Ramón Meza Barros
Fuentes de las Obligaciones Tomo II
LEX Biblioteca Jurídica Virtual
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Fuentes de las las Obligaciones Tomo Tomo II
a!ítulo I
O"TR#TO$ O"TR#TO$ RE#LE$ %& El !r'stamo en general&( En general, el préstamo es un contrato en que una de las partes entrega una cosa a otra, confiriéndole el derecho de servirse de ella, con cargo de restitución. Pero son diversas las maneras de servirse de las cosas. Unas veces, el viso destruye la cosa; otras veces, no altera su sustancia. Si quien recibe el préstamo adquiere sólo el derecho de servirse de la cosa, de modo que no altere su sustancia y debe restituir la cosa misma que recibió, el contrato es un préstamo de viso o comodato. El prestamista conserva el dominio dominio de la cosa y el prestatario prestatario es deudor de una especie especie o cuerpo cierto. l contrario, si el que recibe el préstamo puede hacer de la cosa un uso que no es susceptible de renovarse, que la destruye, y no debe restituir la cosa misma sino otra seme!ante, el contrato es de mutuo o préstamo de consumo. El prestamista transfiere el dominio al prestatario y éste se convierte en deudor de una obligación de género. Por consiguiente, el préstamo reviste dos formas" el préstamo de uso o comodato, que impone la obligación de restituir la cosa misma, y el préstamo de consumo o mutuo, que obliga a devolver cosas an#logas a las recibidas. I& EL OMO)#TO *& )e+inición del comodato&( El art. $%&' define el comodato" (El comodato o préstamo de uso es un contrato en que una de las partes entrega a la otra gratuitamente gratuitamente tina especie, mueble o ra)*, para que haga uso de ella, y con cargo de restituir la misma especie después de terminado el Uso(. +as partes que intervienen en el contrato se denominan comodante y comodatario. 1. Caracteres y requisitos del contrato
,& Enunciación&( Seala la definición legal los caracteres m#s salientes del comodato o préstamo de uso" es un contrato real, gratuito y unilateral. adamos que el comodato es un t)tulo de mera tenencia. El comodato requiere los elementos generales propios de todo contrato. -nteresa solamente insistir en la cosa prestada. -& El comodato es un contrato real&( El comodato es un contrato real porque se perfecciona por la entrega de la cosa prestada art. %''/0. Este car#cter del contrato resulta, en la concepción cl#sica de los contratos reales, de la naturale*a misma de las cosas. Engendra una obligación de restituir y no se puede estar obligado a la restitución sino
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El art. $%&', inc. $3, dispone e4presamente" (Este contrato no se perfecciona sino por la tradición de la cosa( $.
.& El comodato es un contrato gratuito&( Pertenece el comodato a la clase de los contratos gratuitos, car#cter que destaca la definición del art. $%&'. Solamente se grava el comodante en favor del comodatario. +a gratuidad es de la esencia del comodato. Si se estipula que el comodatario suministrar# al comodante una contraprestación en recompensa del servicio que le brinda, la convención degenera en un contrato diverso., En caso que la contraprestación consista en dinero o en una parte o cuota de los frutos de la cosa, el contrato podr# ser de arriendo. /& El comodato es un contrato unilateral&( El comodato genera obligaciones para una de las partes contratantes" el comodatario que se obliga a restituir la cosa prestada. El comodante no contrae ninguna obligación. +a entrega de la cosa no es una obligación sino que un requisito del contrato. ntes de la entrega no hay contrato; una ve* que se efect5a, el comodatario se encuentra obligado a restituir. restituir. 0& El comodato es un título de mera tenencia&( El comodato es un t)tulo de mera tenencia y el comodatario es un mero tenedor. El comodante conserva el dominio de la cosa y todos sus derechos en ella, compatibles con la facultad de go*ar la el comodatario. El art. $%&6 e4presa" (El comodante conserva sobre la cosa prestada todos los derechos que antes ten)a, pero no su e!ercicio, en cuanto fuere incompatible con el uso concedido al comodatario(. El comodante no sólo conserva sus derechos en la cosa; conserva asimismo la posesión. El art. &$7 previene que el poseedor conserva la posesión, (aunque transfiera la tenencia de la cosa, d#ndola en arriendo, comodato, prenda, depósito, usufructo, o a cualquiera otro t)tulo no translaticio de dominio(. 1& osas 2ue !ueden ser ob3eto de un !r'stamo de uso& +as cosas que pueden darse en comodato deben ser, por regla regla general, general, no fungibles fungibles,, puesto puesto que el comodatar comodatario io debe restituir restituir la misma misma cosa que recibió. +a fungibilidad de la cosa depende de la voluntad de las partes. Entre las circunstancias que servir#n para colegir esta voluntad, cuando no se haya manifestado en forma e4presa, la m#s importante es, sin duda, la naturale*a no consumible de la cosa prestada. Se concibe, sin embargo, que la cosa dada en comodato sea consumible. Pothier seala como e!emplo el caso de un ca!ero que tiene un déficit en su ca!a y que solicita de un amigo una suma de dinero necesaria para cubrirlo, mientras se verifica una inspección, y con cargo de devolver el mismo dinero. +a cosa prestada puede ser mueble o ra)*. 4& omodato de la cosa a3ena&( 2o es menester que el comodante sea dueo de la cosa prestada; puede darse en .comodato .comodato una cosa respecto respecto de la que que se tiene sólo un derecho de usufructo. usufructo. +a cosa puede ser a!ena. El contrato, ciertamente, no es oponible al dueo y éste podr# reclamar la cosa. Pero, a la inversa que en la compraventa en que el comprador evicto puede accionar contra el vendedor, el comodatario, por regla general, no tiene acción contra el comodante. +a obligación de garant)a es propia de los contratos onerosos. El art. $%88 previene" (Si la cosa no perteneciere al comodante y el dueo la reclamare antes de terminar el comodato, no tendr# el comodatario acción de per!uicios contra el comodante; salvo que éste haya sabido que la cosa era a!ena y no lo haya advertido al comodatario(. comodatario(.
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Fuentes de las las Obligaciones Tomo Tomo II
%5& 6rueba del comodato&( El comodato constituye una calificada e4cepción a las reglas generales que presiden la prueba testimonial. 2o rigen para su prueba las limitaciones de los arts. %&98 y %&9:. El art. $%&7 dispone" (El contrato de comodato podr# probarse por testigos, cualquiera que sea el valor de la cosa prestada(. !. E"ectos !. E"ectos del comodato comodato
%%& Obligaciones del comodatario&( El comodato genera obligaciones sólo para el comodatario. Estas obligaciones son, sustancialmente, sustancialmente, tres" a0 onservar la cosa. b0 Usar de ella en los términos términos convenidos o seg5n seg5n su uso ordinario. ordinario. c0
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#am$n %e&a Barros Barros
%-& Obligación de usar de la cosa en los t'rminos con7enidos o seg8n su uso ordinario&( El comodatario debe dar a la cosa solamente el uso determinado por el acuerdo e4preso o t#cito de las partes. falta de una e4presa estipulación, debe el comodatario dar a la cosa el uso que ordinariamente le corresponda, de acuerdo con su naturale*a. Por e!emplo, si se presta un caballo de silla, no podr# el comodatario uncirlo a un carrua!e El art. $%&& consigna estas reglas" (El comodatario no puede emplear la cosa sino en el uso convenido, o a falta de convención, en el uso ordinario de las de su clase(. +a disposición establece, asimismo, la sanción que la infracción trae consigo" (podr# el comodante e4igir la reparación de todo per!uicio, y la restitución inmediata, aunque para la restitución se haya estipulado pla*o( art. $%&&, inc. $30. %.& Obligación de restituir la cosa !restada&( El comodatario debe restituir en la época estipulada o, en defecto de estipulación, después de haber hecho el uso convenido. =al =al es la regla que consigna el art. $%89" (El comodatario es obligado a restituir la cosa prestada en el tiempo convenido; o a falta de convención, después del uso para que ha sido prestada(. E4cepcionalmente puede el comodante reclamar anticipadamente la restitución" a0 (Si muere el comodatario, a menos que la cosa haya sido prestada para un servicio particular que no pueda diferirse o suspenderse( art. $%89, 2.3 %30; b0 (Si sobreviene sobreviene al comodante una necesidad imprevista imprevista y urgente urgente de la cosa( art. art. $%89, 2.3 $30; $30; c0 (Si ha terminado o no tiene lugar el servicio para el cual se ha prestado la cosa( art. $%89, 2.3 /30; y, d0 Si el comodatario hace un, uso indebido de la cosa art. $%&&, inc. $30. %/& asos en 2ue el comodatario !uede negarse a restituir&( 2o puede el comodatario comodatario e4cusarse de de restituir la cosa a prete4to de que la retiene (para seguridad de lo que deba el comodante( art. $%8$0, ni de que la cosa prestada (no pertenece al comodante( art. $%8/, inc. %30. on todo, el comodatario puede y aun debe negarse a la restitución en ciertos casos. a0 Puede el comodatario e4cusarse de restituir, y retener la cosa prestada, para la seguridad de las indemni*aciones que el comodante le deba arts. $%8$ y $%:/0. En otros términos, el comodatario puede negarse a restituir cuando la ley le autori*a para e!ercitar el derecho legal de retención. b0 >ebe suspender la restitución el comodatario cuando la cosa se embargue en su poder por orden !udicial art. art. $%8/, inc. %30. %30. on arreglo al precepto general del art. %7&8, 2.3$3, no es v#lido el pago (si por el !ue* se ha embargado la deuda o mandado retener el pago(. c0 En caso de que la cosa prestada haya sido perdida, hurtada o robada a su dueo, debe el comodatario denunciarlo al propietario, d#ndole un pla*o ra*onable para reclamarla, y suspender la restitución entre tanto. +a falta de aviso har# responsable al comodatario (de los per!uicios que de la restitución se sigan al dueo( art. $%8/, inc. $30. Si el dueo no reclamare la cosa oportunamente, podr# el comodatario restituirla al comodante. En todo caso, el dueo no puede e4igir la restitución sino con autori*ación del comodante o con orden !udicial. d0 El art. $%8' dispone" (El comodatario es obligado a suspender la restitución de toda especie de armas ofensivas y de toda otra cosa de que sepa se trata de hacer un uso criminal; pero deber# ponerlas a disposición del !ue*(. e0 >ebe el comodatario suspender la restitución (cuando el comodante ha perdido el !uicio y carece de cuidado( art. $%8', inc. $30.
