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Running Head: ETHICS AND ACCOUNTING
Ethics and Accounting Accounting in the United States: The Current and Future Relationship Gendol!n Hartung Shippens"urg Uni#ersit!
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E$ecuti#e Su%%ar! Accounting relies hea#il! on ethics& The United States currentl! currentl! uses generall! accepted accounting principles 'GAA() and the Code o* (ro*essional Conduct set "! theA%erican Institute o* Certi*ied Certi*ied (u"lic Accountants Accountants to go#ern accountants& The Code o* (ro*essional Conduct is actuall! "ased on #irtue ethics+ although %ost people in the "usiness orld tend to use the conse,uentialist or deontological theories to approach ethics& -hile the "asis on #irtue ethics is interesting+ so%e people propose that the "est ethical ap proach is actuall! a co%"ination o* conse,uentialist+ deontological+ and #irtue #irtue ethics& O#er the !ears+ as people ha#e tried tried to create standards and rules *or accounting+ the! ha#e recogni.ed pro"le%s ith the current generall! accepted accounting principles 'GAA() in the United States& There has "een a p ush toards International Financial Reporting Standards 'IFRS)+ especiall! a*ter recent accounting scandals and the i%ple%entation o* Sar"anes/O$le!& Hoe#er+ so%e people "elie#e that IFRS con#ergence ill not sol#e the United States0 pro"le%s+ "ut rather increase the ethical challenges that accountants ill *ace+ and that total international ac counting standards %a! not "e *easi"le due to cultural di**erences&
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Accounting is a pro*ession hich encounters a #ariet! o* ethical dile%%as& As such+ it is necessar! *or accountants to "e a"le to 1no ho to recogni.e and deal ith ith ethical issues& In the United States+ accountants *ocus pri%aril! on co%pl!ing ith the generall! accepted accounting principles 'GAA()& Hoe#er+ GAA( GAA( is de*ined de*ined as 2a d!na%ic set o* "oth "oth "road and speci*ic guidelines that co%panies should *ollo hen %easuring and reporting the in*or%ation in their *inancial state%ents state%ents and related notes3 'Spiceland+ Sepe+ 4 Nelson+ 5678+ p& 9)& In other ords+ GAA( is the rules and guidelines accountants *ollo hen creating *inancial state%ents and doing their o"s& There is no speci*ic *ocus on ethics in GAA(+ GAA(+ rather rather the *ocus is on the %ethods used "! accountants to co%plete their o"s& According to Neill+ Neill+ Sto#all+ and ;in1erson '566<) the accounting industr! has historicall! "een considered to "e sel*/regulated+ ith the A%erican Institute o* Certi*ied (u"lic Accountants 'AIC(A) 'AIC(A) creating a national #oluntar! code o* conduct+ the Code o* (ro*essional (ro*essional Conduct 'C(C)& The ,uestion no is hether hether this code o* conduct and GAA( are ade,uate *olloing accoun ting scandals+ such as those o* Enron and Arthur Anderson+ hich ha#e sha1en the go#ern%ent0s and the pu"lic0s con*idence in the accounting industr!0s a"ilit! to regulate its %e%"ers 'Neill et al& 566<)& =oriarit! stated the AIC(A AIC(A Code o* (ro*essional Conduct actuall! "egan as the Code o* (ro*essional Ethics in 7>?5+ and a*ter se#eral re#isions "eca%e the current C(C in 7>99 'as cited in Neill et al&+ 566<+ p& 765)& E#en a*ter going through se#eral re#isions re#isions o#er the !ears+ there are still so%e ho criti,ue the C(C+ clai%ing that it contains ea1nesses+ and that the C(C e$ists to "e sel*/ser#ing& Neill et al& '566<) clai%ed that 2the real reason the pro*ession has pro%ulgated a C(C is to %aintain the aura that %e%"ers o* the pro*ession are ethical3 'p& 765)& The! supported their clai% "! stating:
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@Each o* the accounting industr! #oluntar! codes o* conduct ha#e descri"ed characteristics that co%petent and ethical C(As C(As should possess+ rather than pro#iding a %eans to assess the actual ,ualit! o* accounting ser#ices that an indi#idual C(A or pu"lic accounting *ir% per*or%s *or the "ene*it o* hisBher client and *or the pu"lic& 'Neill et al&+ 566<+ p& 768) In other ords+ the AIC(A0 AIC(A0s C(C see%s to care %ore a"out hether the %e%"ers are percei#ed as ethical+ than i* the! are accuratel! and ethicall! per*or%ing their duties& This is shon "! the *act that the Code o* (ro*essional Conduct does not pro#ide a a! to deter%ine i* an AIC(A AIC(A %e%"er is "eha#ing ethicall!+ "ut instead places %ost o* its *ocus on the characteristics o* the %e%"ers 'Neill et al&+ 566<)& Ta1e Ta1e *or e$a%ple auditors: Article Article o* the C(C spea1s to the concept o* o"ecti#it! and independence+ re,uiring that in *act and appearance %e%"ers o* the AIC(A should "e independent independe nt o* their clients+ "ut " ut there is no instruction to deter%ine i* the audit opinion 'the product o* the audit) is "ias/*ree and also independent 'Neill et al&+ 566<)& Spalding+ ;r& and Oddo '5677) *urther *urther supported the clai% that that not enough e%phasis is placed on ethics "! stating that although the AIC(A AIC(A C(C is %ade o* a set o* rules and a set o* principles+ 2the " !las o* the AIC(A AIC(A re,uire %e%"ers adhere to the rules+ "ut not the principles3 'p& <6)& E#en though the C(C re,uires periodic periodic peer re#ies+ the! assess hether GAA( has "een consistentl!+ and not hether there has "een "ee n co%pliance ith the C(C 'Neill et al& 566<)& ennett et al& '566?) also also stated that the U&S& accounting standards standards *ocus on the i%portance o* GAA(+ although GAA( %a! not ala!s gi#e a *air presentation o* the *acts+ i* people tist the rules to their *a#or& *a#or& -hile I agree that this is a pro"le%+ I and others "elie#e "elie#e that ethical *ocus should not ust "e on co%pliance ith rules&
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-hen *ocus is on co%pliance ith rules+ the cogniti#e %oral de#elop%ent o* e%plo!ees has di**icult! e#ol#ing past the con#entional le#el& According to Tre#ino Tre#ino and Nelson '567)+ at the con#entional le#el+ 2@hat0s ethicall! right is e$plained in ter%s o* li#ing up to roles and the e$pectations o* rele#ant others+ *ul*illing duties and o"ligations+ and *olloing rules and las3 'p& 9)& At the postcon#entional postcon#entional 'or principled) le#el+ people are %ore capa"le o* %a1ing decisions autono%ousl!+ and are guided "! the 2ethical principles o* ustice and rights3 'Tre#ino 4 Nelson+ 567+ p& >) instead o* solel! "! las& It %a1es sense to %e *or a nation to ant people to thin1 at the postcon#entional le#el rather than the con#entional le#el+ "ecause las and rules can "e rong or can ha#e loopholes+ hich ould open o pen the doora! to unethical "eha#ior& ecause the postcon#entional le#el o* cogniti#e cogn iti#e %oral de#elop%ent is *ocused on principles o* ustice and rights+ postcon#entional thin1ers ould "e li1el! to use deontological theories or #irtue ethics as opposed to to conse,uentialist theories& Conse,uentialist theories *ocus *ocus on the conse,uences o* a person0s person0s action 'Tre#ino 'Tre#ino 4 Nelson+ 567)& On the other hand+ people ho use the deontological theories 2"ase their decisions a"out ha t0s right and rong on "road+ a"stract uni#ersal ethical principles or #alues3 'Tre#ino 'Tre#ino 4 Nelson+ 567+ p& 5)& irtue irtue ethics+ hile si%ilar to deontological theories+ *ocus on an indi#idual0s integrit! rather than the act 'Tre#ino 4 Nelson+ 567)& As such+ such+ e can see that the AIC(A AIC(A0s current C(C actuall! *ollos *ollos #irtue ethics "! placing its *ocus on the %e%"ers rather than their acts& Thus+ hile it %a! see% that the C(C does not place %uch *ocus on ethics+ it is actuall! "ased on one o* three approaches to ethical decision %a1ing& The pro"le% is that it see%s to rel! onl! on #irtue ethics+ hile -hetstone '5667) suggested that the "est approach to ethics is to incorporate all three approaches 'conse,uentialist theories+ deontological theories+ and #irtue ethics) into "usiness rather than choosing ust one&
