Towards an Old Testament Theology of Prostitution _____________________________
A Paper
Submitted to Dr. Steve Tracy
Phoenix Seminary _____________________________ In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for
TH 580 Independent Study _____________________________ by
Andrew Buelow
March 22, 2010
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~ Introduction ~ The topic of sexuality is one as old as humanity itself. Quite possibly, no other aspect of human existence has been so thoroughly documented, analyzed, dissected, discussed, reconstructed, popularized, and speculated upon than this remarkably powerful yet enigmatic force. As Christians, our perspective on the issue, as with all matters of our existence, begins with God. Furthermore, we understand the chief means of revelation about God to be the Scriptures - the Word of God contained within the Old and New Testaments. Therein we find a glorious reality - namely, that God is the creator of sexuality, and sexuality is meant for good. Even so, as a consequence of sin, there seems to be no more easily twisted facet of the human person than that of our sexuality. Scripture is rife with references to the various and seemingly innumerable forms of sexual immorality which serve in an especially vile way to separate man from God and destroy the relationships we were created to enjoy with our fellow human beings. While this degrading and perverse tendency is indeed present in all sexual sin, some forms are particularly heinous in this respect; among these is prostitution. Distinct yet not always mutually exclusive with respect to adultery, prostitution is that practice which “reduces sexuality to a business proposition and almost always to a promiscuous focus upon the physical sex act itself, fragmented from the wholistic links of the intellectual, emotional, and especially the spiritual dimensions.”1 In the midst of such depravity, a women ceases to be a person and instead becomes an object, her name lost to the title which she bears signifying her practice - harlot. Within the specific realm of Scripture, “A harlot is a woman who uses her sexual capacity either for gain or for pagan religious purposes. In contrast to the adulteress she is promiscuous and usually shows no regard for who her mate might be.”2 Sadly, the continued existence of such a horrible reality in the modern world is indisputable. As the Body of Christ, the question we must answer then is simple: What does God think of the prostitute and
1
Richard M. Davidson, Flame of Yahweh: Sexuality in the Old Testament (Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers, 2007), 303. Geoffrey W. Bromiley, ed., The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Rev. ed., Vol. 2 (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1982), s.v. “Harlot,” by D.W. Wead, 616.
2
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her practice? And how are we as believers to respond to such women? To find the answers, we will thus turn to the Hebrew scriptures of the Old Testament to initiate the development of a Biblical theology regarding this topic. Therein, we will find that as with all sexual sin, God hates the practice of prostitution - an act which profanes both His name and the character of His people; yet hope remains for the harlot herself, as the grace of God is not limited by the depraved bounds of prostitution.
~ The Pentateuch ~ Any survey of the Old Testament scriptures must of course begin with the book of Genesis, which recounts both the primeval and patriarchal histories. The driving force of the narrative is God’s sovereign control over His creation, extending even into the ordinary intricacies of human affairs. This unifying theme is then primarily worked out within the central storyline of the calling of Abraham and the subsequent formation of the Jewish people. Although the opening chapters of Genesis have nothing whatsoever to say regarding the practice of prostitution as such, they contain a wealth of information about the broader aspects of human sexuality and God’s relationship to this element of our personhood. Furthermore, these first chapters describe the great tragedy brought about by the fall of man and the entrance of sin into the world, thereby demonstrating the devastation wrought by this event upon humanity as a whole. Therefore, just as we must begin with Genesis in any study to develop a Biblical theology from the Hebrew Scriptures, we must also begin with the origins and foundation of human sexuality to properly understand prostitution in all its various forms - as well as how to formulate an appropriate and Biblically sound response to it. In light of this goal, we now turn to the inimitable opening statement of Genesis to set the stage for our study: “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.”3 Here, simply and unambiguously stated is the unifying theme of Genesis - that God is sovereign creator of everything on earth and in the heavens beyond; of land and sea, of planets and stars, of the light and the dark. All is created by Him, and thus
3
Unless otherwise noted, all scripture references are taken from The New American Standard Bible: 1995 Update (LaHabra: The Lockman Foundation, 1995).
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belongs to Him, over which He alone rules. Verses 2-25 further describe God’s act of creation, detailing the formation of all the phenomena which reside within the distinct spheres of creation, and establishing His authority and power over it all. Additionally, this opening narrative shows God bringing order and reason to the chaotic and empty world. Bruce Waltke elegantly summarizes this first stage of creation, saying, “God steps creatively into the primordial abyss and darkness to transform it into a magnificent, ordered, and balanced universe. Those who submit themselves to the Creator’s rule are assured that their history will not end in tragic darkness and chaos but will continue in triumphant light and order.”4 Then, in verses 26-27 we are given the initial account of the creation of mankind: “Then God said, ‘Let Us make man in Our image, according to Our likeness; and let them rule over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the sky and over the cattle and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creeps on the earth.’ God created man in His own image, in the image of God He created him; male and female He created them.” Again, while these verses have nothing specific to say about prostitution itself, they do speak volumes about the nature and fundamental value of humanity. These two critically important elements of our theology are borne out in the fact that God created human beings both in His image and in His likeness. Wayne Grudem defines the concept of the Imago Dei this way: “The fact that man is in the image of God means that man is like God and represents God.”5 Certainly, this fact alone sets humanity apart from all the rest of the created order – not even the angels can claim such a privilege! The text further reinforces this principle by the subtle switch from the more general phrase “Let there be” to the more specific and personal declaration, “Let Us”.6 Clearly, Genesis demonstrates that God has a vested interest in man much more so than with all the other creatures. This high status as image-bearers, alike to God yet distinct from Him, is also borne out in the text by the greater responsibilities placed upon man by God – namely, to rule over the earth and everything in it - and by His specific blessings, being the provisions of food, water, shelter, and the like.
4
Bruce K. Waltke and Cathi J. Fredricks, Genesis: A Commentary (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2001), 55. Wayne Grudem, Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press and Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1994), 442. 6 Waltke, 64. 5
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Also of great interest in this passage is what appears to be a peculiarity upon first glance. That is, the Hebrew text in v. 26 records God as referring to Himself in the first person plural: “Let Us… in Our image… according to Our likeness.” While many different answers have been proposed to bring some illumination to this oddity, in light of New Testament teaching it seems reasonable to conclude that this represents a very early allusion to the Trinity.7 Further analysis shows that such a hypothesis fits the picture well – the Father, ordaining and directing the work of creation; the pre-incarnate Christ, the Son, bringing the creation into existence and upholding it by the word of His power8; and the Holy Spirit, present in v. 2, hovering over the deep and restraining the initial chaos. More importantly, this is no mere theological abstraction; that the triune nature of God is hinted at here directly affects the way we may understand the creation of man. The logic of this assumption is then borne out in v. 27, where we are told that humanity was created in distinct but equal sexes – male and female. Although much could be said regarding the details and implications of this distinction, for now it will suffice to say that this was neither an accidental nor a random choice of God. Rather, in the male/female duality of mankind, we further reflect the image of God in His triune nature. Before exploring the implications of this awesome reality, however, we must be certain not to fall into the error of taking such theology to extremes. On the one hand, we do not want to imply that the division of humanity into complimentary sexes corresponds to an exact reflection of the triune Father-Son-Spirit nature of God. In this sense, the reflection only serves to demonstrate that we are like God (to use the language of Genesis itself), and thus should not be over-emphasized. Additionally, we do not wish to make the mistake of thinking that any given male or female does not reflect God’s image as an individual. This point in particular becomes far clearer in the New Testament, where the
7
This is not to suggest that the doctrine of the Trinity was obvious or even recognizable to the Hebrews, but rather that given the scope of progressive revelation and the greater doctrinal understanding granted to the Church by the New Testament, it is reasonable for us to understand the plural here in this manner. Most Jews would probably have understood this verse as a reference to either the heavenly court (i.e., God addressing the various angelic beings surrounding His throne), or more likely as the Plural of Majesty - in essence, that the character and magnificence of God was too great to be expressed in terms of the singular. 8 cf. Colossians 1:15-17; Hebrews 1:3.