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Fuentes de las las Obligaciones Tomo Tomo II
%0& # 2ui'n debe 9acerse la restitución&( +a restitución de la cosa prestada debe hacerse a quien corresponda, seg5n las regla comunes. El art. $%8% dispone" (+a restitución deber# hacerse al comodante, o a la persona que tenga derecho para recibirla recibirla a su nombre seg5n seg5n las reglas generales(. generales(. Establece la misma disposición una importante derogación a la regla general del art. %7&8, 2.3 %3" (Si la cosa ha sido prestada por un incapa* que usaba de ella con permiso de su representante legal, ser# v#lida su restitución al incapa*( art. $%8%, inc. $30. Puesto que el incapa* usaba de la cosa prestada autori*ado por su representante, la restitución puede hacérsele para que siga us#ndola como antes. %1& #cciones !ara !edir la restitución&( Para pedir la restitución el comodante dispone de la acción personal nacida del del comodato. +a +a acción sólo puede dirigirse contra contra el comodatario comodatario o sus herederos. herederos. Pero el comodante, dueo de la cosa, puede e!ercitar, adem#s, la acción reivindicatoria. reivindicatoria. ? ésta ser# la 5nica acción de que dispondr# cuando la cosa haya salido de manos del comodatario y pasado a las de terceros. %4& Obligación del comodante de !agar e:!ensas ; !er3uicios&( unque el comodato es un contrato unilateral, que engendra solamente obligaciones para el comodatario, puede el comodante, por su, parte, resultar resultar obligado. +as obligaciones del comodante consisten en pagar al comodatario las e4pensas de conservación de la cosa y los per!uicios que le hubiere ocasionado. =ales obligaciones no son contempor#neas del contrato; provienen de hechos posteriores a su celebración. *5& Obligación de !agar las e:!ensas de conser7ación de la cosa&( Estar# obligado eventualmente el comodante a pagar las e4pensas hechas para la conservación de la cosa aun efectuadas sin su previa noticia. a0 +as e4pensas deben tener un car#cter e4traordinario" e4traordinario" (Si las e4pensas no han sido de las ordinarias de conservación, como la de alimentar al caballo( art. $%:%, 2.3 %$0, debe indemni*arlas el comodante. b0 >ebe tratarse de e4pensas necesarias y urgentes, urgentes, (de manera que no haya sido posible consultar al comodante, y se presuma fundadamente que teniendo éste la cosa en su poder no hubiera de!ado de hacerlas( art. $%:%, 2.3 $30. simismo mo deb debee el comoda comodante nte indemn indemni*a i*arr al *%& Obligació Obligación n de indemniz indemnizar ar !er3uicio !er3uicios&( s&( simis comodatario de los per!uicios que le haya causado la mala calidad o condición de la cosa prestada. Para ello es menester que la condición o mala calidad re5na las condiciones siguientes" a0 (que haya sido conocida y no declarada por el comodante( art. $%:$, 2.3 $30; b0 que sea de tal naturale*a que fuere probable que hubiese de ocasionar per!uicios art. $%:$, 2.3 %30; y c0 que el comodatario no haya podido con mediano cuidado conocerla o precaver los per!uicios art. $%:$, 2.3 /30.
**& )erec9o )erec9o de retenció retención n del comodatar comodatario&( io&( on el ob!eto ob!eto de garant garanti*a i*arr al comoda comodatar tario io el cumplimiento de las obligaciones que para con él contraiga el comodante, por el pago de e4pensas y per!uicios, la la ley le concede concede el derecho legal legal de retención. El art. $%:/ dispone" (El comodatario podr# retener la cosa prestada mientras no se efect5a la indemni*ación de que se trata en los dos art)culos precedentes; salvo que el comodante caucione el pago
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#am$n %e&a Barros Barros
+a respon responsab sabili ilidad dad solida solidaria ria no pue puede de refer referirs irsee sino sino a las indemn indemni*a i*acio ciones nes que se dab daban an al comodante por los daos causados en la cosa o a la obligación de pagar su valor. +a obligación de restituir la cosa es indivisible, de acuerdo con lo prevenido en el art. %7$6, 2.3 $:, y puede reclamarse reclamarse de aquel de los comodatarios que la detente.
*-& Transmisibilidad Transmisibilidad de los derec9os ; obligaciones de las !artes&( +as obligaciones y derechos de comodante y comodatario pasan a sus herederos. El art. $%86 establece que (las obligaciones y derechos que nacen del comodato, pasan a los herederos de ambos contrayentes(. a0 @allecido el comodante, el comodatario podr# continuar usando de la cosa; la restitución se verificar# a los herederos y contra ellos podr# el comodatario entablar las acciones para reclamar el pago de e4pensas y per!uicios. El art. $%:9 resume estas ideas" (El comodato no se e4tingue por la muerte del comodante(. b0 2o ocurre lo mismo cuando fallece el comodatario. +os herederos del comodatario, por regla gene genera ral, l, (no (no tend tendr# r#nn dere derech choo a cont contin inua uarr en el uso uso de la cosa cosa pres presta tada da(( art art.. $% $%86 8600 y debe deben, n, consiguientemente, consiguientemente, restituirla. El comodato, para esta parte, es un contrato intuito 'ersonae. Sin embargo, podr#n continuar usando de la cosa, en, el caso del 2.3 % del art. $%89, esto es, cuando ha sido prestada para un servicio particular que no puede suspenderse o diferirse. diferirse. Pero los herederos del comodatario quedan su!etos a todas las obligaciones y tienen todos los dem#s derechos que derivan del comodato. omo omo con consec secuen uencia cia,, el art. art. $%8 $%8&& dispon dispone" e" (Si los herede herederos ros del comoda comodatar tario, io, no tenien teniendo do conocimiento del préstamo, hubieren ena!enado la cosa prestada, podr# el comodante no pudiendo o no queriendo hacer uso de la acción reivindicatoria, o siendo ésta inefica*0 e4igir de los herederos que le paguen el !usto precio de la cosa prestada o que le cedan las acciones que en virtud de la ena!enación les competan, seg5n viere convenirle(. ? aade el inc. $3" (Si tuvieron conocimiento del préstamo, resarcir#n todo per!uicio y aun podr#n ser perseguidos criminalmente seg5n las circunstancias del hecho(. ometer)an, en tal caso, el delito de estafa art. '&9, 2.3 %, del . Penal0. (. El comodato El comodato 'recario
*.& once!to&( El comodante no puede pedir la restitución antes del tiempo convenido o terminado el uso para que fue prestada la cosa. El comodato recibe la denominación de precario cuando el comodante puede, en cualquier tiempo, recobrar la cosa. El art. $%:' e4presa" (El comodato toma el t)tulo de 'recario si el comodante se reserva la facultad de pedir la restitución de la cosa prestada en cualquier tiempo(. Pero no solamente solamente se reputa precario precario el comodato comodato Aen que se formula formula la reserva reserva indicada indicada de la
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Fuentes de las las Obligaciones Tomo Tomo II
-ncumbir# al demandado acreditar, por su parte, que tiene un t)tulo que !ustifique la detentación de la cosa y que, por tanto, no la ocupa por mera tolerancia o ignorancia del dueo. Entre los t)tulos que invoque el demandado puede estar su pretendido dominio de la cosa; si lo tiene, cualquiera que sea la calidad de su t)tulo, no hay precario. +a discusión acerca del me!or derecho de las partes debe ser ser materia de un !uicio de lato lato conocimiento. El !uicio de precario se tramita con arreglo a las normas del !uicio sumario art. 689, 2.3 63, del . de P. ivil0.
*& EL M
*4& El mutuo es un contrato real&( El mutuo es un contrato real puesto que se perfecciona por la tradición de la cosa. El art. $%:& le atribuye e4presamente este car#cter" (2o se perfecciona el contrato de mutuo sino por la tradición, y la tradición transfiere el dominio(. +a tradición puede verificarse de cualquiera de los modos que seala el art. 68'. ,5& El mutuo es un contrato unilateral&( El mutuo solamente impone obligaciones al mutuario y es, por consiguiente, consiguiente, un contrato unilateral. unilateral. El mutuario se obliga a restituir cosas del mismo género y calidad de las que recibió en préstamo. El mutuante no contrae ninguna obligación. ,%& El mutuo es un contrato naturalmente oneroso&( Para el ódigo ivil el mutuo es un contrato naturalmente gratuito. +a obligación de pagar intereses, que lo hace oneroso, por tanto, requiere una e4presa estipulación. ctualmente se ha alterado la fisonom)a del contrato. En primer lugar, el >ecreto +ey 2.3 '77 de
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#am$n %e&a Barros Barros
Puesto que el mutuario debe restituir, a cambio de las cosas que recibe, otras tantas del mismo género y calidad, es evidente que ha de tratarse de cosas que puedan reempla*arse mutuamente. mutuamente. +as cosas fungibles permiten una restitución en equivalente. +a fungibilidad es una relación de equivalencia entre dos cosas, en cuya virtud una puede llenar la misma función liberatoria que la otra.
,-& alidades de las !artes en el mutuo&( El mutuante y el mutuario deben reunir calidades diversas porque distinto es, también, su rol en el contrato. contrato. a0 El mutuante debe ser capa* de ena!enar y dueo de las cosas dadas en mutuo. Si el mutuante es incapa* de ena!enar, el contrato adolecer# de nulidad. En caso de que el mutuante no sea dueo de la cosa, ciertamente no adquirir# el dominio el mutuario y conservar# el propietario su derecho. El art. $$9$ dispone que (si hubiere prestado el que no ten)a derecho de ena!enar, se podr#n reivindicar las especies, mientras conste su identidad(. >esaparecida la identidad, se hace imposible el e!ercicio de la acción reivindicatoria. El mutuario que recibió de mala fe, o sea, a sabiendas de que la cosa prestada era a!ena, (ser# obligado al pago inmediato con el m#4imum de los intereses que la ley permite estipular(. Si est# de buena fe debe pagar, con los intereses estipulados, pasados die* d)as desde la entrega art. $$9$, inc. $30. b0 El mutuario, por su parte, debe ser capa* de obligarse, so pena de nulidad del contrato de mutuo. Pero el mutuante no podr# repetir la suma prestada sino en cuanto se probare haberse hecho m#s rica la persona incapa*, en los términos que seala el art. %688. !. E"ectos del contrato de mutuo
,.& Obligaciones del mutuario&( El mutuario tiene la obligación de restituir otras tantas cosas del mismo género y calidad de las que recibió en préstamo, Para determinar la forma cómo debe efectuarse la restitución, es menester distinguir si la cosa prestada es dinero dinero u otras cosas cosas fungibles. ,/& Restitución en el !r'stamo de dinero&( El hoy derogado derogado art. $%::* establec)a el nominalismo, esto es, el deudor, sólo deb)a la suma numérica e4presada en el contrato. Por lo tanto, para la restitución de la suma prestada, hab)a que estarse al valor nominal de la moneda, con prescindencia de su valor real, aunque por la depreciación monetaria, al tiempo del pago, representara en la realidad una suma de valor adquisitivo menor. Esta norma presupon)a una relativa estabilidad monetaria, lo que derivó en in!usticias, especialmente en per)odos de alta inflación como los que ha vivido el pa)s. El >ecreto +ey 2.3 '77 + del ao %:&' + que derogó el art. $%:: del ódigo ivil, abordó por primera ve* en una legisl legislaci ación ón especi especial al pero pero con caract caracter eres es gen genera erales les este este tema, tema, en las que den denomi ominó nó
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Fuentes de las las Obligaciones Tomo Tomo II
En efecto, como ya di!imos, en conformidad al art. %$ de la +ey 2.3 %8.9%9, la gratuidad no se presume en las obligaciones de dinero, y todas ellas devengan intereses, distinguiendo la ley la forma en que se ha pactado el crédito. b0 El art. 63 de la misma entrega a la Superintendencia de Cancos e -nstituciones -nstituciones @inancieras, la determinación de las tasas de interés corriente, distinguiendo entre operaciones rea!ustables y las que no lo son. El c#lculo c#lculo se hace sobre la base de promediar promediar los intereses intereses cobrados cobrados por los bancos de la pla*a en cada per)odo. c0 En el c#lculo de las tasas para operaciones no rea!ustables, los bancos incluyen la tasa de desvalori*ación de nuestra moneda ocupando diversos )ndices, especialmente el -ndice de Precios al onsumidor que fi!a el -nstituto 2acional de Estad)sticas y ensos0. >e esta manera, aun en las operaciones de dinero en que no se han pactado rea!ustes, éstos se devengan igualmente, por cuanto, en la tasa de interés aplicable, ellos se incluyen de la manera indicada. @inalmente, en conformidad al art. /$, en las operaciones de crédito de dinero en moneda nacional en qué no tenga la calidad de parte alguna empresa bancaria, sociedad financiera o cooperativa de ahorro y crédito, podr# convenirse libremente cualquier forma de rea!uste. Si se hubiere pactado alguno de los sistemas de rea!uste autori*ados por el Canco entral de hile y éste se derogare o modificare, los contratos contratos vigentes vigentes continuar continuar#n #n rigiéndos rigiéndosee por el sistema sistema convenido, convenido, salvo que las partes partes acuerden acuerden sustituirlo por otro. #ea,ustabilidad #ea,ustabilidad de las o'eraciones en moneda e-tran,era abe sealar que en las operaciones en moneda e4tran!era, la ley no permite aplicar tasas de rea!ustabilidad, partiendo del principio de que estas monedas, en s) mismas, conllevan rea!ustabilidad art. $' de la +ey 2.3 %8.9%90.