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-hetstone '5667) de*ined a #irtue as 2a ,ualitati#e characteristic+ generall! considered part o* a person0s character+ so%ething so%ething ithin the person+ although neither %ateriall! nor "iologicall! identi*ia"lecloser to an internal #alue+ so%ething o* the spiritual essence o* the person3 'p& 76)& He goes on to e$plain that "! adding #irtue ethics to conse,uentialist and deontological approaches+ "usinesses %a1e ethics %ore personal+ as opposed to the tendenc! o* conse,uentialist and deontological approaches to "e i%personal i%personal '-hetstone+ 5667)& Aroon '5666) also rote o* #irtue ethics in "usiness+ and stated: irtue irtue theor! o**ers a %ore appealing+ practical+ uni*ied and co%prehensi#e theor! o* ethics in "usiness than traditional approaches& It grounds %oralit! in *acts a"ou t hu%an nature+ concentrates on ha"its and long/ter% goals+ e$tends "e!ond actions to co %prise ants+ goals+ li1es and disli1es+ and+ in gener al hat sort o* person one is and ai%s to "e& Traditional theories on "usiness ethics atte%pt to ground %oralit! in su"ecti#e pre*erence or in a"stract principles o* reasons and *ocus in decision %a1ing directed "! principles and rules& 'p& 78) ! co%"ining all three approaches+ there is a %ore rounded approach to ethics+ ith personal touches and a *ocus on "oth the conse,uences o* !our actions and !our o"ligations+ or as -hetstone '5667) stated+ 2a *ocus on cogniti#e decision %a1ing o* indi#idual acts si%ultaneousl! ith the deli"erate process o* de#eloping the %oral ch aracter o* actors3 'p& 76?)& I agree that this is the "est approach to "usiness ethics+ "ecause not onl! does do es it ena"le a person to use cogniti#e processes to %a1e ethical decisions+ it also helps a person to de#elop into an ethical person+ ho ill hope*ull! "e a"le to thin1 past the las and rules and a nd %a1e decisions "! the%sel#es& Also+ Aroon '5666) stated that 2#irtues 2#irtues are *unda%ental in that clai%s a"out other %oral concepts are either reduci"le to underl!ing clai%s a"out #irtues or usti*ied on their "asis3
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'p& 7?5)& This is e#idenced "! the *act *act that deontological theories are "ased on 2"road+ a"stract uni#ersal ethical principles or #alues3 'Tre#ino 4 Nelson+ 567+ p& 5)+ hich %a! "e classi*ied as #irtues+ depending on the de*inition de*inition used& Conse,uentialist theories can also "e traced "ac1 to #irtue ethics+ "ecause the *ocus on the conse,uences o* actions and tell !ou to choose the action or decision that ill do the %ost societal good+ hich could "e considered to "e "ased on a #irtue& usiness ethics in general *ocus on nine ethical issues+ according to a stud! done "! Gau%nit. and ere '5665): con*identialit! honest! and integrit! responsi"ilities to e%plo!ersBclients o"ligations to the pro*ession independence andBor o"ecti#it! legal andBor technical co%pliance discredita"le or har%*ul acts social #alues and ethical con*lict resolution+ all o* hich relate to accounting& Hoe#er+ a*ter the accounting scandals in the earl! 5666s and the i%ple%entation o* Sar"anes/O$le!+ accounting and other "usiness organi.ations created andBor re#ised their codes o* ethics+ resulting in a signi*icant di**erence "eteen the codes o* ethics "e*ore and a*ter Sar"anes/O$le! 'Canar! 