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highest sense of community apart from marriage is exclusively found within the Church. Here, the individual believer is most plainly able to bear the image of God.9 Having defined the boundaries for the concept of the Trinity as the foundation for gender, we may now explore the primary implication of this doctrine; that is, in His triune nature, God is fundamentally a relational being.10 As clearly evidenced throughout the course of salvation history, the persons of the Trinity have eternally shared perfect fellowship and love with each other. This unique and mysterious aspect of God’s character is the model par excellence upon which all other varieties of human relationships are based. Hence, the relational aspect of God’s character translates into our humanity as bearers of His image in a fundamental way; that is, through our sexuality. Although completely lost to modern society, this view of human sexuality is enormously rich, encompassing many different facets of our nature as male and female: “Sexuality is an aspect of our being that lies behind, produces, and is given expression by physical sexual characteristics and reproductive capacity.”11 Included within this definition are the emotional and psychological dimensions of our sexuality, which “lie behind the mystery of our need to reach out to others, and are the basis for affection, compassion, tenderness, and warmth.”12 Accordingly, as sexual beings, we are on to something when we appeal for fellowship and intimacy with other persons. In sum, it is this relational aspect of God’s character which is extended to us as bearers of His image and thus forms the foundation and defining characteristic of our sexuality. Returning to the text, Genesis 1 concludes with God explicitly declaring the whole of His creation to be “very good”. Specifically, this means that humanity, made to complement and relate to one another, bond, and “multiply” through sexual union as male and female, is declared by God Himself to be good. “Not only is our sexuality given by God, it is affirmed by God. It is an aspect of our being pronounced good by the Creator. Thus, our sexuality is a positive dimension of who we are as God’s creatures. It is foundational to our existence in God’s image and can be a means for reflecting the character and nature of God.”13 This 9
Stanley J. Grenz, Sexual Ethics: An Evangelical Perspective (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1990), 50. I have taken a brief section of this argument from my previous paper on the theology of singleness and expanded it. 11 Grenz, 16. 12 ibid, 17. 13 ibid, 52. 10
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bold conclusion runs contrary to most popular conceptions of what God thinks about sexuality – even much of the teaching of the historical Christian Church since the era of the Church Fathers! Consequently, it is important in any analysis of prostitution to keep this fact in mind, and frame the discussion and response according to the Biblical teaching that sexual union was not only created to be good, but that in the proper context, can still be a very good thing. Fortunately, Genesis provides us with much more to develop these ideas. Beginning in v. 4 of Chapter 2 the personal name of God is used for the first time: יהוהor “YHWH”. This shift away from the use of the general name of God,
ֹלהים ִ ֱא
(
ĕ
·lō·hîm), in Chapter 1 to YHWH serves to identify the
sovereign deity of the narrative as the personal God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and to show His intimate involvement in creation.14 Then, from v. 7 onward, the text provides us with fresh details which greatly expand upon the account of the creation of man: “Then the LORD God formed man of dust from the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living being.” This further elaborates upon God’s sovereign role as creator by showing him giving life to what was lifeless as well as showing His personal involvement in this process. As a result, man is uniquely set apart from the rest of creation. Ultimately, it is the LORD who not only carefully forms, but then gives His own life to man: “Animals also have breath, but it is the narrator’s intention to stress that human beings have the very breath of God sustaining them.”15 Next, God places Adam in Eden, the garden of paradise, to maintain and nurture it. Work is required of man even here - but it is good work, free of toil and stress. More importantly, however, Adam is given specific direction from God regarding what he is free to do in the garden: “The LORD God commanded the man, saying, ‘From any tree of the garden you may eat freely; but from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil you shall not eat, for in the day that you eat from it you will surely die.’”16 God unreservedly blesses Adam in Eden but sets clear parameters for him; the text in no way suggests or presents these boundaries as restrictive or burdensome, but rather as for the benefit of and appropriate to 14
Waltke, 84. ibid, 85. 16 Genesis 2:16-17 15
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the status of man as creature, not creator. Indeed, even here in the perfection of Eden, man is subject to God, required to trust and depend on Him. This speaks to the goodness of God, and further reinforces His role as our benevolent but utterly distinct and holy creator. In essence, Genesis 2 sets up the moral and social order that underlies all further Biblical teaching; the natural, social, and moral boundaries set up by God lend themselves to the good of creation and the maintenance of order and stability.17 Incidentally, the idea of boundaries established by God for the welfare of His people and in recognition of His role respective to ours will be an important one throughout the Old Testament, and of particular importance for the subject of prostitution. The narrative then takes a sharp turn in v. 18, where we are given the first evidence of something in the creation that God declares “not good” – the isolation of Adam. It is of great significance that even here in the midst of Eden where the man enjoys perfect and unbroken fellowship with his maker, God Himself still sees that Adam is not whole alone. To amend the situation, God first brings all the animals before Adam to be named. Again, this is no random exercise, but an intentional activity designed by God to show Adam (and the modern reader) the great distinction which exists between man and animal. Because no suitable helper can be found for Adam during this exercise, God then brings the design of humanity to a fitting conclusion in v. 22 with the creation of woman, who is thereafter brought before the man. The complementary nature of both male and female and the relational gap she completes in Adam is palpable in his joyous cry of response: “This at last is bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh; she shall be called Woman, because she was taken out of Man.”18 Woman is no mere object, no lesser being, no disadvantaged human – she too bears the image of ֹלהים ִ ֱא
יְ הוָ ֹה- the LORD God – thereby bringing to completion this
picture in her ability to complement and relate to the man in a way that not even God appears to be able to do.19 However, we must be careful not to view this verse as a blanket call to marriage, as Adam was truly
17
Waltke, 55-56. Genesis 2:23, The Holy Bible: English Standard Version (Wheaton: Standard Bible Society, 2001). 19 This is not to imply that God is somehow limited or handicapped in His ability to provide for and fellowship with Adam, but rather that as His creator, He is fundamentally distinct from man. Thus the relationship between creator and creature does not serve the same purpose as does the relationship between creatures, namely male and female. 18
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alone. Rather, for our purposes, this serves to demonstrate the necessity of both common fellowship and strong relationships among human beings. The final verses of chapter 2 provide what is perhaps the most relevant information for our study on prostitution in the Old Testament. Having established the details of the creation of humanity, and the complementary nature of male and female, the author then tells us the logical result of this situation: “Therefore shall a man leave his father and his mother, and shall cleave unto his wife: and they shall be one flesh. And they were both naked, the man and his wife, and were not ashamed.”20 The implications of these verses are enormous, as they establish the boundaries and nature of the sexual relationship throughout the rest of Scripture - both the Old and New Testaments. The picture we have here is one of monogamous, heterosexual marriage as the only suitable context for sexual union. That the act of “cleaving” to one another produces a bond so strong it can be called “one flesh” is exceedingly relevant to a Biblical understanding of sexuality. The covenant language of 2:23-24 indicates the strength and permanence meant to characterize the marriage bond; the accompanying sexual relationship was thus originally designed to never be broken. Accordingly, to break this bond is to introduce consequences into and upon the human person for which they were never meant to cope (and in some ways, cannot cope). Clearly, this is not a relationship to be considered lightly or reduced to something less; one need not look far today to observe the horrifying and gruesome consequences of such an attitude. However, the flipside of this coin is that adherence to the confines of this relationship brings great blessing - both the man and his wife were naked, and without shame. Ultimately then, no shame is ever meant to be present, by the ordination of God, in a healthy and biblically-grounded sexual relationship. This is a monumental point of significance in our efforts to build a Biblical theology of prostitution. In sharp contrast to the perfection of the marriage and subsequent sexual relationship presented in the first two chapters of Genesis, the narrative presses on to the fall of man and the great tragedy of chapter 3. Refusing to listen to God and adhere to the boundaries He has graciously set for them in the garden, both the man and his wife seek self-autonomy; that is, they reject their dependence on God and 20
Genesis 2:24-25, The Holy Bible: King James Version (Bellingham: Logos Research Systems, 1995).
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their trust in Him, instead choosing to listen to the lies of the serpent and become gods of their own. This failure to listen to and obey God consequently introduces sin and death into the world, mauling its perfection and beauty, and systematically corrupting the relationship between God and His creation. Of special importance for this study are the immediate consequences of this act of disobedience; in vv. 7-10 we see that the very first result of sin was the introduction of shame and fear into the lives of both Adam and Eve. Not only did their sin cause them to immediately hide from each other by sewing together fig leaves for clothes (thus shattering the beautiful picture of v. 2:25), it ultimately caused both to hide from God. In turn, God lays the curse upon humanity and the rest of the creation, causing alienation and strife among men and the severing of humanity’s fellowship with its Creator. In the end, the man and his wife are banished from the LORD’s sustaining blessing and the perfection of the garden. “Though man is still in the image of God, in every aspect of life some parts of that image have been distorted or lost.”21 To summarize, the first three chapters of Genesis lay the groundwork for developing a Biblical understanding and response to prostitution by showing in no uncertain terms what God’s ideal is for His creatures, namely man. This is most clearly seen in the moral and social order established by the narrative which supports all further Biblical teaching. In the midst of this ideal, humanity is created and given life via the very breath of God to enjoy perfect fellowship with Him. Furthermore, in the duality of male and female, humanity bears the image of God - a fact which has enormous theological and ethical implications: “Every single human being, no matter how much the image of God is marred by sin, or illness, or weakness, or age, or any other disability, still has the status of being in God’s image and therefore must be treated with the dignity and respect that is due to God’s image-bearer.”22As image bearers, we share some of God’s characteristics, including our mental and moral capacities, our immortal soul, our ability to grow to be more alike to God in these various modes,23 and most importantly for this study, our sexual nature as human beings - itself founded upon the perfect relationship shared among the members of the Trinity. Furthermore, the highest form of relationship depicted in Scripture is that between the man and his wife, 21
Grudem, 444. ibid, 450. 23 ibid, 445-449. 22
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consummated and strengthened by sexual union, all of which God unreservedly declares “very good”. However, the entrance of sin into the world severs our relationship with God and corrupts the whole of creation, including human sexuality. Consequently, the ideal no longer exists, setting the stage for a wide variety of illicit and demeaning sexual practices to take root. Among these is the practice of prostitution, as we will see throughout the rest of the Old Testament. Having thus established the foundation upon which to build our theology of prostitution from the Hebrew Scriptures, two further passages in the book of Genesis provide us with more direct insight into the issue itself. The first of these incidents is found in chapter 34, which recounts the rape of Jacob’s daughter Dinah by Shechem, the son of Hamor the Canaanite. After learning of Shechem’s offense and the sexual violation of their sister, Jacob’s sons succeed, through a cunning plot, to slaughter the all the men of Hamor’s city and to pillage it in retaliation. Jacob subsequently rebukes his sons for their brashness and the consequences it will bring upon his household. Of note for our purposes is their response to Jacob’s rebuke, recorded in v. 31: “But they said, ‘Should he treat our sister as a harlot?’” While this does little to advance our theological understanding of the topic, it does demonstrate that the occupation of prostitute was already a familiar one by the time of the patriarchs, and was moreover held in very low esteem. More importantly, the sons’ response also marks the first use of the verb ( זָ נָ הzā·nâ) in the Hebrew text, which means “to commit fornication or be a harlot”.24 Here the verb is conjugated as a feminine singular participle in the Qal (basic) stem, indicating continuous action. The resulting form, ( זוֹנָ הzô·nâ), is thus the primary term used to identify prostitution in the Old Testament. When preceded by the noun
( ִא ָשּׁה
iš·šâ), “woman”, this meaning becomes especially acute. In addition, several derivative forms of the
verbal root, all of which are roughly synonymous,25 are used to supplement the meaning of zô·nâ, including:
( זְ נוּ ִניםze·nû·nîm), ( זְ נוּתze·nûṯ), and ( ַתּזְ נוּתtaz·nûṯ), the latter of which is used exclusively by the prophet Ezekiel in chapters 16 and 23 of his oracle. Although zô·nâ occurs 94 times throughout the Old Testament
24
Francis Brown, S.R. Driver and Charles A. Briggs, eds., The Enhanced Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon,
Electronic Edition (Oak Harbor: Logos Research Systems, 2000), s.v. “זָנָה.” 25
R. Laird Harris, Gleason L. Archer, Jr. and Bruce K. Waltke, eds., Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament, Vol. 1, (Chicago:
Moody Press, 1980), 246-47.