,0& Restitución Restitución de cosas cosas +ungibles +ungibles 2ue no sean dinero&( dinero&( uando el préstamo recae sobre cosas fungibles que no sean dinero, (se deber# restituir igual cantidad de cosas del mismo género y calidad( art. $%:80. 2o altera la obligación del mutuario la circunstancia de que el precio de las cosas haya subido o ba!ado en el tiempo tiempo que medie entre el préstamo préstamo y la restitución. restitución. Sin embargo, si no fuere posible restituir cosas del mismo género y calidad o el acreedor no lo e4igiere, (podr# el mutuario pagar lo que valgan en el tiempo y lugar en que ha debido hacerse el pago( art. $%:80 En otros términos, el mutuario puede pagar el equivalente en dinero. ,1& =!oca de la restitución&( +a obligación del mutuario es siempre una obligación a pla*o; siempre ha de mediar un tiempo entre la entrega y la restitución. El tiempo de la restitución puede fi!arlo la convención de las partes o la ley. a0 +a época de la restitución la seala, en primer término, el acuerdo de las partes. El pla*o, en tal caso, ser# convencional.
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#am$n %e&a Barros Barros
-5& Ti!os de inter's&( +a ley distingue claramente en la actualidad, rea!ustes e intereses, definiendo que sólo son intereses aquellos que se devengan por sobre el capital rea!ustado. Esta distinción tiene enorme importancia, seg5n lo veremos a continuación, puesto que la ley limita el monto de los intereses. -gualmente, en materia tributaria, en general, sólo constituye renta y, por lo tanto, da lugar a cobro de impuesto, lo percibido a t)tulo de intereses, con prescindencia de lo recibido por rea!ustes, que no constituye ingreso afecto a impuesto a la renta. En conformidad al art. %% de la +ey 2.3 %8.9 %9, los intereses para operaciones de crédito de dinero sólo pueden estipularse en dinero. En nuestro pa)s el cobro de intereses est# su!eto a la voluntad de las partes, con ciertos l)mites. Para establecer tales l)mites, la +ey 2.3 %8.9%9 consagra el (interés corriente( que es el promedio cobrado por los bancos y las sociedades financieras establecidas establecidas en hile en las operaciones que realicen en el pa)s. +a ley entrega a la Superintendencia de Cancos e -nstituciones -nstituciones @inancieras determinar dicho interés corriente, pudiendo distinguir entre operaciones en moneda nacional rea!ustables y no rea!ustables, o seg5n los pla*os pactados en tales operaciones. Foy d)a, atendiendo al tipo de operaciones bancarias bancarias autori*adas, se determinan tres tipos de interés" a0 intereses para operaciones no rea!ustables en moneda nacional a menos de :9 d)as; b0 intereses intereses para operaciones no rea!ustables en moneda nacional de de :9 d)as o m#s; y c0 intereses para operaciones rea!ustables en moneda nacional. +a Superintendencia fi!a también el interés promedio para operaciones en una o m#s monedas e4tran!eras o e4presadas en dichas monedas. +os promedios se establecen en relación con las operaciones efectuadas durante cada mes calendario por los bancos y sociedades financieras que operan en el pa)s. +as tasas resultantes se publican en el >iario Dficial durante la primera quincena del mes siguiente, para tener vigencia hasta el d)a anterior a la pró4ima publicación. publicación. Para determinar el promedio que corresponda, la Superintendencia puede omitir las operaciones su!etas a refinanciamientos o subsidios u otras que, por su naturale*a, distorsionen la tasa del mercado. Inter)s m/-imo con0encional. 2o puede estipularse un interés que e4ceda en m#s de un 79G al interés corriente que ri!a al momento de la convención, ya sea que se pacte tasa fi!a o variable. Este l)mite de interés se denomina interés m#4imo convencional. El ódigo de omercio consagró una solución coincidente con esta posición. El art. &:8 establece" (+a gratuidad no se presume en los préstamos mercantiles, y éstos ganar#n intereses legales, salvo que las partes acordaren acordaren lo contrario(. +a +ey 2.3 %8.9%9 adoptó este 5ltimo criterio. +a gratuidad no se presume en las operaciones de crédito de dinero; salvo disposición de la ley o pacto en contrario, devengar#n intereses legales art. %$0. El mutuo, por ende, es naturalmente oneroso. =anto el pacto de intereses como el que e4ima de su pago deber#n constar por escrito art. %' de la
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Fuentes de las las Obligaciones Tomo Tomo II
-,& Límite de los intereses&( omo ya vimos, la ley ni0 permite estipular intereses que e4cedan el interés m#4imo convencional, esto es, el interés corriente vigente a la época de la convención, recargado en un 79G conforme la fi!ación hecha por la Superintendencia de Cancos e -nstituciones -nstituciones @inancieras. >entro >entro de tales l)mites, l)mites, en todo caso, las partes partes tienen tienen plena libertad libertad para pactar pactar interese intereses, s, con la limitación de que éstos deben ser sólo en dinero. --& $anción !or el cobro de intereses e:cesi7os& a0 En el /mbito ci0il El art. 83 de la +ey 2.3 %8.9%9 dispone que (se tendr# por no escrito todo pacto de intereses que e4ceda el m#4imo convencional, y en tal caso los intereses se reducir#n al interés corriente que ri!a al momento de la convención(. Esta norma tiene hoy d)a, adem#s, aplicación general, por cuanto el art. %: dispone que (se aplicar# el interés corriente en todos los casos en que las leyes u otras disposiciones se refieran al interés legal o al m#4imo bancario(. En conformidad al art. %77: del ódigo ivil, si la obligación es de pagar una cantidad de dinero, la indemni*ación de per!uicios por la mora est# su!eta a las reglas siguientes" %. Se siguen debiendo los intereses convencionales, si se ha pactado un interés superior al legal, o empie*an a deberse los intereses legales, en el caso contrario; quedando, sin embargo, en su fuer*a las disposiciones especiales especiales que autoricen el cobro de los intereses corrientes en ciertos casos. $. El acreedor no tiene necesidad de !ustificar per!uicios cuando sólo cobra intereses; basta el hecho del retardo. /. +os intereses atrasados no producen interés. '. +a regla anterior se aplica a toda especie de rentas, c#nones y pensiones periódicas. En conformidad al art. $$96 del ódigo ivil (el interés convencional no tiene m#s l)mites que los
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Fasta la dictación de la +ey 2.3 %8.9%9, el art. $$%9 del ódigo ivil prohib)a el anatocismo. En verdad, ya desde antes de la entrada en vigencia de esa ley, en materia de operaciones de crédito de dinero, el anatocismo era una situación com5n. El art. :$ de la +ey 2.3 %8.9%9 dispone que (podr# estipularse el pago de intereses sobre intereses, capita capitali li*#n *#ndol dolos os en cada cada ven vencim cimien iento to o renova renovació ciónn con consag sagr#n r#ndos dosee de este este modo, modo, legalm legalment ente, e, el anatocismo. Limitaciones Limitaciones al anatocismo anatocismo
a0 +a ley determina que en ning5n caso la capitali*ación podr# hacerse por per)odos inferiores a treinta d)as. b0 >el mismo modo, en conformidad al inciso final, los intereses correspondientes a una operación vencida que no hubiesen sido pagados se incorporar#n a ella, a menos que se estable*ca e4presamente lo contrario. >e esta forma, el anatocismo constituye hoy d)a un elemento de la naturale*a de las operaciones de crédit créditoo de diner dinero, o, pero pero dicho dicho anatoc anatocism ismoo se refier refieree sólo sólo a los interese interesess dev deveng engado adoss entre entre el otorgamiento otorgamiento de la operación y su vencimiento, y no a los intereses que se devenguen durante la mora. abe hacer presente que la norma del anatocismo es propia de las (operaciones de crédito de dinero(. 2o se aplica, como elemento de la naturale*a, a otros contratos, como el de compraventa, a menos, claro est#, que se haya pactado.
-/& 6resunciones de !ago de intereses ; rea3ustes&( En conformidad al art. %& de la +ey 2.3 %8.9%9, (si el acreedor otorga recibo del capital, se presumen pagados los intereses y el rea!uste, en su caso(. Esta norma reproduce la disposición del art)culo $$9: del ódigo ivil, en virtud de la cual (si; se han estipulado intereses y el mutuante -ra dado carta de pago por el capital, sin reservar e4presamente los intereses, se presumir#n pagados(. +a presunción es simplemente legal y, por lo que toca a los intereses, una consecuencia de las normas que regir)an la imputación al pago. +a imputación debe hacerse primeramente a los intereses y luego al
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Fuentes de las las Obligaciones Tomo Tomo II
permitir el pago anticipado, anticipado, sin lesionar los los derechos del acreedor, acreedor, que podr)a no tener tener interés en recibir recibir tal pago anticipado.
-1& Obligación e7entual del mutuante de indemnizar !er3uicios&( Si bien el contrato de mutuo genera gen era obliga obligacio ciones nes sólo sólo para para el mutuar mutuario, io, el mutuan mutuante te pue puede de result resultar ar obliga obligado, do, por su parte, parte, a consecuencia de circunstancias posteriores a su celebración. +a obligación del mutuante consiste en indemni*ar al mutuario los per!uicios que e4perimente (por la mala calidad o los vicios ocultos de la cosa prestada, ba!o las condiciones e4presadas en el art. $%:$( art. $$9/0. Es responsable el mutuante de los per!uicios que deriven de las causas apuntadas, con los requisitos siguientes" a0 que la mala calidad o los vicios de la cosa probablemente hubiesen de ocasionar per!uicios b0 que estas circunstancias hayan sido conocidas del mutuante y no declaradas por éste; y c0 que el mutuario no haya podido conocer los vicios o la mala calidad y precaver los per!uicios. El art. $$9/ concluye" (Si los vicios ocultos eran tales que conocidos no se hubiera probablemente celebrado el contrato, podr# el mutuario pedir que se rescinda( inc. $0. (. El mutuo El mutuo y otras instituciones a"ines
-4& Instituciones 2ue tienen a+inidad con el mutuo&( =iene el mutuo o préstamo de consumo seme!an*as con otra, instituciones e importa destacar los caracteres !ur)dicos que de ellas lo separan. El mutuo tiene afinidad con el comodato, con el arrendamiento y con el cuasiusufructo. .5& 6aralelo entre el mutuo ; el comodato&( +as diferencias que median entre ambos contratos se resumen como sigue" a0 El mutuo tiene por ob!eto cosas fungibles; el comodato, cosas no fungibles.
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.*& El mutuo ; el cuasiusu+ructo&( Se aseme!a el mutuo con el cuasiusufructo rribos recaen sobre cosas fungibles; el cuasiusufructuario también se hace dueo y la restitución se verifica en condiciones an#logas. Sin embargo, entre ambas instituciones pueden sealarse algunas importantes diferencias a0 El mutuo es siempre un contrato; el cuasiusufructo puede tener su origen en un contrato o en un testamento. b0 El usufructuario debe rendir caución, a menos que se le e4onere por el acto constitutivo o por la ley. El mutuario no debe rendir caución, a menos que se obligue a ello e4presamente. c0 +os derechos derivados del mutuo son transmisibles a los herederos del mutuario; el derecho del cuasiusufructuario cuasiusufructuario se e4tingue con su muerte y no pasa a sus herederos.