4 ;ennings+ 5669)& A stud! done "! Canar! and ;ennings '5669) deter%ined that %ost o* the di**erence as in the ter%s used+ rather than the the%es o* the codes o* ethics+ concluding con cluding that a*ter Sar"anes/O$le! 2%ore co%pliance/related the%es e%erg@ed3 'p& 5<)& This+ along ith e#idence presented earlier in this paper+ indicates that the United State uses %ore rules/"ased accounting& For %an! !ears+ there has "een a push to %o#e the United States toards %ore principles/"ased accounting& Anthon! '7>?8) de*ined de*ined principles as 2"road+ general state%ents hich ser#e as guides *or sol#ing speci*ic speci*ic pro"le%s the! are not detailed instructions3 instructions3 'p& 766)& Currentl!+ accounting standards are considered to "e rules/"ased 'ennett+ rad"ur!+ 4 (rangnell+ 566? No"es+ 566< Spalding+ ;r& 4 Oddo+ 5677 erschoor+ erschoor+ 5676)& Hoe#er+ there is so%e so%e ,uestion as to ho #alid that state%ent is&
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According to a stud! done "! ennett et al& '566?)+ in hich the! chose a standard each *ro% the U&S&+ IFRS+ and Ne Jealand and co%pared the%+ the! *ound that the U&S& standard+ hich is percei#ed to "e rules/"ased+ actuall ! has the least nu%"er o* rules 2relati#e to purported principles/"ased standards @and is supported "! %ore re*erences re*erences to accounting principles3 'p& 7><)& The! concluded that U&S& standards %a! %a! "e percei#ed as rules/"ased "ecause o* di**erences in dra*ting+ ith U&S& standards pro#iding a set o* rules and international standards pro#iding 2a general de*inition *olloed "! e$a%ples and guidance3 'ennett et al&+ 566?+ p& 7>>)& Schipper stated that 2U&S& rules are o*ten "ased on principles3 'as 'as cited in No"es+ 566<+ p& 5<)+ hich indicates that de*ining U&S& standards as rules/"ased an d not principles/"ased is a poor re*lection o* the actual standards& Hoe#er+ No"es '566<) does suggest that so%e so%e U&S& accounting standards could "e i%pro#ed "! "asing the% on "etter principles than ones alread! used+ and changing those rules that aren0t "ased on principles so that the! do ha#e a principle *oundation+ or ust using a principle instead o* rules& For the purposes o* this paper+ I ill re*er to U&S& standards as rules/"ased+ putting aside the de"ate o#er hether this is is true and agreeing ith the the general consensus& The push *or a %o#e toards a %ore principles/"ased accounting standard has resulted in tal1s on con#erging U&S& GAA( ith International Financial Reporting Standards 'IFRS)& According to Spiceland et al& '5678)+ a principles/"ased 2approach to standard setting e%phasi.es using pro*essional udg%ent+ as opposed to *olloing a list o* rules+ hen choosing ho to account *or a transaction3 'p& 7)& So%e sa! that the *ocus on pro*essional udg%ent lessens the nu%"er o* rules that can "e a#oided and increases the li1elihood o* using an appropriate accounting treat%ent+ hile others sa! that the lac1 o* rules creates %ore possi"ilities *or %isuse+ "ecause indi#iduals can use di**erent principles to usti*! their approach 'Spiceland et al&+ 5678)&
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Anthon! '7>?8) stated that 2@all accountants a"hor the idea that any person any person or organi.ation should prescri"e a detailed %anual o* rules *or han dling e#er! t!pe o* transaction3 'p& 766)& 76 6)& -hile I don0t thin1 that Anthon! should "e a"le to spea1 *or all accountan t+ I do agree that it ould li1el! "e #er! trou"leso%e and in *act al%ost i%possi"le *or an!one to rite a %anual o* rules *or e#er! t!pe t!pe o* transaction& It is *or this reason that accounting need principles+ principles+ and so%e o* the %ore #ague principles should "e clari*ied ith rules& The con#ergence o* GAA( and IFRS has "een tal1ed a"out *or %an! !ears no+ and not ala!s "ecause o* the desire *or %ore principles/"ased accounting standards& In 7>+ Cu%%ings rote a"out the possi"ilit! o* orld accounting principles p rinciples instead o* GAA(+ due to increased %ultinational corporations and international transactions+ and the trou"le deciphering *oreign *inancial state%ents& ar1er '5668) clai%ed that 2@a shi*t toard glo"al glo"al reporting standards is no ine#ita"le3 ine#ita"le3 'p& 5)& He ent on to state that that hile U&S& standards ill ill change in so%e cases+ in others it ill "e international practice that ill con*or% to U&S& standards 'ar1er+ 5668)& The actual con#ergence o* GAA( and IFRS has "een a #er! slo process& Hoe#er+ the the result e$pected "! the Financial Accounting Standards oard 'FAS) 'FAS) and International Accounting Standards oard 'IAS) is 2si%pler+ %ore transparent+ principles/"ased accounting "! co%panies glo"all!3 'p& 5<)& One o* the %ain goals o* the con#ergence o* GAA( and IFRS is i%pro#ed co%para"ilit! o* *inancial state%ents 'erschoor+ 'erschoor+ 5676)& A large criti,ue o* the IFRS con#ergence it that accountants ould li1el! *ace %ore ethical challenges than e#er "e*ore under IFRS 'erschoor+ 'erschoor+ 5676)& ennett et al& '566?) erschoor erschoor '5676) "oth agree that the U&S& is an en#iron%ent that has a high le#el o* litigation+ and that as such accountants accountan ts rel! on rules to de*end their on or their clients0 actions in court& IFRS re,uires %ore pro*essional udg%ent to appl! principles rather than reliance on rules+ and %a! allo accountant to use ea1er
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accounting principles to authenticate their actions and dri#e out higher ,ualit! principles 'ers 'erschoor+ choor+ 5676)& The cost o* litigation %a! increase due to la!ers "eing "etter a"le to clai% that the increased pro*essional udg%ent associated ith the con#ergence o* IFRS is *ault! 'ers 'erschoor+ choor+ 5676)& Another criticis% o* IFRS con#ergence is that 2accountants are li1el! to *ace %ounting ethical pressures *ro% their %anage%ent to de#elop an d *ollo a rationale *or seeing the *inancial results o* their organi.ation in a"solutel! the %ost *a#ora"le light3 'erschoor+ 'erschoor+ 5676+ p& 7)+ hich %isrepresents the co%pan! and decei#es current and potential shareholders+ as ell as *inancial institutions that that %a! pro#ide loans to "usinesses& -hile this t!pe o* deception does occur under current GAA(+ the orr! is that the nu%"er o* incidences ill increase under IFRS+ and is the reason h! erschoor erschoor stated that 2con#ersion 2con# ersion to IFRS principles %a! not "e in the "est interests interests o* the shareoners shareoners o* U&S& corporations3 'p& 'p& 7)& Thorne and =asse! '5677) agree that IFRS ill ha#e an i%pact on ac countants0 pro*essional udg%ent+ in particular the ethical *acet& In 5677+ Canada %o#ed to adopt adop t IFRS+ and in the sa%e !ear Thorne and =asse! '5677) sur#e!ed 57< Canadian accountants+ to deter%ine hat t!pe o* ethical thin1ing the! used 'or hich stage o* cogniti#e %oral de#elop%ent the ! ere in): pre/con#entional+ con#entional+ or principled& The results o* their sur#e! ere that a"out <
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this sur#e! tell usL A %aorit! o* Canadian accountants us con#entional thin1ing+ and thus rel! on rules to tell the% hat to do& For principles/"ased standards li1e the IFRS+ the goal is to ha#e %ost accountants using principled thin1ing& Thus+ those accountants ho alread! use principled thin1ing should "e encouraged to continue to do so+ and those ho don0t use principled thin1ing should "e trained+ educated+ and encouraged to use %ore principled thin1ing& This is the case in all nations that are loo1ing to adopt IFRS+ not ust in Canada& Along ith the con#ergence o* IFRS+ there has "een %o#e%ent toards international ethical standards *or accountants+ and a re#ised Code o* Ethics *or (ro*essional Accountants+ also 1non as the IFAC Code+ has "een released "! the International Fed eration o* Accountants 'IFAC) 'IFAC) 'Cle%ents+ Neill+ 4 Sto#all+ 566>)& Un*ortunatel!