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as a marker of illicit sex for a wage, the semantic range of the term also includes acts of fornication as well as any form of illicit sex before marriage except for adultery, in which case the verb
( נָ ַאףnā·
ap) is
distinctly applied.26 Furthermore, the prophets frequently use zā·nâ and its derivatives in a metaphorical sense to represent the idolatry and fickleness of Israel.27 Consequently, the distinction between each of these shades of meaning is often difficult to recognize, but can in the majority of these instances be discerned through a closer examination of context. Thus, “Each usage of zā·nâ must be evaluated independently on the basis of the literary context and social setting to determine its meaning. In many cases illicit sex, not sex for hire, is in view.”28 The second and more detailed passage dealing with prostitution is found in Genesis 38, which recounts the story of Judah and Tamar. Verses 1-11 provide the initial setup for the story: after the betrayal of Joseph, Judah has left the company of his brothers to dwell amongst the Canaanites - a fact which immediately reveals the severe deficiency of his character. This deficiency is borne out further in the narrative by his selection of a Canaanite wife, with whom he fathers three sons. For the eldest of these, Er, Judah selects another Canaanite woman named Tamar to be his wife. However, this marriage does not end well; due to some unspecified sin, God kills Er, leaving Tamar a widow. Subsequently, Judah’s middle son Onan assumes responsibility for Tamar, but is also quickly slain by God for selfishly refusing to provide Tamar with a child to carry the family line. Lastly, in an attempt to preserve the life of his third and last son Shelah, Judah deceitfully withholds him from Tamar, leaving her a childless widow - a dire situation in the patriarchal culture of the Ancient Near East. The narrative then picks up speed in vv. 12-16, which form the backbone of the chapter. After “a considerable time” has passed and Judah’s wife has died, he decides to set out for Timnah, where his flocks are apparently at pasture. Upon hearing this news, the still widowed Tamar makes a bold decision to disguise herself as a prostitute and seduce Judah, with the intention of conceiving a child by him to 26
Willem A. VanGemeren, ed., New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis, Vol. 1 (Grand Rapids:
Zondervan Publishing House, 1997), s.v. “זָנָה,” by Gary H. Hall, 1122-1125. 27
While zā·nâ and its derivatives occur 135x in the Hebrew text, roughly two-thirds of these are found in the prophets. NIDOTTE,
1123. 28
ibid.
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continue her family line. Waiting at the crossroads on the highway to Timnah, vv. 15-16 tell us her plan succeeds: “When Judah saw her, he thought she was a harlot, for she had covered her face. So he turned aside to her by the road, and said, ‘Here now, let me come in to you’; for he did not know that she was his daughter-in-law.” Veiled and unrecognizable, Judah unashamedly propositions Tamar. She agrees, but only on the condition of a deliberately set pledge - Judah’s seal, cord and staff, all items by which he can be identified later. Afterwards, she conceives, and Judah continues on his way, failing to make proper payment for the encounter and thereby reacquire his pledge. More time passes, and after three months Tamar is found to be pregnant. Judah hypocritically reacts by sentencing her to death for her “harlotry”; yet in a shocking twist, Tamar reveals Judah to be the father by producing the tokens which were pledged to her in payment for the encounter in question. The narrative reaches an appropriate climax with Judah’s response in v. 26: “She is more righteous than I, inasmuch as I did not give her to my son Shelah.”29 Afterward, Genesis 38 concludes on a high note with the birth of twin sons to Tamar; not only has she succeeded in upholding her family line, but has also unknowingly given birth to the ancestor of David and later of the Messiah Himself. What can be gleaned from this narrative to advance an Old Testament theology of prostitution? First and foremost, we must recognize the context of the narrative; this is clearly an abnormal situation described by Scripture. Genesis 38 deals primarily with two people: Judah and Tamar, whose character sharply contrasts with one another. Judah is shown to be immoral, unfaithful, and selfish to the point of narcissism. Moreover, his failure as a father is apparent in the death of his two eldest sons by the hand of God,30 and later his refusal to give Shelah in marriage to Tamar demonstrates spiritual blindness and a hardened heart. The passage of time and the death of his wife apparently do little to curb Judah’s wickedness, as revealed in his encounter with Tamar by the wayside. Upon seeing her, his first words are “Here now, let me come in to you,” an obscene and horribly objectifying request. The irony of the situation
29
Claus Westermann, Genesis 37-50: A Continental Commentary, trans. John J. Scullion (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002), 54.
30
Waltke, 508.
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saturates the text; although Judah sleeps with Tamar, he does not know her.31 This plays negatively off the ideal established earlier in Genesis, where Adam knew32 his wife Eve, and she conceived. Later, unable to locate Tamar and retrieve the tokens of his pledge in exchange for payment, Judah is more concerned with his own reputation amongst the Canaanites: “Let her keep them, otherwise we will become a laughingstock.” This wickedness finally reaches the boiling point with his hypocritical condemnation of Tamar, after which he is finally forced to acknowledge his wrongdoing. Even then, it is half-hearted at best; he only “sees her conduct as justified by his own injustice”.33 Clearly then, the text makes no attempt to show Judah as anything other than a wicked and self-centered villain. On the other hand, Tamar is upheld as the ultimate heroine of the narrative. The text at no point passes any judgment on her, instead highlighting her cleverness, decisiveness, and boldness in carrying out her objective. And all this from a Canaanite woman! Tamar’s loyalty to her deceased husband and her dire circumstances, to remain a childless widow in her father’s house without a future, are used to justify the means to the end she seeks.34 Waltke notes, “Her demand that her father-in-law father a child by her, since he refuses to give her his son, is probably consistent with accepted ethical practices at the time. Both Hittite (14th-13th century B.C.) and Middle Assyrian laws legislated that if a married man died and his brother also died, then ‘his father shall take her… There shall be no punishment.’ The Mosaic Law did not go this far, but her actions are not inconsistent with the principle: ‘[the deceased brother’s] widow must not marry outside the family’ (Deuteronomy 5:5).”35 Later, it is quite significant to note that the text says nothing about her acceptance back into the household of Judah – rather, this fact is merely assumed. Thus, when all is said and done, “The narrator approves of Tamar quite openly; he sets in relief her cleverness and firmness of purpose. When Judah finally says, ‘She is within her rights rather than I,’ he thereby
31
Victor P. Hamilton, The Book of Genesis: Chapters 18-50, vol. 2 of The New International Commentary on the Old Testament, ed.
R.K. Harrison and Robert L. Hubbard, Jr. (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1995), 440. 32
Heb. ( יָדַעyā·ḏa ); this is the standard term used throughout the Old Testament to describe a healthy, loving sexual
relationship, always within the confines of marriage. It stands in stark contrast to ׁשכַב ָ (šā·ḵaḇ), meaning “to lie with”. 33
Westermann, 55.
34
ibid, 53.
35
Waltke, 511.
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acknowledges that the questionable means Tamar uses to procure her right are justified and that justice is restored by them. The right is the greater good and Judah, too, submits to it.”36 Aside from the considerations of character, however, there seems to be little of significance regarding the issue of prostitution in Genesis 38 for several reasons. First and foremost among these is the fact that Tamar was not a true zô·nâ. The narrative is clear that she only played the part of a prostitute, and the fact that she never received any payment for the act further differentiates her from the business of the harlot. Second, the situation in which Tamar found herself was quite specific and distinct from that of the normal prostitute. The text presents Tamar above all as a faithful widow, and then, only in the guise of a harlot. Ample reasons are also given for Tamar’s actions; facing the harsh reality of her life as a direct consequence of Judah’s wickedness, there seems to be little else she could have done to amend the situation and maintain her family line. The fault is laid squarely upon Judah’s shoulders, absolving Tamar of any serious misconduct. Third, the timeframe of the narrative bears mentioning. The entire story is set in the era before the formation of the Nation of Israel, before the sojourn in the wilderness, and even before the revelation of the Law to Moses upon Mt. Sinai. Indeed, this is the era of the Patriarchs, who have very little information about God or His perfect and rigorous moral standards. In light of this, it seems reasonable to understand Scripture’s response to Tamar’s actions as somewhat more lenient than if she had been a part of the Nation of Israel later on. Throughout Genesis this principle is apparent in the consistent failure of the patriarchs to adhere to God’s commands and in His equally consistent displays of grace to the men who were the progenitors of the Jewish faith. Lastly, Scripture seems to understand a hierarchy of priorities in this case; Tamar’s right to continue her family line and thus remain a faithful wife even to her dead husband is held as the greater obligation – in this specific case, in other words, the means seem to justify the end. Nevertheless, a few broad principles may be gleaned from the narrative for our purposes. Of some significance is the disposition of Judah, whose exceedingly low integrity naturally compels him to solicit the services of a prostitute. A man with an unchecked sexual appetite, a completely self-centered understanding of the world, and the time and resources to seize the opportunities for cheap sex as they present themselves 36
Westermann, 55-56.
15
is obviously going to objectify and use women in the same manner as Judah. Additionally, because the text makes no attempt whatsoever to excuse such profane character, we would do well to remember that even in our time, there are two parties involved in any illegitimate sexual encounter. Certainly, prostitution would not be a viable profession without the men who comprise the market for illicit sex. More important still are the overtones of God’s providence and grace within the story. Tamar, facing what would essentially amount to a ruined life, conceives of a plan that is then adopted by God and used as both the catalyst to spark Judah’s later character transformation and, as the New Testament reveals, to uphold the bloodline of the Messiah! If nothing else, this speaks to both the ability and good pleasure of God to convert even the worst situations into a means of grace. Much later this overarching component of the story, along with several others like it in the Old Testament, then helps to provide the framework for the birth of Christ in the Gospels. Hamilton explains, “…each of these four women [Tamar, Rahab, Ruth, Bathsheba] had a highly irregular and potentially scandalous marital union. Nevertheless, these unions were, by God’s providence, links in the chain to the Messiah. Accordingly, each of them prepares the way for Mary, whose marital situation is also peculiar... Thus the inclusion of the likes of Tamar in this family tree on the one hand foreshadows the circumstances of the birth of Christ, and on the other hand blunts any attack on Mary. ‘God had worked his will in the midst of whispers of scandal.’”37 In terms of a Biblical perspective on prostitution, this only goes to show that regardless of how hopeless the prostitute’s circumstances may seem, nothing remains outside the bounds of God’s providence and grace. Aside from Genesis, a number of additional references to both literal and metaphorical prostitution are scattered throughout the Pentateuch. In Exodus 34:15-16, the text portrays God renewing the covenant with His people after their apostasy with the golden calf; among the commands given in this discourse are those warning Israel not to make any covenant with the peoples of Canaan, but rather to completely destroy their religious sites and holy places. Neglecting to do so would leave Israel open to further idolatry, which God Himself describes as “playing the harlot with their gods”. This prohibition essentially amounts to a re-statement of the First and Second Commandments, necessary for Israel’s sake 37
Hamilton, 455-56.
