main distinguishing charac5eris5ics of charac5eris5ics of scien5i!ic research! research! #. Purpsi9eness: started Purpsi9eness: started the research with a definite aim or purpose, purposive focus $. Rir: caref carefuln ulness ess,, scrupu scrupulou lousne sness, ss, the degree degree of exacti exactitud tude e in resear research ch investigations. investigations. %ood theoretical base and a sound methodological design &. Tes5a;i"i56: researcher Tes5a;i"i56: researcher develops certain hypotheses, hypotheses, then these can be tested by applying certain statistical tests to the data collected for the purpose '. Rep"ica;i"i56: the Rep"ica;i"i56: the results of the tests of hypotheses should be supported again and yet again again when when the same type of resear research ch is repeated repeated in other other simila similarr circumtances )1 Precis Precisin in an# an# cn! cn!i#e i#ence nce:: •

Precisin: the closene closeness ss of the findings findings to (reali (reality) ty) based on a sample sample.. *eflects the degree of accuracy or axactitude of the results on the basis of the sample + to what really exist in the universe

•

Cn!i#ence: the Cn!i#ence: the probability that our estimations are correct

. O;

Basic7!un#a Basic7!un#a0en5a 0en5a"7pur "7pure e

research: research: res researc earch h

done done chie chiefl fly y

to enha enhanc nce e

the the

understanding of certain problems that commonly occur in organizational settings, and seek methods of solving them.

CHAPTER

II

THE HA88MARKS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH he main distinguishing charac5eris5ics of charac5eris5ics of scien5i!ic research! research! #. Purpsi9eness: started Purpsi9eness: started the research with a definite aim or purpose, purposive focus $. Rir: caref carefuln ulness ess,, scrupu scrupulou lousne sness, ss, the degree degree of exacti exactitud tude e in resear research ch investigations. investigations. %ood theoretical base and a sound methodological design &. Tes5a;i"i56: researcher Tes5a;i"i56: researcher develops certain hypotheses, hypotheses, then these can be tested by applying certain statistical tests to the data collected for the purpose '. Rep"ica;i"i56: the Rep"ica;i"i56: the results of the tests of hypotheses should be supported again and yet again again when when the same type of resear research ch is repeated repeated in other other simila similarr circumtances )1 Precis Precisin in an# an# cn! cn!i#e i#ence nce:: •

Precisin: the closene closeness ss of the findings findings to (reali (reality) ty) based on a sample sample.. *eflects the degree of accuracy or axactitude of the results on the basis of the sample + to what really exist in the universe

•

Cn!i#ence: the Cn!i#ence: the probability that our estimations are correct

. O;

The reasn !r !"">in a scien5i!ic 0e5h# is 5ha5 5he resu"5s >i"" ;e "ess prne 5 errrs an# 0re cn!i#ence can ;e p"ace# in 5he !in#ins ;ecause ! 5he rea5er rea5er rir in app"ica5i app"ica5in n ! 5he #esin #esin #e5ai"s1 This a"s increases increases 5he rep"ica;i"i56 an# enera"i=a;i"i56 ! 5he !in#ins1 /aka /a kany nya, a, ikut ikutin in deh deh atur aturan an sie sient nti! i!i i meth method od.. Ibar Ibarat atny nya, a, mene meneli liti ti juga juga ada ada rukunn rukunnya' ya' sama sama kayak kayak shola sholat. t. (alo (alo kita kita sholat sholat rukunn rukunnya ya berant berantaka akan, n, ga tertib tertib urutan 0 ga teratur, kan sholatnya jadi ga karuan tu&. 1a jelas juntrungannya. "isa% bisa ga ada artinya or ga ada nilainya. Prinsip 2harus bertindak sesuai rukun3 juga berlaku dalam melakukan penelitian.

BUI8IN$ B8OCKS OF SCIENCE IN RESEARCH e#uc5in: the process process by which which we arriv arrive e at a reason reasoned ed concl conclusi usion on by logica logicall generalization of a known fact.

In#uc5in: a In#uc5in: a process where we observe certain phenomena and on this basis arrive at conclusions.

HYPOTHETICO-EUCTI@E METHO  s5eps in s5eps in the hypothetico-deductiv hypothetico-deductive e method! #. /bs /bserv ervation tion $. 0relim 0relimina inary ry informa informatio tion n gather gathering ing &. heo heory ry form formul ulat atio ion n '. 1ypo 1ypoth thes esiz izin ing g 2. 3urthe 3urtherr scienti scientific fic data data collec collectio tion n . 4ata 4ata anal analys ysis is . 4eduction

CHAPTER I@

RESEARCH PROCESS Research prcess for prcess for basic and applied research! #. O;ser9a5in: broad O;ser9a5in: broad area of research interest identified $. Pre"i0inar6 #a5a a5herin: interviewing, a5herin: interviewing, literature survey &. Pr;"e0 #e!ini5in: research #e!ini5in: research problem delineated FITRI UTAMI NIN$RUM %&%'%%())* +%%,-+%%* 5h Se.aran/ U0a1 2+%%341 Research Me5h#s !r Business/ ' E#1 USA: Wi"e6


'. There5ica" !ra0e>r.: variables clearly identified and labeled )1 $enera5in ! h6p5heses: &1 Scien5i!ic research #esin: 1 a5a c""ec5in/ ana"6sis/ an# in5erpre5a5in: . e#uc5in: hypotheses substantiated5 *esearch question answered5 (alau pada tahap ini hipotesis dan pertanyaan permasalahan belum terja*ab, maka kita harus kembali ke proses 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, atau pun 9. Yang sabar ya say&  (alau sudah terja*ab, ya lanjut ke tahap selanjutnya' *1 Repr5 >ri5in: (%1Repr5 presen5a5in: ((1Manaeria" #ecisin 0a.in:

Yeah, tahap pertama pasti obserasi dulu. 1ue inget banget, *aktu pertama%tama dulu gue bilang mau ngangkat (ampung "eta*i buat objek penelitian. As*in bilang 2gini deh (amu obserasi dulu tu (ampung "eta*i selama seminggu penuh berturut%turut. (alo perlu, lo ga pulang%pulang, diem aja lo disana. Liatin orang% orang yang dateng, ada apa aja disana, ngapain aja, mereka dateng dari mana, pokoknya perhatiin apa aja yang terjadi di sana3. 1a berenti sampe disitu 1ue disuruh *a*anara si empunya yang berkuasa di (ampung "eta*i itu. Tanya tentang (ampung "eta*i, seara implisit tanyain juga masalah apa yang dihadapi sama (ampung "eta*i, gali sebanyak%banyaknya in!ormasi' untuk memahami objek penelitian lo. ;an yang ga kalah penting: tanyain mereka punya data%data sesuai kebutuhan lo ga' mereka bisa kasih data itu ke lo ga. Ini penting (alo mereka ga bisa kasih data sesuai kebutuhan lo, batalkan niat lo buat ngangkat tu objek. 1ue saranin )sangat lo ganti objek aja. ;aripada tar lo repot belakangan, mending antisipasi dari a*al khan


4espite the fact that the research model is depicted and discussed in this book as if it were a step-by-step linear process, one has to bear in mind that it is not actually so in practice. 3or example, though the literature search and interviews might have been conducted before formulating the theoretical framework, ne 0a6 ha9e 5  ;ac. an# cn#uc5 0re in5er9ie>s an#7r see. a##i5ina" in!r0a5in !r0 5he "i5era5ure !r a c"earer un#ers5an#in, so as to refine the theory. 1ue setuju banget sama pernyataan ini $oalnya gue juga ngerasain harus balik lagi, balik lagi, balik lagi, sampe gue bener%bener ngedapetin apa yang gue mau. Interie*, nemu teori, interie*, nemu teori, ari ketersediaan data, AA#11>> /o gila /ungkin ini yang dimaksud as*in 2kalo nanti ternyata penemuan kamu ga ook, ya kita rombak lagi3. $adis $ialan.

Tapi kita tetap

harus

sabar&

$E/AN1AAAAATTT

1ue jadi inget pertanyaan >ermas: 2kapan kita tau kalo penelitian kita udah bener% bener: "ENE#???3. ;an as*in menja*ab dengan sok romantis: 2itu semua tergantung

keintaan

kalian

terhadap

ilmu

pengetahuan  3 .

/akanya,

bikin

penelitian tentang sesuatu yang benar%benar lo sukai, lo intai. @adi di tengah% tengah kegilaan dan kebingungan, masih ada alasan *aras kenapa lo masih mau ngelanjutin tu penelitian: 2karna gue suka banget )selain karna alasan harus ngerjain skripsi supaya bisa lulus dari E3. Peraya deh, mengerjakan sesuatu yang lo suka bakal bikin HIDUP lebih HIDUP .

OBSER@ATION #. 0roblems urrently eBisting in an organizational setting that need to be solved $. 6reas that a manager believes need to be improed in the organization &. 6 oneptual or theoretial issue that needs to be tightened up for the basic researcher to understand certain phenomena '. 7ome research questions that a basic researcher wants to ans*er empirially

PRE8IMINARY ATA CO88ECTION +. "akground in!ormation o! the organiCation 0that is, the onteBtual !ators •

he origin and history of the company +when it came into being, business it is in, rate of growth, ownership and control, and so on

•

7ize in terms of employees, assets, or both

•

8harter +purposes and ideology FITRI UTAMI NIN$RUM %&%'%%())* +%%,-+%%* 5h Se.aran/ U0a1 2+%%341 Research Me5h#s !r Business/ ' E#1 USA: Wi"e6


•

9ocation +regional, national, or other

•

*esources +human and others

•

Interdependent

relationships

with

other

institutions

and

the

external

environment •

3inancial position during the previous 2 to #: years, and relevant financial data

4. /anagerial philosophy, ompany poliies, and other strutural aspets •

*oles and positions in the organization and number of employees at each job level

•

;xtent of specialization

•

8ommunication channels

•

8ontrol systems

•

8oordination and span of control

•

*eward systems

•

5. Pereptions, attitudes, and behaioral responses o! organiCational members and lient systems )as appliable •

=ature of the work

•

•

7uperiors in the organization

•

0articipation in decision making

•

8lient systems

•

8o-workers

•

*ewards provided by the organization, such as pay raises and fringe benefits

•

/pportunities for advancement in the organization

•

/rganization>s attitudes toward employees family responsibilities

•

8ompany>s involvement with community, civic, and other social groups

•

8ompany>s tolerance of employees taking time off from the job

8ITERATURE SUR@EY %ood literature survey ensure 5ha5!



(1 Important ariables that are likely to influence the problem situation are not left out of the study +1 6 learer idea emerges as to *hat ariables would be most important to consider ?parsimony@, *hy they would be considered important, and ho* they should be investigated to solve the problem. hus, the literature survey helps the development of the theoretical framework and hypotheses for testing 31 he problem statement an be made with precision and clarity '1 Testability and repliability o! the !indings of the current research are enhanced )1 One #es n5 run 5he ris. ! rein9en5in 5he >hee" 5ha5 is/ >as5in e!!r5s n 5r6in 5 re#isc9er s0e5hin 5ha5 is a "rea#6 .n>n &1 he problem investigated is pereied by the sienti!i ommunity as releant and signi!iant

PROB8EM EFINITION •

Narro* do*n the problem from its original broad base and define the issues of concern more clearly.