+ the code has not "een adapted "! al%ost <6K o* the %e%"er %e%"er organi.ations 'Cle%ents et al&+ 566>)& Cle%ents et al& '566>) '566>) theori.ed that this is due to di**erences in culture+ speci*icall! poer distance+ indi#idualis%+ %asculinit!+ %asculinit!+ and uncertaint! a#oidance& Along ith indi#idualis% is is its opposite+ collecti#is%& Tre#ino and Nelson '567) de*ined indi#idualis% as 2the e$tent to hich people in a societ! thin1 o* the%sel#es as autono%ous indi#iduals ho are responsi"le pri%aril! to the%sel#es and their i%%ediate *a%ilies3 'p& 68)+ hile collecti#is% is de*ined as 2e%phasi.@ing collecti#e purposes o#er personal goals and group har%on! o#er indi#idual achie#e%ent3 'p& 68)& (oer distance is 2the e$tent to hich people peo ple in the societ! accept a hierarchical or une,ual distri"ution o* poer in their organi.ations and in societ!3 'Tre#ino 4 Nelson+ Nelson+ 567+ p& 6)& =asculinit! and its opposite *e%ininit! are de*ined "! hat the culture places i%portance on& =asculine cultures place i%portance on achie#e%ent and %aterial success+ hile *e%inine cultures place i%portance on relationships and the ,ualit! o* li*e 'Ho*stede 4 Ho*stede as cited in Cle%ents et al&+ 566>+ p& 89?/89)& Finall!+ uncertaint! a#oidance is de*ined "! Ho*stede Ho*stede 4 Ho*stede as 2the
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e$tent to hich the %e%"ers o* a culture *eel threatened "! a%"iguous or un1non situations3 'as cited "! Cle%ents et al&+ 566>+ p& 89)& The results o* Cle%ents et al&0s al&0s '566>) stud! ere that cultures ith high indi#idualis% and high uncertaint! a#oidance are less li1el! to i%ple%ent IFAC IFAC Code& The! *urther conclude that 2due to cultural di**erences throughout the orldit ill "e di**icult+ i* not #irtuall! i%possi"le+ *or the IFAC IFAC to e$pect to gain ga in uni#ersal acceptance o* its %odel code o* ethics3 'Cle%ents et al&+ 566>+ p& 89>/8>6)& I* cultural di**erences ill ill i%pede the adoption o* an international code o* ethics+ ho can e e$pect IFRS to "e accepted and used in the sa%e a! a! "! allL ecause IFRS is "ased on principles+ and principles and ethics ha#e a strong relationship+ a principle that %ight " e #er! i%portant in one culture %a! %a ! "e less i%portant in others& In this a!+ co%para"ilit! "eteen co%panies+ a #er! i%portant *unction o* *inancial state%ents in the U&S&+ U&S& + ill su**er+ and thus shareholders ill ha#e di**icult! %a1ing decisions a"out the co%panies+ unless e can *ind a a! to ensure that e#er! e#er ! nation has ethical codes that are at least as strict as the IFAC Code& Ethics and accounting are #er! #er ! closel! lin1ed+ and ill re%ain so *or the *oreseea"le *uture& As the United States atte%pts atte%pts to %o#e aa! *ro% the current rules/"ased standards o* GAA( to the %ore principles/"ased standards o* IFRS+ there ill "e %an! challenges+ especiall! concerning ethics& Accountants ill *ace increased pressure to *ind *ind principles+ no %atter ho ea1+ to usti*! presenting co%panies in the "est light+ and cultural and personal di**erences ill %a1e it di**icult to ha#e an international code o* ethics+ resulting in so%e #ariance o* *inancial state%ents& The! ill also ha#e to "e educated and encouraged to e#ol#e past the con#entional le#el o* cogniti#e %oral de#elop%ent to the postcon#entional or principled le#el+ so that the! are no long *ocused on si%pl! co%pl!ing ith rules+ "ut thin1ing %ostl! autono%ousl! and %a1ing decisions "ased on principles& It see%s that there there could "e "ene*its and negati#es associated associated ith