16
following their failure under Aaron’s leadership.38 The chief principle we may take from this text is that God views Israel’s potential infidelity as a serious violation of the covenant relationship established between Himself and the people. Although used here in the metaphorical sense, the lesson still applies prostitution is indeed a serious and gruesome violation of the ideal covenant structure of marriage. Whether the zô·nâ is married or not is irrelevant in this case, as the consequences of the sexual relationship outside the boundaries of the marriage covenant still apply. Having dealt with the corporate and metaphorical aspect of the issue, the text next turns to individual laws regarding social ethics and the boundaries of holiness for God’s people. Leviticus 19:29 directly addresses the practice of harlotry itself, saying, “‘Do not profane your daughter by making her a harlot, so that the land will not fall to harlotry and the land become full of lewdness.” Clearly, this is no metaphorical reference; God is indeed commanding His people to reject the office of the prostitute altogether. Although the Masoretic Text uses the preposition
ַאל
( al) to negate the imperfect verb
“profane”, the LXX appears to translate the phrase according to the stronger negative preposition
לֹא
(lō ),39 a construction which means “Never profane your daughter…”; the command is thus emphasized as irrevocable and permanent.40 Furthermore, the verb zā·nâ is conjugated here using the Hiphil stem, implying a causal meaning. Essentially, a father is never to permit or force his daughter into a scenario involving prostitution. To do this would encourage others in the community to follow in suit, causing the land itself to be corrupted and full of lewdness: “Sin fosters sin; prostitution draws to itself to a host of crimes (Dt. 23:18-19; Amos 2:7; Hos. 4:14; Ezek. 33:37-39). Furthermore, in ancient thinking, such activity defiled the very land that supported the wrongdoers.”41 The temptation to entertain these types of situations was probably not uncommon, as any household facing insurmountable debt would have found the
38
John I. Durham, Exodus, vol. 2 of Word Biblical Commentary, ed. David A. Hubbard and Glenn W. Barker (Waco: Word Books, 1987), 460.
39
Jacob Milgrom, Leviticus 17-22, vol. 3A of Anchor Bible Commentary, ed. William F. Albright and David N. Freedman (New York:
Doubleday, 2000), 1697. 40
Ronald J. Williams, Williams’ Hebrew Syntax, 3rd Edition (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2007), §396.
41
John E. Hartley, Leviticus, vol. 4 of Word Biblical Commentary, ed. David A. Hubbard and Glenn W. Barker (Dallas: Word Books,
1992), 321.
17
sexual services of one or more of their daughters more than sufficient to help pay off this debt.42 Again, such a link between economics and prostitution is critical to note, as it remains active even in the 21st century. God acknowledges this link, and in His quest to set apart His people Israel as holy and reflective of His own character (Leviticus 18:24-30), He forbids such practices. To profane one’s daughter is to deprive her of both her right and duty as an Israelite to realize this goal.43 This statute is further defined in Leviticus 21, which details the regulations regarding marriage and family relationships for the priesthood. Specifically, vv. 7, 9 and 14 state the following: “They shall not take a woman who is profaned by harlotry… Also the daughter of any priest, if she profanes herself by harlotry, she profanes her father; she shall be burned with fire… A widow, or a divorced woman, or one who is profaned by harlotry, these he may not take; but rather he is to marry a virgin of his own people”. Again, the goal of such prohibitions is the creation and preservation of holiness among God’s chosen people, particularly those in the community who are to serve as its spiritual leaders.44 The focus of these laws is also directed toward the character and reputation of the woman in question rather than her sexual history, since widows are placed at the least offensive end of this spectrum.45 Practical implications also exist for such rules, namely that the husband of one practicing prostitution could never be certain that any offspring produced in the marriage were legitimately his. Considerations of physical health are also taken into account, as well as the inevitable moral and spiritual influence of each spouse upon the other. It is the seriousness of the influence of these family relationships upon God’s people that then leads to the severity of the penalty prescribed in v.9; because the Hebrews viewed the family as a single, cohesive unit, what defiled one member defiled the others, and thus removal of the individual causing the defilement was mandatory. Death by fire was seen to accomplish this in the fullest sense, burning away any impurity
42
Milgrom, 1695-96.
43
ibid, 1697.
44
As a side note, these laws also function as a strict warning to those in positions of spiritual leadership today. The text here
seems to implicitly acknowledge that even the priest is not immune to such gruesome sin. Given many of the recent highprofile cases of sexual infidelity (including the soliciting of prostitutes) among major Evangelical leaders, this is a lesson God fully understands and desires us to diligently remember (cf. Joshua 1:8). 45
Gordon J. Wenham, The Book of Leviticus, vol. 3 of The New International Commentary on the Old Testament, ed. R.K. Harrison
and Robert L. Hubbard, Jr. (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1979), 291.
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within the holy community, and was also seen as a humiliation to the offending person, who subsequently lacked a proper burial.46 Lastly, one additional passage from the book of Deuteronomy significantly contributes to our study of prostitution in the Pentateuch. Beginning in Chapter 23, further ordinances regarding the holiness and purity of God’s people as they gather for worship are given. Sandwiched between laws specifically addressing ritual cleanliness, treatment of the abused and foreigners47, and integrity in financial matters, vv. 17-18 state the following commands: “None of the daughters of Israel shall be a cult prostitute, nor shall any of the sons of Israel be a cult prostitute. You shall not bring the hire of a harlot or the wages of a dog into the house of the Lord your God for any votive offering, for both of these are an abomination to the Lord your God.” At this juncture, an entirely new category of harlotry is introduced – cultic prostitution. While there is a great deal of speculation regarding the exact nature of cultic prostitution in the Ancient Near East, as well as the presence of such practices within Israel’s distinct culture, it will suffice to say for our purposes that the underlying motive for this command remains the same as for the prohibitions against common prostitution. This is especially clear upon closer inspection of the terminology being used – the respective masculine and feminine nouns ( ָק ֵדשׁqā·ḏēš) and שׁה ָ ( ְק ֵדqe·ḏē·šâ), meaning “temple-prostitute”, are both derived from the verb
( ָק ַדשׁqā·ḏaš), “to be set apart, consecrated, holy.”48 The basic idea here is
consequently one of separation; just as God labored to create a covenant people set aside for Himself via the Nation of Israel, these temple prostitutes seem to have been set apart for the specific purpose of worship and communication with their respective pagan gods.49 Although nothing in the Biblical text itself describes the specific rituals of this class, material from other Ancient Near Eastern sources does shed some light on their function: “Temple prostitution was a
46
Hartley, 348-49.
47
Duane L. Christensen, Deuteronomy 21:10-34:12, vol. 6b of Word Biblical Commentary, ed. Bruce M. Metzger, David A. Hubbard
and Glenn W. Barker (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2002). Christensen notes here that the text may be hinting at a connection between the laws regarding escaped slaves and prostitution due to the chiastic structure of vv. 16-19; he places the “hinge” of this chiasm at v. 17, which is the dominant prohibition against cultic prostitution in Israel. (547-48) 48
Brown-Driver-Briggs, “ ָקדֵׁש.”
49
T. Desmond Alexander and David W. Baker, eds., Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch (Downers Grove: Inter-Varsity
Press, 2003), s.v. “Sexuality, Sexual Ethics,” by J.M. Sprinkle, 750.
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much more common practice in the Near East. The religions of this region commonly deified nature and its reproductive forces, and paid homage to those in licentious rites. The Code of Hammurabi allowed female prostitutes at any temple. The Gilgamesh Epic pictures such a woman in connection with the temple of Ishtar (cf. ANET, p. 75). Herodotus (i.199) says that the Babylonians compelled every native female to attend the temple of Venus once in her life and to prostitute herself in honor of the goddess.”50 As such, cultic prostitution was merely another way of manipulating the gods in the Ancient Near East, who were thought to exercise control over the world, in part, through sexual relations. Therefore, by seeking the services of a temple prostitute, a person could provoke the gods to grant him favorable circumstances.51 This connection between pagan worship and cultic prostitution can be clearly seen later in Israel’s history, and was more often than not one of the primary factors leading the nation into apostasy; 1 Kings 14:22-24; 15:12; 22:38; and 2 Kings 23:4-14 all make reference to the presence of the qā·ḏēš in conjunction with idolatry. As a result, the attempted offering of
( ֶא ְתנָ ן
eṯ·nān), “the wages of a harlot”, in Israel’s daily
religious life becomes all the more offensive in the sight of God. Not only is this offering composed of income gained through gratuitous sexual license, it moreover represents the price paid for unfaithfulness within the covenant relationship. Against this historical and cultural backdrop, the prohibition of Deuteronomy 23:17-18 subsequently takes on a more comprehensive meaning. Prostitution, particularly of the cultic kind, was forbidden in the Law for several reasons. First, as we have seen throughout the Pentateuch, Israel was called to be a holy nation - consequently her sexual ethics were unflinchingly rigid relative to the surrounding peoples, and prostitution fell well outside the narrow boundaries of these ethics. Second, prostitution was closely linked to and viewed as a major cause of apostasy. By engaging in cultic sex, God’s people would in fact be assuming the characteristics of the pagan nations that were her neighbors; namely, a severe lack of integrity and an inability to correctly discern the things of God. Not only does this defeat
50
Geoffrey W. Bromiley, ed., The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, rev. ed., vol. 2 (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans
Publishing Company, 1982), s.v. “Harlot,” by D.W. Wead, 616. 51
Willem A. VanGemeren, ed., New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis, Vol. 3 (Grand Rapids:
Zondervan Publishing House, 1997), s.v. “ ָקדֵׁש,” by Jackie A. Naudé, 886.
20
the purpose of being a consecrated people, but it amounts to nothing less than idolatry and a willful breaking of the covenant relationship with יהוה.52 Ultimately, both the literal and metaphorical aspects of prostitution, whether common or cultic, profane the name of God and destroy the character of His people. Duane Christensen summarizes the point well: “Physical prostitution is a gross evil, one that usually results in a form of sex slavery and premature death. But the metaphor of prostitution in the form of the activities of a ‘pagan priest’ raises deeper issues. The ‘pagan priest’ is one who traffics in the service of some god other than YHWH and who salves his conscience by using the proceeds of such activity to present gifts ‘to the house of YHWH.’ In the metaphorical sense, this too is a form of prostitution, with the same evil consequences at the end of the road: slavery and death.”53
II ~ The Historical and Wisdom Literature ~ Having established the harsh reality of prostitution and the prohibitions placed upon such practices in the books of the Law, we may now turn to the Historical and Wisdom literature of the Old Testament to begin embellishing the details of our theology regarding the issue. Two primary texts in this division of the Old Testament provide these additional details: The story of Rahab and the Israelite spies found in Joshua 2:1-24 and 6:22-25, and several brief sections within the Book of Proverbs. Both segments of Scripture paint starkly different pictures of the zô·nâ and her clientele, revealing the moral and theological complexities inherent to the issue. We will thus begin our exploration of these difficulties with the character of Rahab and her role in the conquest of Canaan by Israel. The narrative of Joshua 2 begins with the people of God, freshly returned from their 40-year slog in the wilderness, at the borders of Canaan ready to take the Promised Land. Joshua, who has taken over as both the spiritual and military leader of Israel following the death of Moses, displays his responsibility and strategic brilliance by sending two spies into the land to gather preliminary intelligence. These spies eventually find their way to the city of Jericho and the house of a Canaanite prostitute named Rahab, who
52
David Noel Freedman, ed., The Anchor Bible Dictionary, Vol. 5 (New York: Doubleday, 1992), s.v. “Prostitution,” by Elaine Adler Goodfriend, 506. 53 Christensen, 551.