•

It is critical that the !ous of further research, or in other words, the problem, be unambiguously identified and defined.

•

=o amount of good research can find solutions to the situation, if the ritial issue or the problem to be studied is not learly pinpointed .

•

6 problem does not necessarily mean that something is seriously *rong with a current situation that needs to be rectified immediately.

•

6 (problem) could simply indicate an interest in an issue where finding the right answers might help to improve an existing situation.

•

It is fruitful to de!ine a problem as any situation *here a gap eBists bet*een the atual and the desired ideal states.

•

(Is this factor I have identified an anteendent , the real problem, or the onseDuene5)

Pr;"e0 #e!ini5in r pr;"e0 s5a5e0en5: a clear, precise, and succinct statement of the question or issue that is to be investigated with the goal of finding an answer or solution.

8ould pertain to!



+. EBisting business problems where a manager is looking for a solution )applied researh 4. 7ituations that may not pose any current problems but which the manager feels have sope !or improement )applied researh 5. 6reas where some conceptual clarity is needed for better theory building )basi researh 6. 7ituations in which a researcher is trying to answer a researh Duestion empirially because of interest in the topic )basi researh

CHAPTER @

NEE FOR THEORETICA8 FRAMEWORK There5ica" !ra0e>r.: a conceptual model of how one theorizes or makes logical sense of the relationships among the several factors that have been identified as important to the problem.



his theory flows logically !rom doumentation o! preious researh in the problem area.



Integrating ones logial belie!s *ith published researh, taking into consideration the boundaries and constraints governing the situation, is pivotal in developing a scientific basis for investigating the research problem.



heoretical framework! discusses the interrelationships among the ariables that are deemed to be integral to the dynamics of the situation being investigated.



3rom the theoretical framework, then, testable hypotheses an be deeloped to examine whether the theory formulated is valid or not.



he entire researh rests on the basis of the theoretical framework.

@ARIAB8ES @aria;"e: anything that can take on differing or varying values.

' main 56pes ! 9aria;"es! #. 4ependent variable ?also known as the criterion variable@ $. Independent variable ?also known as predictor variable@ &. Aoderating variable FITRI UTAMI NIN$RUM %&%'%%())* +%%,-+%%* 5h Se.aran/ U0a1 2+%%341 Research Me5h#s !r Business/ ' E#1 USA: Wi"e6


'. Intervening variable

epen#en5 9aria;"e: •

Bariable of primary interest to the researcher

•

he researhers goal is to understand and describe the dependent variable, or to explain its variability, or predict it

•

he main ariable that lends itself !or inestigation as a viable factor

•

It is possible to have more than one dependent variable in a study

Pantesan /ungkin ini yang dimaksud as*in dengan pertanyaan yang selalu dia tujukan ke gue: 2WHAT DO YOU WANT??? .....tujuan lo apa sih??? Lo mau apa ha???3. Nah, kalo kayak gini gue jadi bingung lagi nih. @adi dependent ariable gue jumlah pengunjung atraksi *isata budaya P"" atau keinginan mengunjungi atraksi *isata budaya P""????? ;uh jadi bingung mikir lagi deh&. Fahai teman, makanya selalu tanyakan dan pastikan 2tujuan akhir apa yang lo mau???3. Itulah dependent ariable lo& )hmm,,, sepertinya ini ga uma berlaku buat penelitian deh, tapi dalam kehidupan nyata lo juga hat do you ant???!!! 

In#epen#en5 9aria;"e: •

•

•

•

Gariane in the dependent ariable is accounted for by the independent variable

M#era5in 9aria;"e: •

/ne that has a strong ontingent e!!et on the independent variable-dependent variable relationship

•


•

he variable that moderates the relationship is known as the moderating variable

In5er9enin 9aria;"e •

/ne that sur!aes bet*een the time the independent variables start operating to influence the dependent variable and the time their impact is felt on it

•

here is thus a temporal Duality or time dimension to the intervening variable

•

he intervening variable surfaces as a !untion o! the independent ariable)s operating in any situation, and helps to conceptualize and eBplain the in!luene o! the independent ariable)s on the dependent variable

THEORETICA8 FRAMEWORK 

It becomes evident at this stage that to arrive at good solutions to the problem, one should orretly identi!y the problem !irst , and then the ariables that ontribute to it.



6fter identifying the appropriate variables, the next step is to elaborate the net*ork o! assoiations among the ariables , so that releant hypotheses an be deeloped and subsequently tested .



Cased on the results o! hypotheses testing ?which would indicate whether or not the hypotheses have been supported@, the extent to which the problem can be solved would become evident.

There5ica" !ra0e>r.: elaborates the relationships among the variables, explains the theory underlying these relations, and describes the nature and direction of the relationships.

A # 5here5ica" !ra0e>r. i#en5i!ies an# "a;e"s 5he i0pr5an5 9aria;"es in 5he si5ua5in 5ha5 are re"e9an5 5 5he pr;"e0 i#en5i!ie#1 "erarti gue bener dong&gue ga ngikutin teori dan penelitian lainnya seara plek% plekan sama 1ue pake mereka dengan menyesuaikan diri dengan kondisi kasus gue, si P"".

) ;asic !ea5ures that should be incorporated in any theoretical framework! #. he ariables considered releant to the study should be learly identi!ied and labeled in the discussions.



$. he discussions should state ho* t*o or more ariables are related to one another . his should be done for the important relationships that are theorized to exist among the variables. &. If the nature and direction of the relationships can be theorized on the basis of findings of previous research, then there should be an indiation in the discussions as to *hether the relationships *ould be positie or negatie. '. here should be a clear explanation of *hy *e *ould eBpet these relationships to eBist . his arguments could be drawn from the previous research findings. 2. 6 shemati diagram of the theoretical framework should be given so that the reader can see and easily comprehend the theorized relationship.