,& EL )E6O$ITO > EL $E
.,& )e+inición&( >efine el art. $$%% el depósito" (+l#mase en general de'$sito el contrato en que se conf)a una cosa corporal a una persona que se encarga de guardarla y de restituirla en especie( &. +a e4presión de'$sito designa tanto el acto o contrato Jcomo la cosa misma depositada art. $$%%, inc. $30. +a persona que hace el depósito se llama generalmente depositante; depositante; la que lo recibe se denomina, en general, depositario. .-& aracteres del de!ósito&( El depósito, a lo menos cuando tiene un origen contractual, presenta los siguientes caracteres" es un contrato real y unilateral.
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Fuentes de las las Obligaciones Tomo Tomo II
a0 El depósito propiamente tal puede ser voluntario o necesario. En el primero, la elección del depositario depende de la libre voluntad del depositante; en el segundo, la elección del depositario es impuesta por las circunstancias. circunstancias. b0 El secuestro, a su turno, puede ser convencional o !udicial, seg5n se constituya por acuerdo de las partes o por decreto decreto de !ue*. !. El de'$sito 'ro'iamente dic2o
%0 >epósito voluntario
./& once!to&( El depó depósi sito to vo volu lunt ntar ario io se encu encuen entr traa defi defini nido do en el art. art. $$ $$%7 %7"" (El (El de'$sito contrato en que una de las partes entrega entrega a la otra una cosa corporal corporal y mueble mueble 'ro'iamente 'ro'iamente dic2o es un contrato para que la guarde guarde y la restituya restituya en especie a voluntad voluntad del depositante(. depositante(. .0& Ob3eto del de!ósito&( +a cosa ob!eto del contrato, denominada asimismo depósito, ha de ser corporal y mueble. El depósito propiamente tal no recae sobre bienes ra)ces, a la inversa del secuestro que puede recaer sobre bienes muebles o inmuebles. El depósito de bienes ra)ces es un contrato innominado; no cabr)a aplicarle, sin embargo, otras reglas que las que rigen el depósito. .1& a!acidad en el de!ósito 7oluntario&( 2o requiere la ley una capacidad especial para celebrar el contrato de depósito; es suficiente la capacidad general para celebrar cualquier contrato. El art. $$%8 consigna este principio" (Este contrato no puede tener pleno efecto sino entre personas capaces de contratar(. Prevé la disposición legal citada el caso en que el depositante o el depositario sean incapaces.
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#am$n %e&a Barros Barros
>eber# constar por escrito cuando la cosa depositada sea de un valor superior a dos unidades tributarias. +a omisión del acto escrito hace inadmisible la prueba testimonial., Pero, y en ello consiste la particularidad de este contrato, a falta de acto escrito, (ser# cre)do el depositario sobre su palabra, sea en orden al hecho mismo del depósito, sea en cuanto a la cosa depositada, o al hecho de la restitución art. $$%&0.
/%& Obligacio Obligaciones nes del de!ositar de!ositario&( io&( El depositar depositario io tiene tiene dos obligaci obligaciones ones fundament fundamentales ales,, una consecuencial de la otra" a0 guardar la cosa con la debida fidelidad; y b0 restituirla restituirla a requerimiento requerimiento del depositante. depositante. /*& Obligación de guardar la cosa&( =iene el depositario, en primer término, la obligación de (guardar( la cosa. Se siguen de esta obligación una serie de importantes consecuencias. consecuencias. a0 +a guarda de la cosa obliga al depositario a emplear la debida diligencia o cuidado. ede el
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Fuentes de las las Obligaciones Tomo Tomo II
/,& Obligación de restituir el de!ósito&( Pesa sobre el depositar depositario io la obligación obligación de restitui restituirr el depósito. =al es su obligación fundamental. -nteresa sustancialmente e4aminar cómo y cu#ndo debe efectuarse la restitución. +a definición del art. $$%7 establece, en s)ntesis, que la restitución debe verificarse (en especie a voluntad del depositante(. /-& ómo debe 9acerse la restitución&( -nteresa e4aminar, en primer término qué debe restituir el depositario. a0 +a cosa debe restituirse en su idéntica individualidad, esto es, en especie. >e este modo debe efectuarse la restitución aunque el depósito verse sobre cosas genéricas o fungibles. El depositario e cien sacos de trigo, por e!emplo, debe restituir e4actamente el trigo que recibió y no otro, aunque fuere de la misma calidad. El art. art. $$$ $$$88 dispo dispone" ne" (El dep deposi ositar tario io es obliga obligado do a la restit restituci ución ón de la misma misma cosa o cosas cosas individuales que se le han confiado en depósito, aunque consistan en dinero o cosas fungibles; salvo el caso del art. $$$%(.
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#am$n %e&a Barros Barros
/0& )e!ósito irregular ; mutuo&( +a seme!an*a entre el mutuo y el depósito irregular puede llegar al punto de una cabal cabal identidad. El banco o la institución de ahorro que recibe depósitos de dinero se encuentra pr#cticamente en la misma situación que si los hubiera recibido en préstamo, m#4ime si por dicho dinero paga un interés. =anto es as) que la +ey 2.3 %8.9%9, en su art. %$, define como (operaciones de crédito de dinero( aquellas en que una de las partes entrega una cantidad de dinero cliente del banco en este caso0 y la otra, se obliga a pagarla en un momento distinto de aquél en que se celebra la convención banco en este caso0. +a diferencia teóricamente estriba estriba en que el préstamo supone un pla*o pendiente en el cual no puede demandarse la restitución, en tanto que en el depósito debe efectuarse cuando el depositante lo requiera. Pero Pero esta esta difer diferenc encia ia es merame meramente nte accide accidenta ntall y desapa desaparec recee cuando cuando se ha establ estableci ecido do que el depositante no podr# e4igir la restitución sino al cabo de cierto pla*o, como sucede con los depósitos de ahorro.
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Fuentes de las las Obligaciones Tomo Tomo II
Estas desgraciadas circunstancias que determinan el depósito influyen decisivamente en sus efectos.
0*& 6eculiaridades del de!ósito necesario&( El depósito necesario, en general, (est# su!eto a las mismas reglas que el voluntario( art. $$'90. Sin embargo, se le aplican reglas especiales en cuanto a la prueba y a la responsabilidad que cabe al depositario. a0 +a premura con que se hace el depósito imposibilita al depositante para procurarse tina prueba escrita del contrato; como consecuencia, no se aplican las limitaciones de la prueba testimonial para acreditar el hecho del depósito, la naturale*a, calidad y cantidad de las cosas depositadas. El art. $$/& establece" JJcerca del depósito necesario es admisible toda especie de prueba(. b0 +a responsabilidad responsabilidad del depositario, que en el depósito voluntario voluntario alcan*a alcan*a sólo hasta la culpa culpa grave, salvas las e4cepciones legales, en el depósito necesario (se e4tiende hasta la culpa leve( art. $$/:0. 0,& )e!ósito necesario de 2ue se 9ace cargo un inca!az&( +a precipitación que imprimen las
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#am$n %e&a Barros Barros
(. El secuestro
0/& once!to&( El secuestro es una especie de depósito en poder de un tercero de una cosa que dos o m#s personas disputan, mientras se resuelve definitivamente acerca de sus respectivos derechos. El secuestro es, por consiguiente, una medida conservativa o de precaución. Fa definido esta variedad de depósito el art. $$':" (El secuestro es el depósito de una cosa que se disputan dos o m#s individuos, en manos de otro que debe restituirla al que obtenga tina decisión a su favor(. El depositario recibe la denominación especial, de secuestre art. $$':, inc. $30. 00& lases de secuestro&( El secuestro puede ser convencional o !udicial. Secuestro convencional es aquel que se constituye por un acuerdo de voluntad de las persona que se
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Fuentes de las las Obligaciones Tomo Tomo II
1%& El secuestro 3udicial&( El secuestro !udicial, como se di!o, se constituye por decreto de !ue* y se su!eta, adem#s, a las reglas del ódigo de Procedimiento ivil.
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+a acción oblicua o subrogatoria tiende a incrementar el patrimonio del deudor, mediante mediante el e!ercicio de derechos suyos, que éste negligentemente de!a de e!ercitar. e!ercitar. Por medio de la acción pauliana o revocatoria, tratan los acreedores de reintegrar al patrimonio del
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Fuentes de las las Obligaciones Tomo Tomo II
b0 Pero m#s eficaces son las garant)as reales. Se caracteri*an porque afectan determinados bienes al cumplimiento de la obligación. +as garant)as reales m#s importantes y t)picas son la prenda y la hipoteca. Estas garant)as la prenda y la hipoteca0 otorgan al acreedor dos inestimables venta!as" el derecho de
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#am$n %e&a Barros Barros
Puede ser convencional, legal o !udicial el origen de la obligación de procurarse un fiador. El deudor puede resultar obligado a proporcionar un fiador corno consecuencia de tina convención, de un mandato de la ley o de tina orden !udicial.
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#am$n %e&a Barros Barros
En la prenda sin despla*amiento de la +ey 2.3 %8.%%$, el art)culo %8 dispone que las cosas dadas en prenda no podr#n gravarse ni ena!enarse sin previo consentimiento escrito del acreedor, a menos que se convenga lo contrario. En caso de infracción de lo dispuesto en el inciso anterior, el acreedor puede pedir la inmediata reali*ación de la prenda, siguiendo contra el adquirente el procedimiento de desposeimiento sealado en el art)culo $7. En caso de que se autorice al deudor para gravar sucesivamente, no e4istiendo norma que confiera preferencia, deben deben considerarse todas todas las prendas como como del mismo grado.
*51& on+lictos 2ue origina el !ri7ilegio en algunas !rendas es!eciales&( En las prendas especiales suele originarse un conflicto entre los derechos del acreedor prendario con los derechos de los acreedores hipotecarios y de los arrendadores que go*an del derecho legal de retención. a0 +os conflictos con los acreedores hipotecarios son consecuencia de que las prendas especiales pueden recaer sobre bienes inmuebles por destinación o adherencia a los que se e4tiende igualmente la hipoteca del fundo. %. Cuena parte de los bienes susceptibles de darse en prenda agraria son bienes de aquellos a que se e4tiende la hipoteca art. $'$90. El art. '3 de la +ey 2.3 '.9:& dispone" (Para constituir prenda agraria sobre las cosas inmuebles por destinación o naturale*a, sealadas en el art. $3, no ser# necesario el acuerdo del acreedor a cuyo favor e4ista constituida hipoteca sobre los inmuebles a que se hayan incorporado los bienes materia de la prenda, y el crédito crédito prendario go*ar# go*ar# de preferencia preferencia en estos bienes, bienes, sobre el acreedor acreedor hipotecario. hipotecario. $. +a solución debe ser la misma para la prenda industrial. El art. $'$9 permite, no obstante la hipoteca, ena!enar los bienes inmuebles por destinación que, de este modo, de!an de estar hipotecados. on mayor ra*ón podr#n ser dados en prenda. /. El art. 8$ de la +ey 2.3 '.&9$ establece" ( la cosa dada en prenda, que adquiere la calidad de inmueble por destinación, no le afectar# ninguna hipoteca o gravamen sobre el inmueble, sin previo consentimiento del acreedor prendario(. b0 El conflicto con el arrendador se produce cuando el deudor es arrendatario arrendatario de la propiedad en que se guardan las cosas empeadas. %. El art. $/ de la +ey de Prenda graria establece que el acreedor prendario podr# e!ercitar, en todo caso, sus derechos con preferencia al de retención, que pudiera hacer valer el arrendador. Pero esta preferencia no rige rige para los bienes bienes depositados en predios urbanos. $. El art. $6 de la +ey de Prenda -ndustrial seala una solución totalmente diversa" (El arrendador sólo sólo pod podr# r# e!erc e!ercita itarr sus derech derechos os con prefe preferen renci ciaa al acreed acreedor or prenda prendario rio,, cuando cuando el con contra trato to de arrendamiento consta por escritura p5blica inscrita en el
e otro modo, go*a el acreedor prendario de la preferencia. /. El art. :$ de la +ey 2.3 '.&9$ consagra una solución aun diferente" (El acreedor prendario podr# e!ercitar su derecho con preferencia al de retención que corresponda al arrendador, siempre que la prenda se haya constituido con anterioridad al e!ercicio de este 5ltimo derecho(. eC )erec9o de indemnización de gastos ; !er3uicios *54& @astos de conser7ación&( +a tenencia de la prenda puede ocasionar al acreedor gastos que el deudor debe reembolsarle. reembolsarle. El art. $/:6 precisa los caracteres de estos gastos para que el acreedor tenga derecho a reclamar su reembolso y para retener la prenda mientras se le paguen" ha de tratarse de (gastos necesarios en que haya incurrido el acreedor para la conservación de la prenda(.