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grants them lodging for the night. Almost immediately, this scenario raises the question: What was the
ָ (šā·ḵaḇ), “to nature of the spies’ visit to the house of this harlot? The verb used in the Hebrew text is שׁ ַכב lie down”, a euphemism frequently carrying sexual connotations.54 Is this yet another instance of Israelite disobedience and a backhanded swipe upon the character of Rahab? Though plausible, this conclusion seems unlikely for two primary reasons. First, vv. 2-3 state that the king of Jericho was made aware of the presence of the Hebrew spies, and sent word to Rahab summoning her to surrender them to the custody of his royal authorities: “Bring out the men who have come to you, who have entered your house, for they have come to search out all the land.” While the king thus identifies the spies in a manner that may suggest sexual activity, i.e., “the men who have come to you”, the addition of the phrase “entered your house” seems to qualify his preceding description, removing the sexual overtones of their presence in her home. Later, the non-sexual nature of the spies’ stay is further emphasized in v. 8, where šā·ḵaḇ is used again to describe the spies as they prepare to rest for the evening - in this case clearly without any illicit intentions. Secondly, statements from both the Jewish historian Josephus and a number of the Hebrew Targums refer to Rahab as an “innkeeper”, which allows for the possibility that many men may have come and gone from Rahab’s residence, not all necessarily for the purpose of illicit sex, but perhaps simply to stay at the inn.55 In short then, the text gives us little reason to suspect that the spies were paying clients for Rahab’s sexual services, retaining their moral integrity and laying the groundwork for her surprising character. Then, beginning in vv. 4-7, the nature of this character rises to the forefront as Rahab shrewdly responds to the subpoena of the king, choosing to hide the two spies and throw their royal pursuers off the trail. This development at first seems somewhat odd, as Rahab’s identity is not at all lost upon the text: she is undeniably a harlot, and worse, a harlot of Canaan. Nevertheless, her confession to the spies following this incident, recorded in vv. 8-14, reveals the reasons for her choice, as well as her unique and astonishing integrity:
54
Brown-Driver-Briggs, “ׁשכַב ָ .”
55
Marten H. Woudstra, The Book of Joshua, vol. 6 of The New International Commentary on the Old Testament, ed. Robert L.
Hubbard, Jr. (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1981), 69-70.
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“I know that the LORD has given you the land, and that the terror of you has fallen on us, and that all the inhabitants of the land have melted away before you. For we have heard how the LORD dried up the water of the Red Sea before you when you came out of Egypt, and what you did to the two kings of the Amorites who were beyond the Jordan, to Sihon and Og, whom you utterly destroyed. When we heard it, our hearts melted and no courage remained in any man any longer because of you; for the LORD your God, He is God in heaven above and on earth beneath.”
The tone and content of Rahab’s speech is obviously startling, coming from a Canaanite prostitute. Not only does she use the proper name of God, but her fear of and reverence towards יהוה, “the LORD”, is obvious and unmistakable. Clearly, such a confession of faith is quite significant; even Rahab, a professional prostitute and pagan woman of Canaan, and who in any other circumstance would seem a hopeless case, both recognizes and is deeply affected by the sheer power of God. More specifically, this response was initiated through hearing about God and His awesome works in Israel’s deliverance, in turn giving her the faith to believe in and fear Him. Indeed, the content of her speech closely echoes the exhortations given by God in Deuteronomy 4:39 and 11:25 (!), demonstrating the beginnings of her emergence from the pagan environment.56 Also of note is Rahab’s blatant display of unselfishness in asking that her family be saved from the coming wrath as well as herself – yet another amazing gesture from an unexpected source. Incidentally, this detail further reveals the depravity of the culture in which she lived – at best, she seems to have been abandoned by her family to a life of harlotry, while perhaps at worst she was forced by them into the situation. Moreover, the irony at this point in the narrative is glaring - Rahab and the Canaanites of Jericho recognize the power of God to such an extent that they have become inconsolably demoralized, whereas the chosen people of God, Israel herself, failed to see this and consequently wandered the desert for 40 years only to emerge amongst the most heavily fortified cities of Palestine. In addition, it is the testimony of and experience with the God-fearing, knowledgeable, and obedient Rahab, as reported by the spies back to
56
ibid, 72-73.
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Joshua in vv. 23-24, that then gives Israel the courage to go forth and conquer the Promised Land!57 Trent Butler cleverly sums up the scene: “A common prostitute is more intelligent than the intelligence agents of the king.”58 Ultimately, Israel cannot claim to be high and mighty - God used a pagan prostitute to guide them on. After making a deal with Israel’s spies to secure her safety as well as that of her family, and helping the two men escape from the city walls,59 the narrative is brought to conclusion in chapter 6, which details the fall and destruction of Jericho. In v. 22 we find that Joshua does indeed honor the agreement made between Rahab and the spies, making provision for her rescue and that of her family amid the battle. Following their rescue, the family is then placed outside the Israelite camp for a brief time, most likely due to the Levitical regulations regarding ritual uncleanliness. Finally, v. 25 offers a fitting conclusion to the narrative: “However, Rahab the harlot and her father’s household and all she had, Joshua spared; and she has lived in the midst of Israel to this day, for she hid the messengers whom Joshua sent to spy out Jericho.” While the curse of God was upon Jericho, and the city was burned to the ground and none of her inhabitants survived, the text ends on the astonishing note that Rahab and all her family were not merely spared, but fully integrated into the community of God’s people. Such a happy ending points only to a special provision of divine grace, granted to Rahab on account of her faith and the action she took because of it.60 Furthermore, the text “celebrates the goodness of God” seen in Rahab’s rescue, emphasizing the powerful fact that racial identity or even past failures are not to be viewed as the definitive features of Israel’s identity, but rather the identity of God’s people depends exclusively on the grace of God.61 In sum, Rahab is depicted as a stark contrast to the picture of prostitutes painted throughout the rest of the Old Testament. Though her sin was undoubtedly great, the text refuses to dwell there, instead building her integrity as a woman of faith – something utterly unexpected from a Canaanite woman whose 57
Trent C. Butler, Joshua, vol. 7 of Word Biblical Commentary, ed. David A. Hubbard and Glenn W. Barker (Waco: Word Books, 1983), 33-35. 58 ibid, 35. 59 That Rahab’s house was located in the outer wall of the city probably indicates her low economic status, and thus provides another link between poverty and prostitution. 60 cf. Hebrews 11:31; James 2:25. 61 Woudstra, 115-16.
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trade was sex for hire. Of critical importance to our study is that her faith came from hearing. Hearing of the awesome and terrifying works of the LORD as He delivered His people from the bondage of Egypt, Rahab was changed, her family was saved, and Israel took its first steps into the Promised Land: “The present OT context uses the narrative to give identity and courage to Israel, particularly to Israel without land and power. That Israelite identity includes the ironic fact that God uses not only his own prophets and leaders to bring faith and courage to disconsolate Israel. God uses the most unexpected and immoral persons to further his purposes in the world.”62 If even the likes of a pagan prostitute from Canaan can be changed by faith in God through hearing, then surely hope remains for even the most broken and exploited women in our postmodern world. Rahab’s story provides an example of God’s ability and power to bless those who obey Him, regardless of race, social status, or human depravity.63 Following the narrative begun in Joshua, the historical writings further chronicle the establishment of Israel in Palestine and the founding of the Monarchy under David and Solomon. Israel’s cyclical disobedience and God’s patience, judgment, and grace are key themes, culminating in the exile and eventual restoration of the Nation under Ezra and Nehemiah. Little is mentioned regarding prostitution in this block of the text, with the exception of a handful of verses in Judges and the books of the Kings, the latter of which have been treated in our discussion of cult prostitution above. The wisdom literature, however, has much more to say regarding the subject. Job, the Psalms, and the mysterious Preacher of Ecclesiastes all deal largely with the realities of suffering, justice, and God’s sovereignty and mercy, while the illustrious Song of Solomon elegantly and provocatively elaborates on the themes of love and sexuality established in Genesis, providing a much needed corrective to the illicit practices dealt with in the Scriptures thus far. Nevertheless, these practices return to the forefront in the Book of Proverbs, which graphically unravels the heart of both the prostitute and her male suitors. Beginning with Proverbs 6:26, the Scriptures begin to flesh out the ungodly nature of prostitution and the general character of the men and women ensnared by such an illicit lifestyle: “For on account of a
62 63
Butler, 35. ibid, 72.
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harlot one is reduced to a loaf of bread, and an adulteress hunts for the precious life.” Due to the difficulty of the Hebrew at this point in the text, there is some ambiguity regarding exactly what meaning the author is attempting to convey. Nevertheless, two primary options seem valid: either 1) the man who frequents prostitutes will eventually face financial ruin, or 2) the man who solicits the services of the harlot is thereby reduced to the value of something as meager as a loaf of bread, itself the promised price for the sexual encounter.64 In either case, the emphasis is placed upon the actions and integrity of the client rather than the zô·nâ herself; this is readily evident in vv. 20-24, which provide the contrast for the proverb by detailing the qualities necessary to avoid such moral catastrophe – namely obedience to the teaching and discipline learned from one’s parents. Subsequently, this prelude serves to heighten the effect of v. 26, which shows a man who has rejected sound teaching, wisdom, and common sense to engage in lewd sexual behavior. Murphy notes, “The emphasis is put on the responsibility of the man. Only too often in these chapters is the woman quickly blamed. Now the teacher stresses the unruly desire of the male. He is to watch over his “heart,” as well as refuse to be caught by her eyes (cf. Cant. 4:9).”65 Ultimately, going to a prostitute is cheap and easy, but the wiser man is restrained and guided by godly teaching. Complicating the matter here and throughout the Proverbs, however, is the pairing of harlotry with adultery. Upon first glance, the author almost appears to excuse the act of soliciting sex from a prostitute in relation to the seemingly greater offense of adultery. Yet certainly in light of the prohibitions given in the Pentateuch, a more plausible interpretation seems necessary, and may be found upon a closer analysis of the specific literary device being used – synthetic parallelism. In essence, this indicates that the statement found in the first line of v. 26 is simply being used to prove and accentuate the point of the second; roughly, this could be read, “If prostitution is this bad, then adultery is all the worse!”66 In this manner, then, the Proverb neither excuses the actions of the client nor validates the services of the harlot, but rather highlights and contrasts the practical consequences of adultery from those of prostitution. 64
The LXX, Syriac Peshitta, and Latin Vulgate all seem to prefer the first interpretation, whereas the KJV and NASB have opted for that of the second. 65 Roland E. Murphy, Proverbs, vol. 22 of Word Biblical Commentary, ed. Bruce M. Metzger, David A. Hubbard and Glenn W. Barker (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1998), 39. 66 W. Hall Harris and Michael H. Burer, eds., The NET Bible: First Edition (Spokane: Biblical Studies Press, 2006).