HYPOTHESES E@E8OPMENT H6p5heses #e9e"p0en5: formulating such testable statement

H6p5heses: a logically conjectured relationship between two or more variables expressed in the form of a testable statement 

o call a relationship (statistically significant), we should be confident that D2 times out of #:: the observed relationship will hold true



/nly a 2E chance that the relationship would not be detected

S5a5e0en5 ! h6p5heses: !r0a5 •

If-then statement

•

4irectional 

he direction of the relationship between the variables ?positiveFnegative@ is indicated



he nature of the difference between two groups on a variable ?more thanFless than@ is postulated

•

=ondirectional 

4o postulate a relationship or difference, but offer no indication of the direction of these relationships or differences



It may be conjectured that there would be a significant relationship between two variables, we may not be able to say whether the relationship would be positive or negative





3ormulated either because the relationships or differences have never been previously explored G no basis for indicating the direction, or because there have been conflicting findings in previous research studies on the variables

Nu"" an# a"5erna5e h6p5heses •

Nu"" h6p5hesis: a proposition that states a definitive, exact relationship between two variables 

7tates that the population correlation between two variables is equal to zero or that the difference in the means of two groups in the population is equal to zero ?or some de!inite number@



;xpressed as no ?signi!iant @ relationship between two variables or no ?signi!iant @ difference between two groups

•

A"5erna5e h6p5heses! the opposite of the null 

7tatement expressing a relationship between two variables or indicating differences between groups

•

If we reject the null hypothesis, then all permissible alternative hypotheses relating to the particular relationship tested could be supported

EDa0p"e: •

irec5ina" 2rup #i!!erences4 

=ull hypothesis! 1: ! HA  H< 1: ! HA - H<  :



6lternate hypothesis! 16 ! HA J H< 16 ! HA K H<

•

Nn#irec5ina" 2rup #i!!erences4 

=ull hypothesis! 1: ! H6A  H67 1: ! H6A - H67  :



6lternate hypothesis! 1: ! H6A L H67

•

irec5ina" 2re"a5inship ;e5>een + 9aria;"es4 

=ull hypothesis! FITRI UTAMI NIN$RUM %&%'%%())* +%%,-+%%* 5h Se.aran/ U0a1 2+%%341 Research Me5h#s !r Business/ ' E#1 USA: Wi"e6


1: ! there is no relationship between stress experienced on the job and the job satisfaction of employees 1: ! M  : 

6lternate hypothesis! 16 ! M J :

•

Nn#irec5ina" 2re"a5inship ;e5>een + 9aria;"es4 

=ull hypothesis! 1: ! M  :



6lternate hypothesis! 16 ! M L :

S5eps in hypotheses testing! #. $tate the null and the alternate hypotheses $. -hoose the appropriate statistial test depending on whether the data collected are parametric or nonparametric &. ;etermine the leel o! signi!iane desired ?p:.:2, or more, or less@ '. $ee if the output results from computer analysis indiate that the signi!iane leel is met . If, as in the case of 0earson correlation analysis in ;xcel software, the significance level is not indicated in the printout, look up the critical values that defined the regions of acceptance on the appropriate table N?t, 3, O $@ +see tables at the end of the bookP. his critical value demarcates the region of rejection from that of acceptance of the null hypotheses. 2.
H6p5heses enera5in an# 5es5in can be done both through deduction and induction! •

e#uc5in: the theoretical model is first developed, testable hypotheses are then formulated, data collected, and then the hypotheses are tested.

•

In#uc5in: new hypotheses are formulated based on what is known from the data already collected, which are then tested.



CHAPTER @I

RESEARCH ESI$N •

0urpose of the study

•

ypes of investigation

•

;xtent of researcher interference

•

7tudy setting

•

Qnit of analysis ?population to be studied@

•

ime horizon

PURPOSE OF THE STUY EDp"ra5r6 s5u#6: •

•

o better omprehend the nature o! the problem since very few studies might have been conducted in that area

•

•

3or obtaining a good graps of the phenomena of interest and adaning kno*ledge through subsequent theory building and hypotheses testing

escrip5i9e s5u#6: o asertain and be able to desribe the harateristis of the ariables of

•

interest in a situation he goal ! to offer to the researcher a pro!ile or to desribe releant aspets of

•

the phenomena of interest from an individual, organization, industry-oriented, or other perspective 0resent data in meaningful form, help to!

•



=nderstand the harateristis of a group in a given situation



Think systematially about aspects in a given situation





1elp make certain simple deisions

H6p5heses 5es5in: FITRI UTAMI NIN$RUM %&%'%%())* +%%,-+%%* 5h Se.aran/ U0a1 2+%%341 Research Me5h#s !r Business/ ' E#1 USA: Wi"e6


•

EBplain the nature o! ertain relationships, or establish the di!!erenes among groups or the independence of two or more factors in a situation

•

o eBplain the ariane in the dependent ariable or to predict organizational outcome

Case s5u#6 ana"6sis: •

Involve in-depth, contextual analyses of matters relating to similar situations in other organizations

•

0roblem-solving technique

•

Rualitative in nature, useful in applying solutions to current problems based on past problem-solving experiences

•

Qseful in understanding certain phenomena, and generating further theories for empirical testing

TYPE OF IN@ESTI$ATION Causa" s5u#6: the study in which the researcher wants to delineate the ause of one or more problems

Crre"a5ina" s5u#6: when the researcher is interested in delineating the important variables assoiated with the problem

STUY SETTIN$ Fie"# s5u#ies: correlational studies done in organizations

Fie"# eDperi0en5s: studies conducted to establish cause-and-effect relationship using the same natural environment in which employees normally fuction