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Fuentes de las las Obligaciones Tomo Tomo II
*%5& 6ago de !er3uicios&( =iene el acreedor derecho, asimismo, para que se le paguen (los per!uicios que le hubiere ocasionado la tenencia( art. $/:60. +a indemni*ación se rige por las reglas generales; comprender# el dao emergente y el lucro cesante que haya e4perimentado el acreedor con ocasión de tener en su poder la cosa empeada. *C Obligaciones del acreedor *%%& Obligación de restituir la !renda&( El acreedor contrae la obligación fundamental de restituir la cosa empeada, una ve* satisfecha la obligación y pagados los gastos y per!uicios. +as restantes obligaciones del acreedor prendario son consecuenciales. *%*& ómo debe e+ectuarse la restitución&( El art. $'9/ establece cómo el acreedor debe restituir la cosa" (El acreedor es obligado a restituir la prenda con los aumentos que haya recibido de la naturale*a o del tiempo(. El deudor conserva el dominio de la cosa empeada y, como lógica consecuencia le pertenecen los aumentos que e4perimente. Esta regla tiene un e4cepción que consagra el propio art. $'9/" (Si la prenda ha dado frutos, podr# imputarlos al pago de la deuda dando cuenta de ellos y respondiendo del sobrante(. >e esta manera manera Ay en esto consiste la e4cepciónA e4cepciónA el acreedor acreedor no debe restitui restituirr los frutos; frutos; puede aplicarlos a su crédito, con la obligación de rendir cuenta y devolver el remanente. +a verdad es que esta regla no puede tener aplicación sino cuando los frutos consisten en intereses u otros frutos civiles. on ra*ón el ódigo francés autori*a al acreedor para retener los frutos e imputarlos a su crédito, (cuando se trata de un crédito dado en prenda y que este crédito produce intereses( art. $98%0. *%,& Obligación de conser7ar la !renda&( +a obligación de restituir la cosa tiene como obligado corolario la obligación de conservarla. +a obligación de conservar la cosa e4ige que se emplee en su cuidado la diligencia debida art. %7':0. El art. $/:' dispone" (El acreedor es obligado a guardar y conservar la prenda como buen padre de familia, y responde de los deterioros que la prenda haya sufrido por su hecho o culpa(. En suma, el acreedor prendario responde de la culpa leve. *%-& Obligación de no usar de la !renda&( +a prenda no faculta al acreedor para usar de la cosa empeada. El art. $/:7 es concluyente" (El acreedor no puede servirse de la prenda, sin el consentimiento del deudor. Ca!o este respecto sus obligaciones son las mismas que las del mero depositario(. pli plica cand ndoo las las regl reglas as del del depó depósi sito to art arts. s. $$ $$$9 $9 y $$ $$$% $%00 se conc conclu luye ye qu quee el acre acreed edor or po podr dr## e4cepcionalmente e4cepcionalmente usar de la prenda" a0 cuando el deudor le haya autori*ado; b0 criando sea de presumir esta autori*ación, atendidas las circunstancias, circunstancias, que el !ue* calificar# particularmente particularmente como consecuencia consecuencia del hecho de que la cosa no se deteriore deteriore sensiblemente sensiblemente por el uso; y c0 cuando se trate de dinero que no se entregue en arca cerrada, cuya llave conserve el deudor, o con otras precauciones que hagan imposible tomarlo sin fractura. ,C )erec9os del deudor *%.& )erec9o a 2ue se le restitu;a la cosa&( =iene el deudor derecho para reclamar la entrega de la prenda, correlativo correlativo de la obligación obligación del acreedor acreedor de restituirla. restituirla.
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#am$n %e&a Barros Barros
>ispone el deudor, adem#s, en caso de que sea dueo de la cosa empeada, de la acción real de dominio y puede e!ercerla tanto contra el acreedor como contra terceros. 2aturalmente que es menester que acredite este dominio para e!ercitar la acción reivindicatoria. reivindicatoria.
*%/& Otros derec9os del deudor&( =iene el deudor, adem#s, un con!unto de derechos de menor importancia" a0 +e asiste el derecho de reclamar (la restitución inmediata( si el acreedor abusa de la prenda art. $/:6, inc. /0. b0 Puede pedir que se le permita reempla*ar la prenda por otra, sin menoscabo de los derechos del acreedor prendario art. $/:6, inc. $0. c0 =iene el deudor derecho a que se le indemnicen los deterioros que la prenda haya sufrido por hecho o culpa del acreedor art. $/:'0. d0 Puede el deudor vender la prenda o constituir, a favor de terceros, derechos al goce o tenencia de la misma art. $'9'0. e0 +e corresponde al deudor el derecho de concurrir a la subasta de la cosa empeada art. $/:80. f0 Hientras no se haya ena!enado la prenda, tiene el deudor derecho para pagar la deuda e impedir el remate, con tal que el pago sea completo e incluya los gastos de la venta art. $/::0. -C Obligaciones del deudor *%0& Obligación e7entual de !agar gastos ; !er3uicios&( El deudor no contrae ninguna obligación derivada del contrato de prenda que es unilateral. Puede eventualmente resultar obligado a pagar al acreedor los gastos necesarios para la conservación de la prenda y los per!uicios que le haya ocasionado0 la tenencia art. $/:60. *%1& Obligaciones del deudor en algunas !rendas es!eciales&( En las prendas sin despla*amiento el deudor contrae numerosas obligaciones. Hientras en la prenda com5n toca al acreedor velar por la conservación de la prenda, guard#ndola como un buen padre de familia, en las prendas sin despla*amiento pesa sobre el deudor tal obligación. Son de cargo del deudor los gastos de conservación y custodia de la prenda; sus deberes y responsabilidades responsabilidades ser#n los ole un depositario arts. %% de la +ey 2.3 '.9:&, /$ de la +ey 2.3 7.68& y 6$ de la +ey 2.3 '.&9$0. El art. %7 de la +ey 2.3 '.9:& establece que (si el deudor abandonare las especies dadas en prenda, el tribunal, sin per!uicio de perseguir la responsabilidad criminal que le corresponda, podr# autori*ar al acreedor, a su opción, para que tome posesión de la prenda, designe un depositario o se proceda a su inmediata reali*ación(. =iene =iene el acreedor acreedor positivo positivo interés interés en imponerse imponerse del estado en que se encuentra encuentra la prenda. prenda. on tal ob!eto, el deudor tiene la obligación de permitir la inspección de la prenda por el acreedor arts. %$ de la +ey 2.3 '.9:& y // de la +ey 2.3 7.68&0. En desacuerdo de las partes, el !ue* fi!ar# la forma de las visitas de inspección. En la +ey 2.3 %8.%%$, art. %7, el acreedor prendario tiene derecho para inspeccionar en cualquier momento, por s) o por delegado, los efectos dados en prenda. En caso de oposición de parte del constituyente para que se verifique la inspección, tendr# derecho el acreedor para pedir la inmediata ena!enación de la prenda, siempre que requerido !udicialmente el constituyente insistiere en su oposición. 7. Trans"erencia del derec2o de 'renda
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Fuentes de las las Obligaciones Tomo Tomo II
+a cesión de un crédito, con arreglo a lo dispuesto en el art. %:96, (comprende sus fian*as, privilegios e hipotecas(. >el mismo mismo modo, modo, el traspa traspaso so de un crédit créditoo como como con consec secuen uencia cia del pag pagoo con subrog subrogaci ación, ón, comprende (todos los derechos, privilegios, prendas e hipotecas( art. %6%$0.
**5& Trans+erencia de los derec9os del acreedor en las !rendas es!eciales&( +a transferencia del derecho de prenda se encuentra sometida a reglas peculiares en las prendas especiales. a0 En efecto, con arreglo al art. &$ de la +ey 2.3 '.9:&, el derecho del acreedor prendario es transferible (por endoso escrito a continuación, al margen o al dorso del e!emplar del contrato inscrito(. El endoso debe contener la fecha, el nombre, domicilio y firma del endosante y del endosatario, ser autori*ado por un notario u oficial del e esta manera, si el crédito consta en un t)tulo a la orden, se transfiere mediante endoso; si es nominativo, en conformidad a las reglas de la cesión de créditos de esa naturale*a. Sin embargo, para que la cesión comprenda el derecho real de prenda, deber# perfeccionarse por escritura p5blica. 6. E-tinci$n de la 'renda
**%& Formas de e:tinción de la !renda&( +a prenda, del mismo modo que la fian*a, puede e4tinguirse por v)a consecuencial y por v)a principal o directa. Por v)a de consecuencia se e4tingue la prenda cada ve* que se e4tingue la obligación principal; aquélla no puede subsistir sin ésta. -nteresa sólo considerar los modos caracter)sticos de e4tinguirse la prenda por v)a directa principal. ***& )estrucción total de la !renda&( +a prenda se e4tingue (por la destrucción completa de la cosa empeada( art. $'96, inc. %0. +a pérdida de la cosa debe ser, por lo tanto, total. Pero es posible que el derecho del acreedor prendario sobreviva a la destrucción total de la prenda. Por e!emplo, si la prenda se encuentra asegurada, el acreedor puede hacer valer su derecho de pago preferente sobre la indemni*ación del seguro. +a cosa asegurada es subrogada por la cantidad asegurada para el efecto de hacer valer sobre ésta los privilegios constituidos sobre aquélla art. 777 del . de omercio0. **,& #d2uisición !or el acreedor del dominio sobre la !renda&( +a prenda se e4tingue, asimismo, (cuando la propiedad de la cosa empeada pasa al acreedor por cualquier t)tulo( art. $'96, inc. $$0. +a prenda se e4tingue, en este caso, por confusión. 2o se concibe el derecho real de prenda sobre un bien propio. arece arece de sentido que el acreedor realice realice un bien suyo suyo para pagarse preferentemente preferentemente '&.