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the con#ergence o* IFRS+ and e ill ha#e to co%plete *urther research and ait to deter%ine hether the "ene*its ill outeigh the negati#es or no t+ and i* possi"le *ind a!s to eli%inate the negati#es&
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Re*erences Anthon!+ R& N& '7>?8)& Shodon on accounting principles& Harvard principles& Harvard Business Review+ Review+ 41'8)+ 41'8)+ >>/76?& Retrie#ed *ro% http:BBsearch&e"scohost&co%Blogin&asp$L directMtrue4d"M"uh4ANM?96<4siteM"si/li#e Aroon+ S& '5666)& irtue irtue theor! as a d !na%ic theor! o* "usiness& Journal "usiness& Journal of Business Ethics+ Ethics+ 28'5)+ 28'5)+ 7<>/79& Retrie#ed *ro% http:BBsearch&e"scohost&co%Blogin&asp$L directMtrue4d"M"uh4ANM755<66774siteM"si/li#e ar1er+ R& G& '5668)& Glo"al accounting is co%ing& Harvard co%ing& Harvard Business Review, 81(4), 81(4), 5/5<& 5/5<& Retrie#ed *ro% http:BBsearch&e"scohost&co%Blogin&asp$L directMtrue4d"M"uh4ANM>9>65<4siteM"si/li#e ennett+ &+ rad"ur!+ =&+ 4 (rangnell+ H& '566?)& Rules+ principles and udg%ents in accounting standards& Aacus, standards& Aacus, 42'5)+ doi:76&7777B&7?/?597&566?&667>&$ 42'5)+ 79>/56& doi:76&7777B&7?/?597&566?&667>&$ Canar!+ H&+ 4 ;ennings+ =& '5669)& (rinciples and in*luence in codes o* ethics: A centering resonance anal!sis co%paring pre/ and post/Sar"anes/O$le! codes o* ethics& Journal ethics& Journal of Business Ethics, 8!'5)+ 8!'5)+ 5?8/59& doi:76&766Bs76<<7/66/>7/7 Cle%ents+ C&+ Neill+ ;&+ 4 Sto#all+ O& '566>)& The i%pact o* cultural di**erences on the con#ergence o* international accounting codes o* ethics& Journal ethics& Journal of Business Ethics+ Ethics+ "!, 898/8>7& doi: 76&766Bs76<<7/676/67/7 Cu%%ings+ ;& (& '7>)& =o#ing *ro% GAA( to -A(& Harvard -A(& Harvard Business Business Review, #2'5)+ #2'5)+ ?/& Retrie#ed *ro% http:BBsearch&e"scohost&co%Blogin&asp$L directMtrue4d"M"uh4ANM89?764siteM"si/li#e Gau%nit.+ & R&+ 4 ere+ ;& C& '5665)& Contents o* codes o* ethics o* pro*essional "usiness organi.ations in the United States& Journal States& Journal of Business Ethics, $#'7)+ $#'7)+ 8& Retrie#ed
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*ro% http:BBsearch&e"scohost&co%Blogin&asp$L directMtrue4d"M"uh4ANM7575>664siteM"si/li#e Neill+ ;& D&+ Sto#all+ O& S&+ 4 ;in1erson+ D& & '566<)& A critical anal!sis o* the accounting industr!s #oluntar! code o* conduct& Journal conduct& Journal of Business Ethics, #"'7B5)+ #"'7B5)+ 767/769& doi:76&766Bs76<<7/669/9 No"es+ C& -& -& '566<)& Rules/"ased standards standards and the lac1 o* principles in accounting& Accountin% accounting& Accountin% Hori&ons, 1"'7)+ 1"'7)+ 5/<>& doi: 76&766Bs76<<7/677/77 76&766Bs76<<7/677/77??/< ??/< Spiceland+ ;& D&+ Sepe+ ;& F&+ 4 Nelson+ =& -& '5678)& 'nterediate '5678)& 'nterediate accountin% 'th 'th ed&)& Ne or1+ N: =cGra/HillBIrin& Thorne+ &+ 4 =asse!+ D& '5677)& Ethics and the accountant& *A *a%a&ine (1"2+4##!), 8#(1), 86/87& Retrie#ed *ro% http:BBsearch&e"scohost&co%Blogin&asp$L directMtrue4d"M"uh4ANM?6868>>?4siteM"si/li#e Tre#ino+ & P&+ 4 Nelson+ P& A& '567)& *ana%in% '567)& *ana%in% usiness ethics- .trai%ht tal/ aout how to do it ri%ht '?th '?th ed&)& Ho"o1en+ N;: -ile!& erschoor+ erschoor+ C& C& '5676)& IFRS ould o uld escalate ethical challenges ch allenges *or accountants& .trate%ic 0inance, "2(1), 78/79& "2(1), 78/79& Retrie#ed *ro% http:BBsearch&e"scohost&co%Blogin&asp$L directMtrue4d"M"uh4ANM<79987954siteM"si/li#e -hetstone+ ;& T& '5667)& Ho #irtue *its ithin "usiness ethics& Journal ethics& Journal of Business Ethics, $$(2)+ $$(2)+ 767/77& Retrie#ed *ro% http:BBsearch&e"scohost&co%Blogin&asp$L directMtrue4d"M"uh4ANM<67<>4siteM"si/li#e
ETHICS AND ACCOUNTING
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