8a; eDperi0en5s: experiments done to establish cause and effect relationship beyond the possibility of the least doubt require the creation of an artificial, contrived environment in which all the extraneous factors are strictly controlled. 7imilar subjects are choosen carefully to respond to certain manipulated stimuli

UNIT OF ANA8YSIS Uni5 ! ana"6sis: level of aggregation of the data collected during the subsequent data analysis stage. 4epend on problem statement focuses. FITRI UTAMI NIN$RUM %&%'%%())* +%%,-+%%* 5h Se.aran/ U0a1 2+%%341 Research Me5h#s !r Business/ ' E#1 USA: Wi"e6


In#i9i#ua": data gathered from each individual and treating each employee>s response as an individual data source

6a#s: interested in studying two-persons interactions, then several two-persons groups

$rups: even though we may gather relevant data from all individuals comprising, we would aggregate the individual data into group data so as to see the differences among some groups ?missal jadi  group@

Our research ues5in #e5er0ines 5he uni5 ! ana"6sis1

TIME HORION Crss-sec5ina"7ne-sh5 s5u#ies: data are gathered just once, perhaps over a period of days or weeks or moths, in order to answer a research question

8ni5u#ina" s5u#ies: data on the dependent variable are gathered at two or more points in time to answer the research question

CHAPTER @III

OPERATIONA8 EFINITION Opera5ina"i=in 5he cncep5s: reduction of abstract concept to render them measurable in a tangible way

Opera5ina"i=in: defining a concept to render it measurable, is done by looking at the behavioral dimensions, facets, or properties denoted by the concept

Opera5ina"i=in 5he cncep5: 

hey would probably have some typial broad harateristis, which we call dimensions.



EBamining eah of the dimension and breaking each further into its elements



hese should somehow be obserable and Duantitatiely measurable FITRI UTAMI NIN$RUM %&%'%%())* +%%,-+%%* 5h Se.aran/ U0a1 2+%%341 Research Me5h#s !r Business/ ' E#1 USA: Wi"e6


Wha5 an pera5ina" #e!ini5in is n5: •

4oes not describe the correlates of the concept

•

4oes not consist of delineating the reasons, antecedents, consequences, or correlates of the concept

I! >e ei5her pera5ina"i=e 5he cncep5s incrrec5"6 r cn!use 5he0 >i5h 5her cncep5s/ 5hen >e >i"" n5 ha9e 9a"i# 0easures1 This 0eans 5ha5 >e >i"" n5 ha9e # #a5a/ an# ur research >i"" n5 ;e scien5i!ic1 Yeah&kalo kita salah mengoperasionalisasikan suatu ariabel, !atal akibatnya. "isa% bisa kita salah bikin pertanyaan buat diukur nilainya. @elek deh datanya. )kayaknya gue baru sadar deh kalo gue salah operasionalisasi. >iB. Tips agar tidak salah operasionalisasi ariabel: 

"ikin landasan teori yang bagus semua bera*al dari landasan teori



$elalu temukan de"inisi yang tepat dari sebuah konsep ataupun ariabel. ;EINI$I itu kuni yang penting (alo kata Loelok %si pro!essor pemasaran jasa yang kita selalu punya kuni inta% : I" you #an$t de"ine something% you #an$t measure it% and hat you #an$t measure you #an$t manage.



Punya de!inisi yang tepat, pasti akan menuntun lo kepada operasionalisasi ariabel yang tepat. Ini teori gue, hehe

 )berdasarkan

pengalaman

pribadi. Pantesan, as*in selalu bertanya pada gue: 2ini de!inisinya apa? Itu de!inisinya apa?3. >mmmm&.pantes&aku baru mengerti sekarang&.

SCA8ES Sca"e: a tool or mechanism by which individuals are distinguished as to how they differ from one another on the variables of interest to our study

' basic 56pes ! sca"es! nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio

N0ina" sca"e: /ne that allows researcher to assign subjects to certain categories or groups 

6ssigned ode number



hese number serve as simple and onenient category labels with no intrinsi alue, other than to assign respondents to one of two nonoverlapping or mutually exclusive categories FITRI UTAMI NIN$RUM %&%'%%())* +%%,-+%%* 5h Se.aran/ U0a1 2+%%341 Research Me5h#s !r Business/ ' E#1 USA: Wi"e6




=ote that the categories are also collectively exhaustive



he information is to alulate the perentage ?or !reDueny @

Or#ina" sca"e: not only categorizes the variables in such a way as to denote differences among the various categories, it also rank-orders the categories in some meaningful way 

1elps the researcher to determine the perentage o! respondents who consider interaction with others as most important , those who consider using a number of different skills as most important, and so on

In5er9a" sca"e: let us measure the distance between any two points on the scale 

1elps us to ompute the means and the standard deiations of the responses on the variables



=ot only groups individuals according to certain categories and taps the order of these groups, it also measures the magnitude o! the di!!erenes in the preferences among individuals



he origin, or the starting point, could be any arbitrary number



/ore po*er!ul scale than the nominal and ordinal scale, and has for its measure of entral tendeny the arithmetic mean



It measures of dispersion are the range, the standard deviation, and the variance

Ra5i sca"e: not only measures the magnitude of the differences between points on the scale but also taps the proportions in the differences 

It has an absolute ?in contrast to an arbitrary@ Cero point , which is a meaningful measurement point



he most po*er!ul of the ' scales because it has a unique zero origin ?not an arbitrary origin@ and subsumes all the properties of the other three scales

Use ! ' types of sca"es: •

N0ina" sca"e: for obtaining personal data such as gender or department

•

Or#ina" sca"e: to rank the preferences or usage of various brands of a product by individuals and to rank order individuals, objects, or events