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**-& Resolución del derec9o del constitu;ente&( Se e4tingue igualmente la prenda (cuando en virtud de una condición resolutoria se pierde el dominio que el que dio la cosa en prenda ten)a sobre ella( art. $'96, inc. /0. El princi principio pio resolut resoluto,ur o,uree dantis dantis resol0i resol0itur tur ,us acci'ienti acci'ientiss no tiene atenuantes en la prenda. +a e4tinción del derecho del constituyente e4tingue la prenda, sin consideración a la buena o mala fe del acreedor prendario. En suma, es inaplicable a la prenda la regla del art. %':9 '8. +a buena fe del acreedor no le pone a cubierto de las resultas de la resolución del derecho del constituyente. Pero el art. $'96 establece que (el acreedor de buena fe tendr# contra el deudor que no le hi*o saber la condición, el mismo derecho que en el caso del art. $/:%(. El acreedor puede pedir, en consecuencia, que se le otorgue otra prenda, que se dé otra caución equivalente y, en defecto de ambas cosas, demandar el cumplimiento de la obligación, aunque no sea de pla*o vencido. **.& #buso de la !renda !or el acreedor&( Por 5ltimo, el deudor puede pedir la restitución inmediata de la cosa empeada si el acreedor abusa de ella. omo consecuencia de este abuso, el acreedor (perder# su derecho de prenda( art. $/:$, inc. /0. -& L# I6OTE# 1. 9eneralidades
**/& once!to&( El art. $'9& define la hipoteca" (+a hipoteca es un derecho de prenda, constituido sobre inmuebles que no de!an por eso de permanecer en poder del deudor( ':. +a definición es deplorable y es menester ensayar otra que destaque debidamente los caracteres fundamentales de la institución. 2o es conveniente definir la hipoteca como un contrato; el derecho de hipoteca suele no tener un origen origen contract contractual. ual. E4isten E4isten hipotecas hipotecas legales y !udiciale !udiciales. s. ? aunqu aunquee nuestra nuestra legislac legislación ión ignora ignora las hipotecas !udiciales y la hipoteca legal sólo tiene cabida en un caso muy calificado, una adecuada definición debe tenerlas en cuenta. Por esto, es preferible definir la hipoteca como un derecho real, car#cter que presenta cualquiera que sea su origen. +a hipoteca es un derecho real que grava un inmueble, que no de!a de permanecer en poder del constituyente, para asegurar el cumplimiento de una obligación principal, otorgando al acreedor el derecho de perseguir la finca en manos de quienquiera que la posea y de pagarse preferentemente con el producto de la reali*ación. +a hipoteca hipoteca consiste consiste esencial esencialment mente, e, pues, en afectar afectar preferen preferentemen temente te y sin despla*a despla*amien miento to un determinado bien inmueble a la e!ecución de una obligación. omo un derecho real define la hipoteca el ódigo francés 79, el ódigo alem#n va m#s le!os y trata de la hipoteca a propósito de los derechos reales 7%. **0& Im!ortancia de la 9i!oteca&( +a hipoteca es, con mucho, la m#s importante de las cauciones, tanto por la magnitud de los créditos que garanti*a como por el valor de los bienes ra)ces que grava. Un adecuado régimen hipotecario es un factor de progreso económico de primera importancia. Para llenar debidamente su misión debe procurar la publicidad de las hipotecas. +a inscripción en el
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Fuentes de las las Obligaciones Tomo Tomo II
a0 =odas las hipotecas, sin e4cepción alguna, deben inscribirse, o sea, la publicidad de las hipotecas debe ser general. 2o deben e4istir hipotecas ocultas. b0 +a hipoteca debe ser especial, es decir, limitada limitada a la ve* en cuanto a los inmuebles que grava y a las obligaciones que garanti*a. >e este modo se satisface el interés de los acreedores hipotecarios que se colocan en situación de conocer el alcance de los grav#menes e4istentes sobre un inmueble para colegir hasta qué punto el inmueble constituye una efica* garant)a. Se satisface igualmente el interés de los deudores. +a publicidad de las hipotecas pone en evidencia los grav#menes y da la medida en que pueden disponer de un inmueble para nuevos empréstitos. Entra igualmente en !uego el interés de los adquirentes de inmuebles. -nteresa a éstos sobremanera conocer los grav#menes que pesan sobre la propiedad ra)*, puesto que, por el car#cter real de la hipoteca, ser#n responsables del pago del crédito caucionado. En fin, el p5blico en general est# interesado en un buen régimen hipotecario porque fomenta el crédito, reprime la usura y permite obtener mayores créditos con garant)a de los bienes ra)ces. !. Caracteres de la 2i'oteca
**1& Enunciación&( +a hipoteca es un derecho real e inmueble; es igualmente un derecho accesorio. +a cosa hipotecada permanece en poder del deudor. +a hipoteca, adem#s, genera un derecho de preferencia y es indivisible. =ales =ales son las caracter)sticas de la hipoteca a que ser# preciso pasar revista. **4& La 9i!oteca es un derec9o real&( El art. 7&& enumera la hipoteca entre los derechos reales. onsecuencia de este car#cter es el derecho de persecución de que est# dotado el acreedor hipotecario que le habilita para perseguir la finca en mano de quienquiera que la posea y a cualquier t)tulo que la haya adquirido art. $'$80, Se perciben, sin embargo, diferencias entre la hipoteca y otros derechos reales como el dominio, el usufructo, las servidumbres. 2o hay una relación directa entre la cosa y el titular del derecho. +a hipoteca es, si as) puede decirse, un derecho real de segundo grado. Es un derecho real que recae sobre otro derecho real. Se hipoteca el derecho de dominio, el derecho de usufructo. Est# su!eto a la acción hipotecaria el derecho que el deudor tiene sobre la cosa. El derecho real de hipoteca se traduce en la facultad del acreedor impago para vender la cosa hipotecada y pagarse con el producto. *,5& La 9i!oteca es un derec9o inmueble&( El car#cter inmueble del derecho de hipoteca no ofrece dudas, en vista de lo que dispone el art. 789. =iene la hipoteca car#cter inmueble, cualquiera que sea la naturale*a del crédito garanti*ado.
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*,*& Relati7a inde!endencia de la 9i!oteca res!ecto de la obligación !rinci!al&( pesar de su car#c car#cter ter acceso accesori rio, o, la hipote hipoteca ca suele suele separa separarse rse de la obliga obligació ciónn princi principal pal y adq adquir uirir ir una relati relativa va independencia. a0 Por de pronto, la hipoteca puede garanti*ar obligaciones futuras. El art. $'%/, inc. /, establece que la hipoteca podr# otorgarse (en cualquier tiempo antes o después de los contratos a que acceda, y correr# desde que se inscriba(. uando la hipoteca se constituye para garant)a de obligaciones futuras, obviamente no e4iste la obligación principal, al tiempo de constituirse la hipoteca. =al es el caso, por e!emplo, de la hipoteca que garanti*a una cuenta corriente. +os préstamos que har# el banquero a su cliente se verificar#n a posteriori, a medida de las necesidades de éste. +a hipoteca podr# inscribirse, entre tanto, sin esperar que la obligación futura llegue a e4istir. b0 +a persona que hipoteca un bien propio en garant)a de una deuda a!ena no se obliga personalmente, a menos que as) se estipule e4presamente. e4presamente. +a obligación principal, en tal caso, se separa de la hipoteca; las acciones personal y real deber#n dirigirse contra distintas personas. +a misma separación se opera cuando un tercero adquiere la finca con el gravamen hipotecario 7$. c0 un se concibe la subsistencia de la hipoteca después de e4tinguida la obligación principal, unque la obligación principal se e4tinga por la novación, las partes pueden convenir en una reserva de hipoteca, esto es, que la misma hipoteca con su primitiva fecha subsista para garanti*ar la nueva obligación. *,,& i!oteca abstracta&( Sin embargo se concibe perfectamente que la hipoteca tenga una vida totalmente independiente de una obligación principal. Puede constituirse por el propietario de un inmueble, previsión de sus futuras necesidades de crédito, antes e independientemente de toda obligación para con un determinado acreedor. acreedor. ontra lo que se cree generalmente, es de origen francés. Una ley : de Hesidor del ao ---, permitió a todo propietario de bienes susceptibles de hipotecarse, constituir hipoteca sobre su predio, por un per)odo no superior a die* aos, hasta concurrencia de las tres cuartas partes del valor del inmueble. +a hipoteca, nacida independientemente, independientemente, quedaba representada por un bono o cédula hipotecaria que el propietario pod)a poner en circulación, por un simple endoso, como un efecto de comercio cualquiera. Esta tentativa del per)odo revolucionario fue abandonada. l decir de Planiol y
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Fuentes de las las Obligaciones Tomo Tomo II
previsión de futuras necesidades. >a origen a tina simple relación real" se obliga sólo la finca y no queda comprometido el resto del patrimonio del constituyente. constituyente. Una forma de hipoteca abstracta la constituye hoy la denominada (hipoteca con cl#usula de garant)a general(, que trataremos m#s adelante,. Esta forma de constituir hipoteca es la m#s usada en la actualidad por las instituciones bancarias y financieras, atendido, fundamentalmente, el hecho de que se disminuyen notoriamente los costos de las operaciones financieras, ya que permite constituir una sola ve* hipoteca, para garanti*ar todos los créditos que el deudor vaya a contraer en el futuro. >urante alg5n tiempo se -ra discutido la valide* de esta clase de hipoteca, Sin embargo, hoy d)a parece haberse aceptado en forma definitiva su valide*. Fay una serie de traba!os !ur)dicos doctrinarios que se refieren a ella. dem#s, la e4presión (cl#usula de garant)a general( ya tiene consagración legal, en la +ey 2.3 %8.%%$ sobre prenda sin despla*amiento y en los nuevos art)culos 8&9 y 889 del código de omercio, a propósito de la hipoteca naval, introducidos por la +ey 2.3 %8.689 de %% de enero de, %:88.