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Harlotry is cheap; adultery can cost one’s life.67 Additionally, the pairing of prostitution and adultery further clarifies the character of the male perpetrator by showing the full range of sin he is capable of and likely to fall into. Only a man given to entertaining lustful passions and desires, willing to take incredibly dangerous risks, and a cold-hearted thief (stealing the spouse and/or integrity of another), would be prone to such gruesome folly.68 Given this troubling insight, the implications of being “reduced to a loaf of bread” become quite clear: “The price also indicates the degradation of this act to both man and woman; it is cheap. Going to the immoral woman is the quintessential self-destructive act.”69 Proverbs 7:10 continues to expand upon this theme, using the imagery of a harlot to describe the evil devices of an adulteress. The chapter begins with a father exhorting his son to remember wisdom and sound teaching. To illustrate, he begins an extended parable about the archetypal “young man” who lacks these qualities. Being simple-minded and morally weak, he naïvely wanders too close to the trap of the “strange woman”, who represents the antithesis of wisdom: “And behold, a woman comes to meet him, dressed as a harlot and cunning of heart.” The outward appearance of the adulteress in a harlot’s attire is perhaps used as a visual symbol of the depravity which lurks in her heart. Furthermore, it may signify an attempt to disguise her true identity as the wife of a wealthy man (identified in v. 19), or is perhaps deployed simply as a further enticement to the young fool, who upon seeing the provocative dress, would be inescapably caught in her web of death. In either case, such bold dress and bold tactics, associated with the harlot and taken up by the adulteress, seem to indicate that prostitutes acted openly and with little shame.70 The rest of the parable describes in nauseating detail the tactics of the adulteress, who leads the unsuspecting young man into disaster “as an ox goes to the slaughter.” While this text does mention prostitution, it does so only in service to its condemnation of adultery. The zô·nâ herself, interestingly
67
Bruce K. Waltke, The Book of Proverbs: Chapters 1-15, vol. 11 of The New International Commentary on the Old Testament, ed. R.K. Harrison and Robert L. Hubbard, Jr. (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2004), 355. 68 Murphy, 37. 69 Duane A. Garrett, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, vol. 14 of The New American Commentary, ed. E. Ray Clendenen (Nashville: Broadman Press, 1993), 100. 70 Waltke, Proverbs 1-15, 373-74.
27
enough, is treated only in passing - she is never explicitly condemned, but rather the adulteress who has taken up her outward characteristics is harshly portrayed. Over all this remains the unifying motif of a severe lack of wisdom, discernment, and good teaching on the part of the young male, but also upon his femme fatale. This further advances our view of the issue by exposing what specific factors motivate and drive illicit sexuality, including prostitution, in the human heart. The most disturbing and severe depiction of prostitution in the Proverbs, however, may be found in 23:26-28, which chillingly describes the consequences of soliciting her services: “Give me your heart, my son, and let your eyes delight in my ways. For a harlot is a deep pit, and an adulterous woman is a narrow well. Surely she lurks as a robber, and increases the faithless among men.” It is of some significance at this point to note that the NASB (and most other modern English translations) here translate the word
נָ ְכ ִרי
(nāḵ·rî), meaning “foreign, alien” as adulterous. While this interpretation is generally valid, given the parallelism of the previous line the more preferable translation then becomes “harlot”, as read in the New English Translation.71 This, in turn, suggests something regarding the identity of the prostitute - namely, that she is a foreign woman, subject to racial prejudice and especially economic and social discrimination.72 Though this conclusion is somewhat tenuous, Scripture again seems to hint at the link between impoverished women and prostitution. Regardless of the circumstances which led to her profession, however, it is clear that the author of this Proverb leaves little doubt regarding the ultimate fate of the harlot and her clientele. Her similarity to “a deep pit” in v. 27 not only suggests a trap from which the young man cannot escape once ensnared, but is often a metaphor in the Hebrew text for Sheol, the realm of the dead. Waltke even goes so far as to suggest that the symbolism here has an even more disturbing interpretation: “The well is an expected source of refreshing, satisfying water, a common metaphor for sex (Prov. 5:15-18; 9:17). However, the opening to the well is narrow, which connotes that this sexual partner frustrates him. The fornicator came hoping to quench his sexual appetite, but, because he finds her incapable of the intimacy necessary to satisfy that
71 72
See note 45, Proverbs 23:27. The quintessential example of this concept in the Old Testament is Ruth, the Moabite daughter-in-law of Naomi.
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thirst, he cannot penetrate to satisfying water. Moreover, after he has penetrated her, he discovers that he cannot turn and extricate himself from his predicament (cf. Jer. 38:6).”73 This grim picture is only intensified in v. 28, where the tactics of the harlot are again highlighted - in this instance being likened to those of a murderous robber. Furthermore, the Hebrew at this point suggests the imagery of a predator lying in wait to seize her prey, leaving no doubt that the zô·nâ is a figure of lethal danger. Even more alarming is the fact that she not only destroys individuals, but her character and actions seduce many men away from God and His covenant people, creating apostates.74 Garrett concludes, “The two metaphors of the pit and the highwayman [robber] both emphasize that the prostitute sets a trap, or rather is herself a trap… prostitution brings about a general decline in the moral values of the community with the result that lawlessness increases.”75 Lastly, in Proverbs 29:3, the author switches back to the perspective of the male client, bringing the depiction of prostitution in the Wisdom Literature full circle: “A man who loves wisdom makes his father glad, but he who keeps company with harlots wastes his wealth.” Here, the primary lesson is obvious. Wealth, often seen as a sign of God’s blessing in the Old Testament, can easily be squandered in service to the harlot. This reckless action is heavily emphasized in the Hebrew text, and could literally be translated “The one who befriends prostitutes will devastate his wealth.” Such wastefulness in Hebrew thought not only brought shame and disgrace upon the client himself, but also upon his whole family - an idea implied with the use of “father” in v. 3a. Again, the Proverbs’ predominant and unifying theme of wisdom vs. foolishness is used to flesh out the contrast presented by the verse. The son who fraternizes with harlots and thus squanders his family’s hard-earned wealth and source of blessing has a faulty and narrow perspective of life that is limited to the here-and-now, along with the harlot who benefits from his lack of discipline. Yet the son who avoids such practices and maintains the high road brings honor to himself and his kin, while recognizing and partaking of the riches of God in the process.
73
Bruce K. Waltke, The Book of Proverbs: Chapters 15-31, vol. 12 of The New International Commentary on the Old Testament, ed. R.K. Harrison and Robert L. Hubbard, Jr. (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2005), 261. 74 ibid. 75 Garrett, 197.
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In sum, then, the history and wisdom writings greatly broaden an Old Testament theology of prostitution by providing a variety of characters to embody and interact with the principles regarding the practice which were established in the Pentateuch. The most striking of these is none other than Rahab, the Canaanite woman who, through a bold act of faith, gave Israel the impetus to finally enter into the Holy Land. Though clearly a harlot, her confession of the God of Israel overshadows the illicit nature of her lifestyle, as demonstrated in her eventual and unconditional acceptance into the assembly of God’s people. This picture of faith and obedience is in sharp contrast to the zô·nâ of Proverbs, grimly depicted as a cold, calculating, and lethal woman given over to her own vices. The depravity of the prostitute is only matched by the reckless disposition of her male clientele, a group of morally frail, irresponsible, and overly sumptuous men enslaved to their own passions. The sexual act itself is portrayed in this context as cheap and demeaning, followed by consequences that are inevitable and severe. Yet God has graciously provided a way out – wisdom and godly teaching, bound to the heart, promise to lead the faithful away from the poverty and death of harlotry to the blessings and joy of life.
III ~ The Prophets ~ Finally, we may turn our attention to the Prophets to complete our study of prostitution in the Old Testament. Although the reservoir of information regarding the subject in this last division of the Hebrew Scriptures is immense, even a cursory reading of the passages which use the language of harlotry quickly reveal the more complex nature of their scope. More specifically, the prophets primarily use prostitution as a vivid metaphor for Israel’s rampant idolatry. That this metaphor functions as well as it does stems directly from the covenant nature of Israel’s relationship with God. As in marriage, Israel betrothed herself to
יהוהat Sinai, whereupon He accepted her as his own bride. Thus the Old Testament is over all the
story of the Jewish people failing again and again to meet the expectations of this covenant relationship, provoking God to judgment and wrath, yet always ultimately remaining the object of His faithfulness and mercy. The prophets skillfully and effectively couch this theme primarily in the context of familiar symbols and language which serve to dramatically call the people to repentance and thus back to their covenant 30
relationship with God. While Isaiah, Jeremiah, Amos, Nahum, and especially Ezekiel all brilliantly employ this strategy, undoubtedly it is the prophet Hosea who most masterfully wields the imagery of prostitution to cut deeply to Israel’s heart. As the introductory opus to the Minor Prophets, Hosea provides an emotionally powerful picture of the covenant relationship between God and His people. Chiefly directed towards the Northern Kingdom of Israel, the book is essentially divided into two major literary units. In Chapters 1-3, the very raw and real symbol of Hosea’s marriage to Gomer the harlot is established to illustrate Israel’s unfaithfulness to God, her covenant husband. This story lays the groundwork for and brings added force to chapters 4-14, which then expands upon this metaphor and further specifies the nature of the offense through several judgments upon Israel proper. While the use of prostitution in Hosea’s oracles is then primarily figurative, these specifics reveal that the literal practice also played a major role in Israel’s infidelity: “For Hosea, Israel’s harlotry had a double meaning. The people were not only committing spiritual adultery against Yahweh by turning to Baal (7:16), but were also literally prostituting themselves in the sex acts associated with the rituals of Canaanite fertility cults (4:13-15).”76 Subsequently, much of the material directly addressing the theme of literal prostitution is confined to the first 3 chapters of Hosea, where we will thus direct our focus. The purpose and message of Hosea are immediately set forth in Chapter 1, vv. 2-3: “When the Lord first spoke through Hosea, the Lord said to Hosea, ‘Go, take to yourself a wife of harlotry and have children of harlotry; for the land commits flagrant harlotry, forsaking the Lord.’ So he went and took Gomer the daughter of Diblaim, and she conceived and bore him a son.” The Hebrew phrase here translated “wife of harlotry” is
( ֵא ֶשׁת זְ נוּ ִנים
ē·šeṯ ze·nû·nîm), a detail unique to Hosea which consequently raises several
difficulties. First, as has been demonstrated elsewhere in the Old Testament, the primary term used to identify a common prostitute is zô·nâ. Yet not only does the text refrain from identifying Gomer as such here, but in fact nowhere in Hosea’s oracle is this term used. Furthermore, the noun ze·nû·nîm, built from the verbal root zā·nâ, can denote a wide range of illicit sexual behavior before marriage on the part of the 76
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton, A Survey of the Old Testament, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000), 471.