•

In5er9a" sca"e: when responses to various items that measure a variable can be tapped on a five-point ?or seven-point or any other number of points@ scale, which can thereafter be summated across the items FITRI UTAMI NIN$RUM %&%'%%())* +%%,-+%%* 5h Se.aran/ U0a1 2+%%341 Research Me5h#s !r Business/ ' E#1 USA: Wi"e6


•

Ra5i sca"e: when exact numbers on objective ?as opposed to subjective@ factor are called for

CHAPTER IG

$OONESS OF MEASURES $#ness ! 0easures: reasonably sure that the instruments we use in our research do indeed measure the variables they are supposed to, and that they measure them accurately

I5e0 ana"6sis: to see if the items in the instrument belong there or not. 

he means between the high-score group and the low-score group are tested to detect signi!iant di!!erene through the t%alues



he items with a high t%alue ?test which is able to identify the highly discriminating items in the instrument@ are then inluded in the instrument

RE8IABI8ITY Re"ia;i"i56: tests how onsistently a measuring instrument measures whatever concept it is measuring •

Aeasure stability and consistency

Re"ia;i"i56: •

S5a;i"i56 ! 0easures: the ability of a measure to remain the same over time + despite uncontrollable testing conditions or the state of the respondents themselves  Tes5-re5es5 re"ia;i"i56: the reliability coefficient obtained with a repetition of

the same measure on a second occasion, the higher the better  Para""e"-!r0 re"ia;i"i56: when responses on two comparable sets of

measures tapping the same construct are highly correlated •

In5erna" cnsis5enc6 ! 0easures: the items should (hang together as a set) and be capable of independently measuring the same concept so that the respondents attach the same overall meaning to each of the items 

In5eri5e0 cnsis5enc6 re"ia;i"i56: test of the consistency of respondents answer to all the items in a measure. o the degree that the items are FITRI UTAMI NIN$RUM %&%'%%())* +%%,-+%%* 5h Se.aran/ U0a1 2+%%341 Research Me5h#s !r Business/ ' E#1 USA: Wi"e6


independent measures of the same concept, they will be orrelated *ith one another . -ronbahs oe!!iient alpha used for multipoint-scaled items, (uder% #ihardson !ormulas used for dichotomous items. he higher the coefficients, the better the measuring instrument 

Sp"i5-ha"! re"ia;i"i56: reflects the correlations between two halves of an instrument

@A8IITY @a"i#i56: tests how well an instrument that is developed measures the partiular onept it is intended to measure •

@a"i#i56: •

Cn5en5 9a"i#i56: ensures that the

measure

includes an adequate and

representative set of items that tap the concept. 6 function of how well the dimensions and elements of a concept have been delineated •

Cri5erin-re"a5e#

9a"i#i56:

established

when

the

measure

differentiates

individuals on a criterion it is expected to predict •

Cns5ruc5 9a"i#i56: testifies to how well the results obtained from the use of the measure fit the theories around which the test is designed 

Crre"a5ina" ana"6sis: as in the case of establishing concurrent and predictive validity or convergent and discriminant validity



Fac5r ana"6sis: a multivariate technique that would confirm the dimensions of the concept that have been operationally defined, as well as indicate which of the items are most appropriate for each dimension



Mu"5i5rai5: multimethod matrix of correlations derived from measuring concepts by different forms and different methods

CHAPTER GI

POPU8ATION/ E8EMENT/ POPU8ATION FRAME/ SAMP8E/  SUBECT Ppu"a5in: the entire group of people, events, or things of interest that the researcher wishes to investigate FITRI UTAMI NIN$RUM %&%'%%())* +%%,-+%%* 5h Se.aran/ U0a1 2+%%341 Research Me5h#s !r Business/ ' E#1 USA: Wi"e6


E"e0en5: a single member of the population

Ppu"a5in !ra0e: a listing of all the elements in the population from which the sample is drawn

Sa0p"e: a subset of the population, it comprises some members selected from it

Su;
SAMP8IN$ Sa0p"in: the process of selecting a sufficient number of elements from the population, so that the study of the sample and an understanding of its properties or characteristics would make it possible for us to generalize such properties or characteristics to the population elements 

6ll conclusions drawn about the sample under study are generalized to the population

 Obar, 7, 7$ + are used as estimates of the population parameters μ, σ, σ$

Reasn !r sa0p"in: •

7elf-evident

•

ime, cost, and other human resources considered

•

7ometimes likely to produce more reliable results

Represen5a5i9eness ! sa0p"es: •

*arely will the sample be the exact replica of the population from which it is drawn

•

If we choose the sample in a scientific way, we can be reasonably sure that the sample statistic ?e.g.,O bar, 7, 7$@ is fairly close to the population parameter ?i.e., μ, σ, σ$@

NORMA8ITY OF ISTRIBUTIONS 

6ttributes or characteristics of the population are generally normally distributed



If we take a sufficiently large number of samples and choose them with care, we will have a sampling distribution of the means that has normality FITRI UTAMI NIN$RUM %&%'%%())* +%%,-+%%* 5h Se.aran/ U0a1 2+%%341 Research Me5h#s !r Business/ ' E#1 USA: Wi"e6


his is the reason that the two important issues in sampling are the



sample size ?n@ and the sampling design If our sampling design and sample size are right, the sample mean O bar



will be within close range of the true population mean ? μ) he more representative of the population the sample is, the more



generalizable are the findings of the research

+ major 56pes of sa0p"in #esin! #. 0robability sampling •

7imple random sampling

•

8omplex probability sampling 

7ystematic sampling



7tratified random sampling



0roportionate and disproportionate stratified random sampling



8luster sampling



7ingle-stage and multistage cluster sampling



6rea sampling



4ouble sampling

$. =onprobability sampling •

8onvenience sampling

•

0urposive sampling 

Sudgment sampling



Ruota sampling

PROBABI8ITY SAMP8IN$ Pr;a;i"i56 sa0p"in: when elements in the population have a known chance of being chosen as subjects in the sample