*,-& La +inca *,-& +inca !erma !ermanec necee en !oder del deudor deudor Es caracter)stica de la hipoteca que la finca hipotecada permane*ca en manos del constituyente. Por la constitución del gravamen, los inmuebles (no de!an por eso de permanecer en poder del deudor( art. $'9&0. Esta caracter)stica de la hipoteca constituye una positiva venta!a para el deudor; éste conserva la facultad de go*ar de la finca y aun de disponer de ella 7/. *,.& 6re+ere 6re+erencia ncia de la 9i!oteca 9i!oteca&( &( +a hipo hipote teca ca otor otorga ga al acre acreed edor or la facu facult ltad ad de paga pagars rsee preferentemente preferentemente con el producto de de la reali*ación reali*ación de la finca hipotecada. El art. $'&9 seala entre las causas de preferencia el privilegio y la hipoteca y el art. $'&& menciona la hipoteca entre los créditos de la tercera clase. *,/& Indi7isibilidad de la 9i!oteca&( +a indivisibilidad de la hipoteca se traduce en que el inmueble, en su totalidad y cada una de sus partes, est# afecto al pago integral de la deuda y de cada fracción de la misma. +a célebre fórmula de 4umoulin est tolo in tota el loto in qualibet qualibet 'arte+ se encuentra fielmente reprod reproduci ucida da en el art. art. $'9 $'98" 8" (+a (+a hipote hipoteca ca es indivi indivisib sible. le. En con consec secuen uencia cia,, cada cada una de las cosas cosas hipotecadas a una deuda y cada parte de ellas son obligadas al pago de toda la deuda y de cada parte de ella(. +a indivisibilidad de la hipoteca puede enfocarse desde el punto de vista de la finca gravada y de la obligación que garanti*a. a0 El inmueble hipotecado y cada una de las partes en que se divida responde del total de la obligación. Se siguen de este principio diversas consecuencias" Por de pronto, en caso de ser varios los deudores, el acreedor podr# dirigir la acción hipotecaria
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#am$n %e&a Barros Barros
*,0& )i7ersas clases de 9i!oteca&( Dtras legislaciones, como la francesa, reglamentan tres clases de hipoteca, seg5n la fuente de que deriva" la hipoteca legal, la hipoteca !udicial y la hipoteca convencional. omo sus nombres respectivamente lo indican, la hipoteca legal es establecida de pleno derecho por la ley, la hipoteca !udicial resulta de una sentencia u otros actos udiciales y la hipoteca convencional tiene su origen en el contrato de hipoteca. Para el ódigo ivil todas las hipotecas son convencionales El ódigo de Procedimiento ivil creó una hipoteca legal, en el caso previsto en el art. 66$. +a hipoteca !udicial es desconocida en nuestra legislación7'. *,1& i!otecas legales ; 3udiciales en el )erec9o +ranc's&( +as hipotecas legales, como se di!o, son aquellas que la ley atribuye de pleno derecho a, ciertos créditos. Se las suele llamar t#citas. +a hipoteca legal garanti*a los créditos de la mu!er casada contra el marido sobre los bienes de éste, de los pupilos sobre los bienes bienes de los guardadore guardadores, s, y del Estado, comunas y establec establecimie imientos ntos p5blicos sobre los bienes de sus recaudadores o administradores. administradores. Estas hipotecas legales tienen dos caracter)sticas caracter)sticas importantes" a0 son generales, esto es, recaen sobre todos los bienes inmuebles del deudor, inclusive los bienes futuros; y b0 son indeterminadas indeterminadas porque garanti*an todos los créditos que la mu!er llegue a tener contra el marido o el pupilo contra el guardador. guardador. +a mu!er casada suele convertirse en acreedora del marido por sumas considerables. Para garanti*ar estos créditos, se le concede la hipoteca legal, previendo que, por las relaciones que la ligan a su marido, la mu!er se abstendr# generalmente de reclamar una garant)a. Pero el car#cter general e indeterminado de la hipoteca es ruinoso para el crédito del marido y, como consecuencia, a la postre, resulta per!udicial para la mu!er. Por otra parte, su eficacia depende de la composición del patrimonio del marido 77. +a hipoteca a favor del pupilo se !ustifica por ra*ones an#logas, con mayor ra*ón a5n porque es imposible que un nio o un demente puedan demandar garant)as. Esta hipoteca es todav)a m#s onerosa porque el guardador no dispone, como el marido, de medios para paliar sus sus efectos. =iene esta hipoteca los siguientes caracteres" a0 es una hipoteca general en cuanto a los bienes que afecta; b0 es indeterminada indeterminada en cuanto a los créditos que garanti*a; c0 su grado se determina por la fecha en que -ra entrado en funciones el guardador, cualquiera que sea la fecha del crédito; y d0 es independiente de toda inscripción. +a hipoteca !udicial tiene lugar en dos casos"
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Fuentes de las las Obligaciones Tomo Tomo II
*,4& Las 9i!otecas legales en la legislación anterior al ódigo i7il&( on anterioridad a la vigencia del ódigo ivil rigieron las leyes sobre prelación de créditos de /% de octubre de %8'7 y de $7 de octubre de %87'. >e acuerdo con estas leyes, la hipoteca era legal o convencional. +a primera, establecida a favor del @isco, de los establecimientos p5blicos de caridad o educación, de las mu!eres casadas, de los pupilos, etc., era general y oculta. +a segunda era especial y p5blica, porque requer)a inscripción. +a hipoteca general ten)a la curiosa peculiaridad de que no daba acción contra terceros poseedores y no era, por lo tanto, una verdadera hipoteca. Por otra parte, la ley de %87' dispuso que las hipotecas especial especiales es preferir preferir)an )an sobre las generales generales de cualquier cualquieraa fecha, fecha, y éstas, éstas, por lo mismo, mismo, perdiero perdieronn su importancia. El ódigo abolió estas distinciones. >ice el Hensa!e" (2o se conoce en este proyecto otra especie de hipoteca que la antes llamada especial, y ahora simplemente hipoteca(. hipoteca(. En lugar de la hipoteca legal, el ódigo ha otorgado al @isco, a las mu!eres casadas, a los pupilos, etc., un crédito privilegiado de cuarta clase art. $'8%0. *-5& La 9i!oteca 9i!oteca legal introduci introducida da !or el ódigo ódigo de 6rocedim 6rocedimiento iento i7il&( El ódigo de Procedimiento ivil ha creado una hipoteca legal con caracteres sui géneris. En efecto, el art. 669 de dicho ódigo establece que, salvo acuerdo un#nime de los interesados, todo comunero que reciba en ad!udicación bienes por un valor que e4ceda del 89G de lo que le corresponda, seg5n c#lculos que har# prudencialmente el partidor, deber# pagar el e4ceso de contado. ? el art. 66$ aade" (En las ad!udicaciones de propiedades ra)ces que se hagan a los comuneros durante el !uicio divisorio o en la sentencia final, se entender# constituida hipoteca sobre las propiedades ad!udicadas, para asegurar el pago de los alcances que resulten en contra de los ad!udicatarios, siempre que no se pague de contado el e4ceso a que se refiere el art. 669(. +a hipoteca legal, pues, requiere" requiere" a0 que se ad!udique un bien ra)*; b0 que el valor de de la ad!udicación ad!udicación e4ceda del 89G del haber probable del ad!udicatario; ad!udicatario; y c0 que no pague el e4ceso de contado. *-%& aractere aracteress de nuestra nuestra 9i!oteca 9i!oteca legal&( legal&( 2uestra hipoteca legal presenta los siguientes caracteres" a0 Es especial puesto que recae precisamente sobre el bien ad!udicado. b0 Es determinada porque garanti*a el alcance, esto es, el valor en que la ad!udicación e4cede del 89G del haber del ad!udicatario, de acuerdo con los c#lculos prudentes del partidor. c0 Es p5blica porque requiere inscripción. El art. 66$ del ódigo de Procedimiento ivil establece que el onservador de Cienes
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#am$n %e&a Barros Barros
*-,& 6ueden 9i!otecar los ca!aces de ena3enar&( ena3enar&( El constituyente debe ser capa* de disponer de los bienes que se gravan con hipoteca. El art. $'%', inc. %, dispone" (2o podr# constituir hipoteca sobre sus bienes, sino la persona que sea capa* de ena!enarlos, ena!enarlos, y con los requisitos requisitos necesarios necesarios para su ena!enación(. ena!enación(. Suele decirse que la hipoteca constituye un principio de ena!enación, puesto que la reali*ación de la finca es el resultado a que conduce la hipoteca, si. la deuda garanti*ada no es pagada en su oportunidad. Pero la verdad es que la hipoteca no importa una ena!enación en mayor medida que toda obligación que se contrate, que puede igualmente llevar a la reali*ación for*ada de los bienes del deudor. +a ley requiere capacidad de ena!enar porque la hipoteca compromete seriamente el crédito del futuro constituyente. constituyente. onviene destacar que la capacidad para ena!enar es diversa de la necesaria para obligarse y puede suceder, por lo mismo, que sea v#lida la obligación principal y nula la hipoteca, porque el constituyente era capa* de obligarse, pero no de ena!enar. s), la mu!er casada tiene plena capacidad para obligarse en la gestión de su patrimonio reservado; pero si es menor de edad no puede gravar y ena!enar sus bienes ra)ces sin autori*ación !udicial art. %79, inc. /0. *--& Forma como los inca!aces su!len su inca!acidad !ara 9i!otecar&( 2o debe entenderse, por cierto, que a los incapaces de ena!enar les est# totalmente vedado hipotecar. Fa de entenderse que no pueden constituir hipoteca hipoteca por s) mismos, mismos, sino con su!eción a las las formalidades que, en en cada caso, seala la ley. a0 +os inmuebles del hi!o de familia no pueden hipotecarse sin autori*ación !udicial, aunque pertene*can a su peculio peculio profesional profesional art. $770. b0 n#loga n#loga regla rige para los pupilos. Sus bienes no podr#n hipotecarse hipotecarse sino previo decreto !udicial, !udicial, e4pedido (por causa de utilidad o necesidad manifiesta( art. /:/0. c0 Para ena!enar los bienes ra)ces propios de la mu!er casada en régimen de sociedad conyugal, se requiere voluntad de la mu!er art. %&7'0, la que debe ser espec)fica, y otorgada por escritura p5blica o
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Fuentes de las las Obligaciones Tomo Tomo II
Hientras ésta no se verifica, un contrato puede ser perfecto, puede producir obligaciones y derechos entre las partes, pero no transfiere el dominio, no transfiere ning5n derecho real, ni tiene respecto de terceros e4istencia alguna(. +a escritura p5blica, pues, perfecciona el contrato, pero el derecho real no adquiere vida sino por la inscripción. b0 El art. $'%: declara que la hipoteca de bienes futuros futuros da derecho al acreedor para hacerla inscribir inscribir sobre los bienes que el deudor adquiera y a medida que los vaya adquiriendo. +a disposición reconoce la e4istencia de un acto anterior a la inscripción que da derecho para pedir que ésta se practique. Este acto v#lido es el contrato de hipoteca, perfecto por el otorgamiento de la escritura p5blica. Si el contrato no produce ning5n efecto sin la inscripción, Rcómo concebir que el acreedor tenga derecho a obtener que la inscripción se practique c0 +as consecuencias pr#cticas corroboran que se trata de la buena doctrina. Supóngase que después de otorgada la escritura p5blica y antes de la inscripción el constituyente ena!ena la finca. El acreedor no quedar# burlado; podr# reclamar que se haga la tradición del derecho real de hipoteca y deducir contra el deudor las acciones que procedan, seg5n las reglas generales, contra el contratante, incumplidor. d0 El art. &6& establece que el usufructo sobre bienes ra)ces (no valdr# si no se otorgare por instrumento p5blico inscrito(. l respecto dice laro Solar, (+a inscripción no es una solemnidad del acto de constitución del usufructo que queda perfecto con el otorgamiento de la escritura p5blica(. ? agrega" (En realidad la solemnidad de la construcción del usufructo que haya de recaer sobre bienes ra)ces es la escritura p5blica a que debe reducirse el acto entre vivos; y la inscripción es el incido de adquirir( 78.
*-0& ontrato de 9i!oteca celebrado en el e:tran3ero&( +os contratos de hipoteca, celebrados en pa)s e4tran!ero, sobre sobre bienes situados en hile, est#n est#n su!etos a las mismas mismas formas que si se otorgaran otorgaran en el pa)s.
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Si la finca fuere urbana, se e4presar# la ciudad, villa o aldea y la calle en que estuviere situada. Si fuere rural, el departamento, subdelegación y distrito a que pertene*ca, y si perteneciere a varios, todos ellos. '. +a suma determinada a que se e4tienda la hipoteca, si las partes se limitan inequ)vocamente a una determinada cantidad. 7. +a fecha de la inscripción y la firma del onservador. >el art. $'// se desprende que la fecha y la firma del onservador son requisitos esenciales de la inscripción. +a omisión de las restantes enunciaciones no anular# la inscripción, (siempre que por medio de ella o del contrato o contratos citados en ella, pueda venirse en conocimiento de lo que en la inscripción se eche de menos(.
*-4& i!oteca de na7es&( +a hipoteca de naves est# regulada en el ódigo de omercio. H#s adelante trataremos sobre este punto en el n5mero $7/. /0 osas que pueden hipotecarse
*.5& Enunciación&( on arreglo a lo prevenido en el art. $'%8 (la hipoteca no podr# tener lugar sino sobre bienes ra)ces que se posean en propiedad o usufructo, o sobre naves(. =ambién son hipotecables las pertenencias mineras. El art)culo $%& del ódigo de Hiner)a dispone que la hipoteca hipoteca sobre concesión concesión minera minera se rige por las mismas mismas disposicione disposicioness que la hipoteca hipoteca sobre los dem#s bienes ra)ces y, especialmente, especialmente, por las que dispone ese ódigo. *.%& Inmuebles 2ue se !oseen en !ro!iedad&( Son hipotecables, en primer término, los bienes ra)ces que se poseen en propiedad o, me!or dicho, el derecho de dominio sobre bienes inmuebles. El art. $'%8 no hace distinciones y, en consecuencia, puede hipotecarse la propiedad absoluta o fiduciaria, la propiedad plena o nuda.