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female subject. Secondly, later in vv. 4:12 and 5:4 Hosea uses the phrase “spirit of harlotry” to describe Israel’s national apostasy. This seems to clarify the sense in which ze·nû·nîm is being used, defining it in terms of the unfaithful tendencies and practices of Israel as they abandon the covenant relationship with
יהוהfor vain religious practices and the worship of foreign gods. Douglas Stuart concludes, “Israel’s waywardness and infidelity constitute a national ‘prostitution’; Gomer, as a citizen of that thoroughly wayward nation is described just as any Israelite woman could be as an
ֵא ֶשׁת זְ נוּנִ ים, precisely
because she is a typical Israelite, and this is an indictment in itself. God has commanded Hosea to marry a woman who by reason of being involved in the endemic Israelite national unfaithfulness is “prostituting.” To marry any Israelite woman was to marry a “prostituting woman,” so rife was the religious promiscuity of Hosea’s day.”77
As clean as this solution appears, however, several difficulties remain as to the exact nature of Gomer’s identity. Although the verb zā·nâ and its derivatives, including ze·nû·nîm, encompass a wide range of meaning, every other use of the latter in the Hebrew text is associated with some literal form of illicit sexual activity, whether obvious or implied.78 Moreover, the phrase זוֹנָ ה
( ִא ָשּׁה
ē·šeṯ ze·nû·nîm is merely the plural construction of
iš·šâ zô·nâ), which is always used to indicate a literal prostitute. That Hosea does
not use the singular term at this point neither confirms nor denies the specific details of her profession in and of itself; rather it seems safer to conclude that Hosea is perhaps giving us a slightly different shade of meaning with his choice of vocabulary. Furthermore, the plural implicitly suggests the habitual nature of her activity, as well as the multiple partners likely involved.79 Ultimately then, “It would be a mistake in analyzing the word ze·nû·nîm to separate the idea from the action, since these are organically related in Biblical thought. Anyone described as ‘a promiscuous wife’ is engaged in activity consistent with her
77
Douglas Stuart, Hosea-Jonah, vol. 31 of Word Biblical Commentary, ed. David A. Hubbard and Glenn W. Barker (Waco: Word Books, 1987), 26-27. 78 Francis I. Andersen and David N. Freedman, Hosea, vol. 24 of Anchor Bible Commentary, ed. William F. Albright and David N. Freedman (New York: Doubleday, 1980), 157-159. 79 Davidson, 311.
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character… The precise nature of the misbehavior described by ze·nû·nîm must be determined from the context, the use of synonymous expressions, and other clues.”80 Accordingly, it is the context of the metaphor itself that finally brings resolution to this difficulty. Indeed, if God means to highlight His faithfulness in the face of Israel’s idolatry in a dramatic and emotionally wrenching manner, Gomer must be a literal prostitute. The alternative, that she is merely one Israelite apostate among many, causes the metaphor to break down and become less effective, as the object of God’s love in such a scenario would remain largely indistinguishable relative to the corrupt nation. Moreover, the imperative given to Hosea was to take a wife of harlotry. This entails two things – that the woman Hosea is to marry must have certain promiscuous characteristics differentiating her from the majority of other women (otherwise why didn’t God simply say to take ‘any woman’ or even ‘an Israelite woman’?), and that she must already have those characteristics as a distinct part of her identity. In other words, she must already be a woman of harlotry, for if not how would Hosea be able to know for certain whether or not these characteristics would develop in time? Simply choosing any Israelite woman, as spiritually promiscuous as they might be, would not be to obey the imperative – something inexcusable in a prophet of יהוה. As such, Gomer’s identity seems best defined by the office of a holy prostitute – a qe·ḏē·šâ – as this particular woman would both vividly demonstrate the moral, spiritual and physical bankruptcy required of the overarching metaphor: “Hosea was to select a woman who was recognizable as harlotrous in the sense of the word in his prophetic vocabulary. She could not have been simply a woman of unknown promiscuous tendencies; that would not serve as conscious obedience to the command. A common prostitute would satisfy the public symbolism, but not as eloquently as one whose sexual promiscuity was a matter of the very harlotry of Israel in the cult of Baal.”81 Having thus established the identity of Gomer as a literal and perhaps even cultic prostitute, the primary emphasis of Hosea’s oracle flawlessly falls into place – Israel has forsaken their covenant relationship with God to play the harlot after other pagan deities. This key idea is highlighted in the 80
Andersen & Freedman, 157. James Luther Mays, Hosea, vol. 19 of The Old Testament Library, ed. G. Ernest Wright, et. al. (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1969), 26. 81
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Hebrew text using an infinitive/imperfect verb construction which not only heightens the meaning of zā·nâ, but denotes continuous action.82 Little more is said directly regarding Gomer’s prostitution in Chapter 1, as the primary thrust of the story shifts to the sons, whose names symbolize God’s judgment upon the apostasy of His people. However, some have suggested that her promiscuity may possibly be stated in the text by the command to “have children of harlotry” and the fact that while v. 4 states Gomer bore him (Hosea) a son, vv. 6 and 8 fail to mention this. J. L. Mays agrees with the plausibility of this argument, noting that the effect of the metaphor would again lose potency if the children were not biologically Hosea’s. Rather, the children of a prophet being named ‘no compassion” and “not my people” would lend itself to the picture of a parent disowning their children - both a disturbing symbol and a grim warning to Hosea’s audience.83 This line of thinking is further reinforced with God’s alarming declaration “I am not your God” in v. 9; here the Hebrew text uses the name of God recorded in Exodus 3:14, ֶא ְהיֶ ה ( eh·yeh), “I AM”, indicating the extreme severity of the judgment upon the Northern Kingdom for their idolatry.84 In Chapter 2, the cause for this extended metaphor is then laid out - Israel has played the harlot and been unfaithful in her covenant relationship with God. The entire structure and flow of Chapter 2 is presented as a legal proceeding, with God acting as both plaintiff and judge, and his wife Israel as the defendant.85 Although this indictment upon Israel uses metaphorical language, it is set within the context of reality – we are given no reason to assume that the images Hosea uses here are fictitious, but rather are grounded upon real and highly familiar elements. This fact is established in v. 5, which lays out the specific accusations against Israel: “For their mother has played the harlot; she who conceived them has acted shamefully. For she said, ‘I will go after my lovers, who give me my bread and my water, my wool and my flax, my oil and my drink.’” Undoubtedly, these six items represent the primary goal of cultic prostitution divine blessing in the form of agricultural and economic fruitfulness.86 Israel in essence whores herself for 82
Williams, §205. The NASB translates this specific construction as “the land commits flagrant harlotry”. Mays, 28. 84 Stuart, 32-34. 85 Mays, 35-36. 86 The NET Bible, 1st Edition. 83
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basic nourishment (bread and water), simple clothing (wool and flax), and sumptuous excess (oil and drink).87 The text is also clear that this action is not passive; the harlot in this case actively seeks out her clients, a trait which likely extends to the qe·ḏē·šâ as well: “What a whore is this Israel! She does not wait for customers like the ordinary prostitute, but pursues her lovers anxiously.”88 The chapter then goes on to further detail this spiritual harlotry, alluding to the role of the pagan cults numerous times, in which ritual prostitution plays a huge role. Before attempting to draw anything from this chapter for the purpose of building into our theology of prostitution, the limits of the metaphor must be stressed. Because the entire legal proceeding is couched in both the specific language and historical context of God’s covenant relationship with Israel, any specifics regarding a modern response to prostitution will be difficult to produce. Nevertheless, the broad themes and general principles that support Hosea’s oracle can greatly inform our understanding. Most important among these is the richness of God’s love, which both saturates the text and provides the appropriate backdrop for God’s severe response to his unfaithful wife. As with Ezekiel’s oracles later on, God’s jealous wrath only makes sense if incited by an intense and passionate love for His people.89 Certainly, Hosea is clear that the penalty for national harlotry is clear; God will strip Israel naked, openly exposing her shame and lewdness to the world. Ironic that the nakedness of prostitution, used for seduction and profit, now becomes a device of retribution and shame. Moreover, attempted manipulation of the gods through acts of cultic sex comprises a behavior which God will deliberately frustrate and cause to lead to failure, for the land will be fruitless and bare (vv. 8-13). The
eṯ·nān of the harlot, prohibited as an offering to God in
Deuteronomy, will indeed return void. Yet even in this punishment the grace of God is evident, as the failure of her idolatry to produce blessing will lead her to understand that her relationship with God is far better. Such a response is full of mercy and lovingkindness; we need only look to the terrifying and dreadful oracles of Ezekiel to see the alternative. God could disown Israel, even execute her for her unfaithfulness,
87
Mays, 39. ibid. 89 Daniel I. Block, The Book of Ezekiel: Chapters 1-24, vol. 18 of The New International Commentary on the Old Testament, ed. R.K. Harrison and Robert L. Hubbard, Jr. (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1997), 504. 88
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yet He earnestly seeks her restoration instead. 90 “This husband is not preoccupied with his legal rights to separation or the punishment of his guilty wife. He wants her back. He demands that the wife strip from herself the embellishments of her unfaithfulness as a sign that she forswears her desertion. Let her take off her ‘harlot marks’ and adultery signs’.”91 Ultimately, Israel will be restored. The beauty of the covenant relationship with God is further expounded upon beginning in v. 16, where the bride and groom again acknowledge each other: “And in that day, declares the Lord, you will call me ‘My Husband,’ and no longer will you call me ‘My Baal.’”92 The language of the covenant is heavily emphasized over the next three verses, ending with the phrase “I will betroth you to Me in faithfulness. Then you will know the LORD.” Here the harlot once again knows her husband, a play off the intimacy of the sexual relationship inherent in the euphemism “to know”, as well as reintroducing the divine name which was lost in Hosea 1:9. Then, vv. 21-23 highlight the results of this renewed relationship - Israel will again thrive under the compassion of her God, who brings blessing to the land and His people’s activity in it. The very thing they sought through illegitimate means, God now gives to them in a far richer and more fulfilling way. Moreover, that harlot Israel is thus brought to a full restoration is a theme which can certainly apply to the individual as well. God can not only restore the common prostitute, he can do so with great vigor and pleasure, just as He did corporate Israel. Also critical here is the nature of God’s love - it is neither a love warranted by character nor earned through the actions of the bride. The emphasis is instead placed on the grace and compassion of God; He alone shows His people compassion regardless of their actions, simply because they are His people. This also extends to the individual prostitute - God’s redeeming love is based not upon her integrity or actions, however base these may be, but upon His own character. By grace through faith in Him, she may become one of His people, a chosen daughter of God. Lastly, Chapter 3 returns to the matter of Hosea’s symbolic marriage. As with the commands previously given to the prophet, God again uses the imperative to sanction His will: “Go again, love a 90
Mays, 39-40. ibid, 38. 92 Hosea 2:16, ESV. 91
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woman who is loved by her husband, yet an adulteress, even as the Lord loves the sons of Israel, though they turn to other gods and love raisin cakes.” Although some scholars have argued that the adulterous woman referenced here is not in fact Gomer but rather a second and entirely distinct wife for Hosea, this assertion seems all but impossible for several reasons. First and foremost among these is the sense that if Gomer is not the wife Hosea is commanded to reclaim, the entire overarching metaphor of chapters 1-3 breaks down. The logic of this is simple – if Hosea abandons his first wife for another, so it follows as dictated by the boundaries of the metaphor itself that God abandons Israel as well for a new people. Yet given the picture of covenant restoration in Chapter 2, this does not seem to fit the thrust of Hosea’s message. Secondly, the text uses the adverb
( עוֹד
ôḏ), “again”, to describe Hosea’s call, thus suggesting
some continuity.93 Along these same lines, the woman is called an “adulteress”, meaning she either is or was married at some point, a trait which obviously fits Gomer’s profile. Thirdly, the commands given to Hosea show a degree of progression; first he was to take a woman of harlotry and initiate the relationship, whereas now the imperative is to love her again, and redeem the relationship. Fourth, the disciplinary measures prescribed in v. 3 do not seem appropriate to a new wife, but rather to an unfaithful and promiscuous one.94 Some pre-existing fragment of relationship seems necessary for such a transaction between the two. So, given the sum of this evidence, Mays’ exclamation seems appropriate: “But in light of the meaning of the symbolism, who else could the woman be but Gomer!”95
~ Conclusion ~ In summary then, what light do the Hebrew Scriptures shed upon our efforts to develop a theology of prostitution? If nothing else, we have seen that God adamantly opposes the practice of harlotry, both in the literal and metaphorical senses of the term. This opposition is primarily rooted in the damage caused by prostitution to God’s purpose of creating a holy people for Himself. Certainly, the prohibitions regarding
93
Literally translated, the imperative reads “Go again, love a woman who is loved by her friend, but one who is an adulteress”. The noun ֵר ַעhere translated “friend” can denote a bond of intimate relationship and love; it is also used to mean “husband” in both Ct. 5:16 and Jer. 3:20. 94 Andersen & Freedman, 293. 95 Mays, 55.