Si0p"e ran#0 sa0p"in: every element in the population has a known and equal chance of being selected as a subject  Bes5: when the generalizability of the findings to the whole population is the

main objective of the study

C0p"eD pr;a;i"i56 sa0p"in: FITRI UTAMI NIN$RUM %&%'%%())* +%%,-+%%* 5h Se.aran/ U0a1 2+%%341 Research Me5h#s !r Business/ ' E#1 USA: Wi"e6


•

S6s5e0a5ic sa0p"in: drawing every nth element in the population starting with a randomly chosen element between # and n  Bes5: when the population frame is large, and a listing of the elements is

conveniently available at one place

•

S5ra5i!ie# ran#0 sa0p"in: a process stratification or segregation, followed by random selection of subjects from each stratum. he population is first divided into mutually exclusive groups that are relevant, appropriate, and meaningful in the context of the study 

Bes5: when differentiated information is needed regarding various strata within the population, which are known to differ in their parameters

•

Prpr5ina5e an# #isprpr5ina5e s5ra5i!ie# ran#0 sa0p"in:

•

Prpr5ina5e: the subjects drawn from each stratum, members represented in the sample from each stratum will be proportionate to the total number of elements in the respective strata

•

isprpr5ina5e: the subjects drawn from each stratum, the number of subjects from each stratum will now be altered, while keeping the sample size unchanged

•

C"us5er sa0p"in: when several groups with intragroup heterogeneity and intergroup homogeneity are found, then a random sampling of the clusters or groups can ideally be done and information gathered from each of the members in the randomly chosen clusters 

•

Bes5: when heterogeneous group is to be studied at one time

Sin"e-s5ae an# 0u"5is5ae c"us5er sa0p"in: the division of of the population into convenient clusters, randomly choosing the required number of clusters as sample subjects, and investigating all the elements in each of the randomly chosen clusters

•

Area sa0p"in: constitutes geographical clusters, when the research pertains to populations within identifiable geographical areas such as coutries, city blocks, or particular boundaries within a locality 

Bes5: when the goal of the research is confined to a particular locality or area FITRI UTAMI NIN$RUM %&%'%%())* +%%,-+%%* 5h Se.aran/ U0a1 2+%%341 Research Me5h#s !r Business/ ' E#1 USA: Wi"e6


•

u;"e sa0p"in: where initially a sample is used in a study to collect some preliminary information of interest, and later a subsample of this primary sample is used to examine the matter in more detail 

Bes5: provided added information at minimal additional expenditure

NONPROBABI8ITY SAMP8IN$ Nnpr;a;i"i56 sa0p"in: the elements in the population do not have any probabilities attached to their being chosen as sample subjects

Cn9enience sa0p"in: collection of information from members of the population who are conveniently available to provide it 

Bes5: to obtain some (quick) information to get a feel for the phenomenon or variables of interest

Purpsi9e sa0p"in: confined a specific types of people who can provide the desired information, either because they are the only ones who have it, or conform to some criteria set by the researcher

•

u#0en5 sa0p"in: the choice of subjects who are most advantageously placed or in the best position to provide the information required 

Bes5: where the collection of (specialized informed inputs) on the topic area researched is vital, and the use of any other sampling design would not offer opportunities to obtain the specialized information

•

Ju5a sa0p"in: a form of proportionate stratified sampling, in which a predetermined proportion of people are sampled from different groups, but on a convenience basis 

Bes5: for the inclusion of all groups in the system researched

ISSUES IN ETERMININ$ SAMP8E SIE (1 Precisin 

1ow close our estimate is to the true population characteristic



he narrower this interval, the greater the precision FITRI UTAMI NIN$RUM %&%'%%())* +%%,-+%%* 5h Se.aran/ U0a1 2+%%341 Research Me5h#s !r Business/ ' E#1 USA: Wi"e6




6 function of the range of variability in the sampling distribution of the sample mean



If we want to reduce the standard error given a particular standard deviation in the sample, we need to increase the sample size

+1 Cn!i#ence 

1ow certain we are that our estimates will really hold true for the population



*eflects the level of certainty with which we can state that our estimates of the population parameters will hold true



6 D2E confidence is the conventionally accepted level for most business research, most commonly expressed by denoting the significance level as pT:.:2



6t least D2 times out of #::, our estimate will reflect the true population characteristic

he sample size, n, is a !unc5in ! ! #. he variability in the population $. 0recision or accuracy needed &. 8onfidence level desired '. ype of sampling plan used

' aspects while 0a.in #ecisins on the sa0p"e si=e! #. 1ow much precision is really needed in estimating the population characteristics of interest + what is the margin of allowable errors5 $. 1ow much confidence is really needed + how much hane can we take of making errors in estimating the population parameters5 &. o what extent is there ariability in the population on the characteristics investigated5 '.
*oscoe ?#D2@" ru"es of thumb for #e5er0inin sa0p"e si=e! #. 7ample sizes larger than 5H and less than 7HH are appropriate for most research $.