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Fuentes de las las Obligaciones Tomo Tomo II
El art. $'$/ establece que la hipoteca de un usufructo (no se e4tiende a los frutos percibidos(. El acreedor sólo tiene el derecho, a falta de pago de su crédito, de hacer vender el usufructo mismo. +a hipoteca del usufructo es precaria; se e4tingue con la muerte del usufructuario y, en general, por las causas que ponen fin al derecho de usufructo. Sin embargo, el usufructo hipotecario no puede renunciarse en per!uicio de los acreedores art., 89/0.
*.,& i!oteca de na7es&( Seg5n queda dicho, las naves mayores0 pueden ser gravadas con hipoteca. abe destacar que sólo son susceptibles de hipotecarse las naves mayores, esto es, las de m#s de 79 toneladas de registro grueso art. '3 del >.+. 2.3 $.$$$ +ey de 2avegación0. +as naves menores sólo pueden constituirse constituirse en prenda. El art. 866 del ódigo de omercio dispone que las naves y artefactos navales mayores podr#n ser gravados con hipoteca, siempre que se encuentren debidamente inscritos en los respectivos
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Esta disposición muestra claramente el rol de la inscripción. El contrato est# perfecto y !ustamente por ello tiene el acreedor derecho a recabar la inscripción, esto es, que se le haga la tradición del derecho real de hipoteca.
*./& i!oteca de cuota&( El comunero puede reivindicar y vender su cuota arts. 8:$ y %8%$0. El art. $'%& establece que el comunero puede, asimismo, ,antes de la división de la cosa com5n, hipotecar su cuota(. Pero Pero la hipot hipoteca eca de cuo cuota ta tiene tiene una e4istenc e4istencia ia precar precaria. ia. Supone Supone,, para para que sea efica efica*, *, que se ad!udiquen al comunero, en la división de la cosa com5n, bienes hipotecables. En caso contrario, caducar# la hipoteca. +a eficacia de la hipoteca, pues, depende de los resultados de la partición. El art. $'%& establece que, (verificada la división, la hipoteca afectar# solamente los bienes que en ra*ón de dicha cuota se ad!udiquen, si fueren hipotecables. Si no lo fueren, caducar# la hipoteca +a norma es consecuencia del efecto declarativo del acto de ad!udicación 6/. Se supone que el ad!udicatario ha sido dueo de la cosa com5n durante todo el tiempo que duró la indivisión; por otra parte, se reputa que los dem#s comuneros no han tenido !am#s ning5n derecho. Por lo tanto, si los bienes hipotecables de los que se hipotecó una cuota se han ad!udicado a otro u otros comuneros, la hipoteca habr# sido constituida por alguien que no ha tenido nunca ning5n derecho. on todo, todo, pod podr# r# subsis subsistir tir la hipote hipoteca ca sobre sobre bienes bienes ad!udi ad!udicad cados os a otros otros part)c part)cipe ipes, s, (si éstos éstos consintieren en ello, y as) constare por escritura p5blica, de que se tome ra*ón al margen de la inscripción hipotecaria( art. $'%&, inc. $30. En la pr#ctica, para ponerse a cubierto, el acreedor e4igir# la aprobación anticipada de todos los copart)cipes y su concurrencia al acto constitutivo de la hipoteca. En conformidad al art. 8/& del ódigo de omercio, una nave puede pertenecer a m#s de una persona; en ese caso, la copropiedad copropiedad de naves no constituye constituye una sociedad, sino una comunidad que se rige rige por las normas del derecho derecho com5n. En conformidad al art. art. 86&, sólo el propietario puede puede hipotecar la nave
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Fuentes de las las Obligaciones Tomo Tomo II
+a !urisprudencia se inclina, con rara unanimidad, a considerar nula la hipoteca de cosa a!ena 6'. unque la e4igencia de que el constituyente sea dueo de la cosa no se encuentra establecida en forma perentoria, se desprender)a del tenor de diversas disposiciones. El art. $'%' establece que no puede constituir hipoteca sobre (sus bienes(, sino la persona que es capa* de ena!enarlos y con los requisitos necesarios para la ena!enación. En otros términos, estar)a prohibida la hipoteca sobre bienes que no pertenecen al constituyente. constituyente. Pero son muchas y valiosas las ra*ones para pensar que es v#lida la hipoteca de la cosa a!ena 67. a0 Por de pronto, no puede admitirse que el art. $'%' contenga la prohibición de hipotecar la cosa a!ena, cuya infracción traer)a consigo la nulidad absoluta del contrato. +a e4presión (sus bienes( se e4plica porque lo normal ser#, naturalmente, que el constituyente sea dueo del derecho que hipoteca. b0 +a tradición hecha hecha por quien no es dueo no adolece adolece la nulidad; solamente solamente no transfiere transfiere el derecho derecho de que se trata. +a aplicación de estos principios elementales conduce a la conclusión de que no es nula la hipoteca; solamente el acreedor no se hace dueo del derecho de hipoteca.
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Fa consagrado el ódigo, impl)citamente, el principio de la especialidad en el art. $'/$, que seala las menciones que debe contener la inscripción. En efecto, la inscripción debe individuali*ar la finca y sus linderos, en la forma que e4presa la disposición legal. '0 Dbligaciones susceptibles de caucionarse con hipoteca
*/5& Todas Todas las obligaciones son susce!tibles de garantizarse con hipoteca.A +a hipoteca puede caucionar toda clase de obligaciones, cualquiera que sea su origen. +a obligación a que accede la hipoteca puede ser civil o natural art. %'&$0. Pueden, asimismo, caucionarse con hipoteca obligaciones futuras. El art. $'%/, inc. /3, previene que la hipoteca podr# otorgarse (en cualquier tiempo antes o después de los contratos a que accede, y correr# desde que se inscriba(. */%& Es!ecialidad de la 9i!oteca en cuanto al cr'dito 9i!otecario&( +a especialidad de la hipoteca en cuanto al crédito consiste en la determinación de la naturale*a y monto de la obligación que la hipoteca
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Fuentes de las las Obligaciones Tomo Tomo II
Dbtenida la reducción, se har# a costa del deudor una nueva inscripción, (en virtud de la cual no valdr# la primera sino hasta la cuant)a que se fi!are en la segunda( art. $'/%, inc. $0.
*/-& l?usula de garantía general 9i!otecaria&( En la pr#ctica bancaria es frecuente que se estipule la llamada llamada cl#usula cl#usula de garant)a garant)a general hipotecaria. hipotecaria. Por ella se constituy constituyee hipoteca hipoteca para garanti*a garanti*ar r determinadas obligaciones obligaciones y, adem#s, todas las que se contraigan en el futuro para con el banco. +a valide* de esta cl#usula ha sido definitivamente reconocida reconocida por la orte Suprema. a0 +a hipoteca puede constituirse antes que la obligación principal y el art. $'%/ no de!a dudas acerca de que es posible inscribirla, inscribirla, antes de que e4ista la obligación caucionada. +as alternativas sufridas por la disposición en los Proyectos corrobora su tenor literal. b0 El art. $'/$, 2.3 $3, establece que la inscripción debe e4presar (la fecha y la naturale*a del contrato a que accede la hipoteca(, Pero la fecha del contrato y su naturale*a sólo ser# posible consignarlas en la inscripción cuando el contrato sea contempor#neo o anterior a la hipoteca. En otros términos, la e4igencia del 2.3 $3 del art. $'/$ deber# cumplirse cuando ello sea pr#cticamente posible.
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El art. '3 de la +ey 2.3 '.9:& soluciona el conflicto entre los acreedores prendarios e hipotecarios. Para constituir prenda agraria sobre los inmuebles por destinación, (no ser# necesario el acuerdo del acreedor a cuyo favor e4ista constituida hipoteca sobre los inmuebles a que se hayan incorporado los bienes materia de la prenda, prenda, y el crédito prendario prendario go*ar# de preferencia en estos bienes, bienes, sobre el acreedor hipotecario(. +a solución es lógica. Si el dueo puede ena!enar los bienes y sustraerlos de la hipoteca, con mayor ra*ón podr# empearlos aunque con ello se menoscabe la garant)a hipotecaria.
*/1& #umentos ; me3oras&( on arreglo al art. $'$%, (la hipoteca se e4tiende a todos los aumentos y me!oras que reciba la cosa hipotecada(. +os aumentos que e4perimente la finca y las me!oras que en ella se introdu*can forman parte del inmueble y es lógico que los afecte la hipoteca. +a hipoteca comprende todo aquello que incremente la cosa hipotecada, sea por causas naturales o a consecuencia de la industria humana. Se e4tender# la hipoteca a los aumentos que e4perimente la finca por aluvión, a los edificios que que se construyen, construyen, a las plantaciones plantaciones que en ella se se realicen.
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Fuentes de las las Obligaciones Tomo Tomo II
*0%& 6recio de la e:!ro!iación del inmueble&( El art. :$' del ódigo de Procedimiento ivil dispone que no ser# obst#culo para la e4propiación la e4istencia de hipoteca u otros grav#menes que afecten a la cosa e4propiada. El acreedor hipotecario, en tal caso, liar# valer sus derechos sobre el precio de la e4propiación. $0 Efectos con respecto al constituyente
*0*& Restricciones im!uestas al dueDo de la +inca&( +a hipoteca limita el derecho del dueo de la finca gravada. Por de pronto, no puede disponer de ella en términos que menoscaben la garant)a hipotecaria. Por otra parte, sus facultades de uso y goce han de e!ercerse en forma que no se provoque una desvalori*ación y la consiguiente disminución de la eficacia de la caución. *0,& Limitaciones de la +acultad de dis!osición&( En términos generales, conserva el dueo la
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El precepto legal no hace ninguna distinción que ser)a in!ustificada. El acreedor ha contratado en consideración a la garant)a y le es indiferente la causa que determine su menoscabo. +a historia de la ley confirma esta conclusión. El Proyecto %87/ otorgaba al acreedor los derechos referidos (cuando la finca se perdiera o deteriorara por culpa del deudor &$
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Fuentes de las las Obligaciones Tomo Tomo II
Es preciso que los inmuebles se tasen; se tendr# como tasación el aval5o vigente, a menos que el e!ecutado solicite que se practique una nueva tasación art. '86 del . de P. ivil0. El remate se verificar# el d)a que el !ue* designe, previa publicación de avisos que aparecer#n a lo menos por cuatro veces, en un diario de la comuna en que tenga su asiento el tribunal, o de. la capital de la
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#am$n %e&a Barros Barros
*1,& Gui'nes son terceros !oseedores&( Se llama terceros poseedores a toda persona que detenta, a un t)tulo no precario, la finca gravada con hipoteca, sin que se haya obligado personalmente al pago de la obligación garanti*ada.
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Fuentes de las las Obligaciones Tomo Tomo II
ontra el tercer poseedor, que nada debe personalmente, el procedimiento es diverso; antes de llegar a la reali*ación de la finca, es menester llevar a cabo algunas gestiones preliminares.
*10& "oti+icación de des!oseimiento ; actitudes 2ue !uede ado!tar el tercer !oseedor&( El
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#am$n %e&a Barros Barros
El desposeimiento se someter# al procedimiento e!ecutivo cuando consten de un t)tulo que trae apare!ada e!ecución, tanto la hipoteca como la obligación principal. >e otro modo, el desposeimiento se someter# al procedimiento ordinario. Efectuado el desposeimiento, se proceder# a la reali*ación de la finca para hacerse pago el acreedor.
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