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the practice in the Mosaic Law aim towards this goal, as do the vivid and alarming judgments of the prophets. Harlotry always serves to drag people away from God. The details of this downward pull are most clearly elucidated in the character of the individual and the consequences which they reap. For the zô·nâ herself, Jeremiah 3:3 sums up the situation well: “Yet you had a harlot’s forehead; you refused to be ashamed.” In essence, the Old Testament depicts the prostitute as exceedingly callous and promiscuous; her influence is such that entire communities can fall into moral decay, and her perspective is narrow and worldly. The depravity of this disposition is matched only by the selfishness, lewdness, and spiritual bankruptcy of her male clientele, whom the Scriptures also thoroughly condemn. Moreover, the end results of such corrupt lifestyles are horrifying to behold – an increasing slavery to one’s passions, personal degradation, poverty, and ultimately death. Furthermore, prostitution represents a sharp deviation from the ideal for human sexuality established in Genesis. This ideal was expressed via the covenant boundaries of marriage, which God established in His goodness for the protection and edification of the sexual relationship. Harlotry, like all sexual sin, disrupts this relationship and ignores the goodness of God by pursuing sexual gratification outside the covenant of marriage. Richard Davidson explains, “In prostitution… there is a fragmented emphasis upon the physical aspects of sex – animal passions of raw and even vulgar sexuality – devoid of the wholistic contexts of commitment, exclusivity, and loving relationship.”96 Separated from the relationship in which it was designed to operate, sex becomes a lethal drug, reducing the prostitute to the status of an object rather than a human being made in the image of God. Clearly, the devastation wrought by sexual sin and specifically by the practice of prostitution is a gruesome thing. Yet in the midst of this bleak landscape there remains a glimmer of hope; both the goodness and providence of God are the agents by which the worst instances of illicit sexuality were transformed into examples of His grace. Appropriately, this is where the baton is passed between the Old and New Testaments, for the culmination of that grace rests in the Messiah – whose ancestors were none other than Judah, Tamar, David and
96
Davidson, 311.
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Bathsheba. Thus the prostitute may take immense comfort in knowing that not only is God able to redeem her, but that it is moreover His good pleasure to do so: He was despised and forsaken of men, A man of pains and one acquainted with sickness; And like one from whom faces are hiding He was despised and we did not esteem Him.
Surely our sicknesses He Himself carried, and our pains He bore; Yet we ourselves accounted Him one stricken, one who was caused to be slain by God, and surely one afflicted.
But He Himself is the one who was indeed pierced on account of our transgressions; He is the one who was surely crushed on account of our iniquity; The discipline for our peace was upon Him, and by His stripes He was healing to us.
All we like sheep have gone astray; We turned, each man to his own way, But the LORD caused to fall upon Him the iniquity of us all.97
97
Isaiah 53:3-6, author’s translation.
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~ Selected Bibliography ~
Alexander, T. Desmond and David W. Baker, eds. Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch. Downers Grove: Inter-Varsity Press, 2003. s.v. “Sexuality, Sexual Ethics,” by J.M. Sprinkle.
Andersen, Francis I. and David N. Freedman. Hosea. Anchor Bible Commentary, Vol. 24. William F. Albright and David N. Freedman, general eds. New York: Doubleday, 1980.
Block, Daniel I. The Book of Ezekiel: Chapters 1-24. The New International Commentary on the Old Testament. R.K. Harrison and Robert L. Hubbard, Jr., general eds. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1997.
Bromiley, Geoffrey W., general ed. The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Rev. ed., Vol. 2. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1982. s.v. “Harlot,” by D.W. Wead.
Brown, Francis, S.R. Driver and Charles A. Briggs, eds. The Enhanced Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon. Electronic Edition. Oak Harbor: Logos Research Systems, 2000.
Butler, Trent C. Joshua. Word Biblical Commentary, Vol. 7. David A. Hubbard and Glenn W. Barker, general eds. Waco: Word Books, 1983.
Christensen, Duane L. Deuteronomy 21:10-34:12. Word Biblical Commentary, Vol. 6B. Bruce M. Metzger, David A. Hubbard and Glenn W. Barker, general eds. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2002.
Davidson, Richard M. Flame of Yahweh: Sexuality in the Old Testament. Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers, 2007. 40
Dennis, Lane T. and Wayne Grudem, eds. The ESV Study Bible. Wheaton: Crossway Bibles, 2008.
Durham, John I. Exodus. Word Biblical Commentary, Vol. 2. David A. Hubbard and Glenn W. Barker, general eds. Waco: Word Books, 1987.
Freedman, David Noel, general ed. The Anchor Bible Dictionary. Vol. 5. New York: Doubleday, 1992. s.v. “Prostitution” by Elaine Adler Goodfriend.
Garrett, Duane A. Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs. The New American Commentary, Vol. 14. E. Ray Clendenen, general ed. Nashville: Broadman Press, 1993.
Grenz, Stanley J. Sexual Ethics: An Evangelical Perspective. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1990.
Grudem, Wayne. Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine. Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press and Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1994.
Hamilton, Victor P. The Book of Genesis: Chapters 18-50. The New International Commentary on the Old Testament. R.K. Harrison and Robert L. Hubbard, Jr., general eds. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1995.
Harris, R. Laird, Gleason L. Archer, Jr. and Bruce K. Waltke, eds. Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament. Vol. 1. Chicago: Moody Press, 1980.
Harris, W. Hall and Michael H. Burer, eds. The NET Bible: First Edition. Spokane: Biblical Studies Press, 2006. 41
Hartley, John E. Leviticus. Word Biblical Commentary, Vol. 4. David A. Hubbard and Glenn W. Barker, general eds. Dallas: Word Books, 1992.
Hill, Andrew E. and John H. Walton. A Survey of the Old Testament. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000.
Mays, James Luther. Hosea. The Old Testament Library, Vol. 19. G. Ernest Wright, et. al., general eds. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1969.
Milgrom, Jacob. Leviticus 17-22. Anchor Bible Commentary, Vol. 3A. William F. Albright and David N. Freedman, general eds. New York: Doubleday, 2000.
Murphy, Roland E. Proverbs. Word Biblical Commentary, Vol. 22. Bruce M. Metzger, David A. Hubbard and Glenn W. Barker, general eds. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1998.
Stuart, Douglas. Hosea-Jonah. Word Biblical Commentary, Vol. 31. David A. Hubbard and Glenn W. Barker, general eds. Waco: Word Books, 1987.
The New American Standard Bible: 1995 Update. LaHabra: The Lockman Foundation, 1995.
VanGemeren, Willem A., general ed. New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis. Vol. 1. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1997.
_____________. New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis. Vol. 3. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1997.
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Waltke, Bruce K. and Cathi J. Fredricks. Genesis: A Commentary. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2001.
_____________. The Book of Proverbs: Chapters 1-15 (Vol. 1). The New International Commentary on the Old Testament. R.K. Harrison and Robert L. Hubbard, Jr. general eds. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2004.
_____________. The Book of Proverbs: Chapters 15-31 (Vol. 2). The New International Commentary on the Old Testament. R.K. Harrison and Robert L. Hubbard, Jr. general eds. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2005.
Wenham, Gordon J. The Book of Leviticus. The New International Commentary on the Old Testament. R.K. Harrison and Robert L. Hubbard, Jr., general eds. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1979.
Williams, Ronald J. Williams’ Hebrew Syntax. 3rd ed. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2007.
Westermann, Claus. Genesis 37-50: A Continental Commentary. Translated by John J. Scullion. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002.
Woudstra, Marten H. The Book of Joshua. The New International Commentary on the Old Testament. Robert L. Hubbard, Jr., general ed. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1981.
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