&. In multiariate researh ?including multiple regression analysis@, the sample size should be seeral times ?preferably #: times or more@ as large as the number o! ariables in the study '. 3or simple eBperimental researh with tight experimental controls ?matched pairs, etc@, successful research is possible with samples as small as +H to 4H in size

(alo menurut gue sih, tahapan yang paling genting dan paling kritis ya di pembuatan "A" 5 alias pembuatanpenentuan metodologi ini. Ibaratnya bikin raikan obat, "A" 5 ini kayak tahap ketika lo lagi menentukan takaran dosis setiap elemen ramuan )ya populasi, ya sample, ya lainnya. (alo dosisnya kurang, pasien ga sembuh, merana harus menderita terus%menerus. (alo dosisnya berlebihan, pasien oer dosis, meledak nanti ;ua%duanya sama%sama ga*at. (alo lo udah bikin "A" 5 lo dengan benar, selanjutnya gampang kok, tinggal ngambil data or sebar kuesioner, analisa. Tingal jalan&.ga perlu berlari%lari jatuh bangun kedebak% kedebuk. Fell, udah bisa berpikir lebih santai lah&..

Tapi inget "A" 5 juga berasal dari "A" 4 /odel penelitian lo kan berasal dari landasan teori di "A" 4. $alah teori, bisa%bisa salah model. $alah model, berakibat salah operasionalisasi ariabel. $alah operasionalisasi ariabel, salah kuesioner. $alah kuesioner, salah data. $alah data, tebak sendiri&. Tapi, "A" 4 juga berasal dari "A" + lho&. Lo kan harus tau permasalahan lo dengan jelas tuh. Apa yang jadi latar belakang permasalahannya, apa hasil akhir yang lo mau. $emua itu yang menentukan teori%teori apa aja yang lo butuhin untuk diantumin >ahahaha&. Intinya sih, semua harus dikerjakan seara berurutan yah: "A" +%4%5. Inget prinsip 2rukun3 yang gue jabarin di atas&. Pokoknya selamat mengerjakan "A"+,4,5 bolak%balik deh. +,4,5 0 5,4,+ 0 4,+,5 0 begitu aja terus Yang penting: sabar& semua harus dikerjakan dengan ketenangan akal dan pikiran. Nikmatin aja &rosesnya goodluk yo

CHAPTER GII

' s5eps in #a5a ana"6is! #. %etting data ready for analyis FITRI UTAMI NIN$RUM %&%'%%())* +%%,-+%%* 5h Se.aran/ U0a1 2+%%341 Research Me5h#s !r Business/ ' E#1 USA: Wi"e6


$. %etting a feel for the data &. esting the goodness of data '. esting the hypotheses

$ETTIN$ ATA REAY FOR ANA8YSIS E#i5in #a5a: 

4ata have to be edited



Information that may have been noted down by the interviewer, observer, or researcher in a hurry must be clearly deciphered so that it may be coded systematically in its entirety



Incoming mailed questionnaire data have to be checked for incompleteness and inconsistencies

Han#"in ;"an. respnses: 

=ot all respondents answer every item in the questionnaire



Clank because the respondent did not understand the question, did not know the answer, was not willing to answer, or was simply indifferent to the need to respond to the entire questionnaire



6ssign the midpoint in the scale as the response to that particular item

•

6llow the computer to ignore the blank responses when the analysis are done

•

6ssign to the item the mean value of the responses of all those who have responded to that particular item

•

%ive the item the mean of the responses of this particular respondent to all other questions measuring this variable

•

%ive the missing response a random number within the range for that scale

C#in: 

8ode the responses



8oding sheet first to transcribe the data from the questionnaire and then key in the data

Ca5eri=a5in





7et up scheme for categorizing the variables such that the several items measuring a concept are all grouped together



*esponses to some of the negatively worded questions have also to be reversed so that all answers are in the same direction

En5erin #a5a 

Ruestionnaire data are collected on scanner answer sheets or tha raw data manually keyed into the computer

ATA ANA8YSIS & ;
Fee" !r 5he #a5a: •

;xamination of the measure of central tendency, and how clustered or dispersed the variables are, gives a good idea of ho* *ell the Duestions *ere !ramed !or tapping the onept

•

he statistics give feel for the data! 

he frequency distributions for the demographic variables



he mean, standard deviation, range, and variance on the other dependent and independent variables



6n intercorrelation matrix of the variables, irrespective of whether or not the hypotheses are directly related to these analysis

Tes5in #ness ! #a5a: •

*eliability! 

esting consistency and stability



8onsistency indicates how well the items measuring a concept hang together as a set



8ronbach>s alpha is a reliability coefficient that indicates how well the items in a set are positively correlated to one another



he closer 8ronbach>s alpha is to #, the higher the internal consistency reliability FITRI UTAMI NIN$RUM %&%'%%())* +%%,-+%%* 5h Se.aran/ U0a1 2+%%341 Research Me5h#s !r Business/ ' E#1 USA: Wi"e6


•

Balidity! 

3actorial validity can be established by submitting the data for factor analysis



he results of factor analysis ?a multivariate technique@ will confirm whether or not the theorized dimensions emerge

H6p5heses 5es5in: •

est the hypotheses already developed for the study

Analisis. $elamat merangkai kata. $elamat merangkai logika Ayo !itut&. Yang rajin dong ah @angan menunda%nunda

PEKERAAN TEKNIS

SPECIMENT FORMAT FOR REFERENCIN$ APA FORMATL B. ;6 sin"e au5hr 9eshin, 8. C. ?#DD@. /anagement on the Forld Fide Feb. ;nglewood 8liffs, =S! 0rentice-1all.

B. ;6 0re 5han ne au5hr 8ornett, A.,
B. re9ie> =ichols, 0. ?#DD@. 6 new look at 1ome 7ervices N*eview of the book 0roviding 1ome 7ervices to the ;lderly by %irch, 7.P amily #eie* "ulletin, '2, #$-#&.

urna" Ar5ic"e Seanquart, 7., G 0eluchette, S. ?#DD@. 4iversity in the workforce and management models. @ournal o! $oial Fork $tudies, '& ?&@, $-2.


Uma Sekaran

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