BAB I PENDAHULUAN
1.1 Latar Belakang
Dalam proses pembelajaran komponen yang ikut menentukan keberhasilan sebuah proses adalah evaluasi. Dengan evaluasi orang akan mengetahui sejauh mana penyampaian pembelajaran atau tujuan pembelajaran dapat dicapai sesuai dengan yang diinginkan. diinginkan. Evaluasi menurut Kumano (2001) merupakan penilaian terhadap data yang dikumpulkan melalui kegiatan asesmen. Sementara itu menurut Calongesi (1995) evaluasi adalah suatu keputusan tentang nilai berdasarkan hasil pengukuran. Sejalan dengan pengertian tersebut, Zainul dan Nasution (2001) menyatakan bahwa evaluasi dapat dinyatakan sebagai suatu proses pengambilan keputusan dengan menggunakan informasi yang diperoleh melalui pengukuran hasil belajar, baik yang menggunakan instrumen tes maupun non tes. Dalam mengevaluasi juga terdapat beberapa model dan pendekatan. Menurut Zaenal Arifin (2009) Pada tahun 1949, Tyler pernah mengembangkan model Black box. Lebih kurang 10 tahun lamanya orang memakai evaluasi dengan melakukan model tersebut. Selanjutnya than 1972, model evaluasi mulai berkembang. Taylor dan Cowley berhasil mengemukakan berbagai pemikiran tentang model evaluasi dan menerbitkan dalam suatu buku. Berdasarkan pernyataan diatas maka penulis mengangkat judul judul “Model dan Pendekatan Evaluasi”.
1.2 Rumusan Masalah
Adapun rumusan masalah dari makalah ini antara lain : 1. Apa yang dimaksud dengan model evaluasi? 2. Apa saja macam-macam model evaluasi? 3. Apa yang dimaksud dengan pendekatan evaluasi? 4. Apa saja macam-macam pendekatan evaluasi?
1
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1.3 Tujuan Penulisan
Tujuan yang ingin dicapai dari penulisan makalah ini diantaranya: 1. Untuk memahami pengertian dari model evaluasi 2. Untuk memahami macam-macam model evaluasi 3. Untuk memahami pengertian dari pendekatan evaluasi 4. Untuk memahami macam-macam pendekatan evaluasi
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BAB II PEMBAHASAN
2.1 Pengertian Model Evaluasi
Dalam melakukan evaluasi, perlu dipertimbangkan model evaluasi yang akan dibuat. Model evaluasi merupakan suatu desain yang dibuat oleh para ahli atau pakar evaluasi. Biasanya model evaluasi ini dibuat berdasarkan kepentingan seseorang, lembaga atau instansi yang ingin mengetahui apakah program yang telah dilaksanakan dapat mencapai hasil yang diharapkan.
2.2 Macam-Macam Model Evaluasi
Dalam studi tentang evaluasi, banyak sekali dijumpai model-model evaluasi dengan format atau sistematika yang berbeda, sekalipun dalam beberapa model juga ada yang sama. Misalnya, Said Hamid Hasan (1998) mengelompokkan model evaluasi sebagai berikut : 1. Model evaluasi kuantitatif, yang meliputi : model Tyler, Model teoritik Tyler dan Maguire, model pendekatan system Alkin, model Countenance Stake, model CIPP, model ekonomi mikro 2. Model evaluasi kualitatif, yang meliputi : model studi kasus, model iluminatif, dan model responsive. Sementara itu, Kaufan dan Thomas dalam Suharsini Arikunto dan Cepi Safruddin AJ (2007) membedakan model evaluasi menjadi delapan, yaitu : 1. Goal Oriented Evaluation Model, dikembangkan oleh Tyler 2. Goal Free Evaluation Model, dikembangkan oleh Scriven 3. Formatif Sumatif Evaluation Model, dikembangkan oleh Scriven 4. Countenance Evaluation Model, dikembangkan oleh Stake 5. Responsive Evaluation Model, dikembangkan oleh Stake 6. CSE-UCLA CSE-UCLA Evaluation Model, menekankan pada “kapan” evaluasi dilakukan. 7. CIPP Evaluation Model, dikembangkan oleh Stufflebeam 8. Discrepancy Model, dikembangkan oleh Provus Ada juga model evaluasi yang dikelompokkan oleh Nana Sudjana dan R. Ibrahim (2007 : 234) yang membagi model evaluasi menjadi empat model utama, yaitu
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4
2.2.1
Model Tyler
Nama model ini diambil dari pengembangnya yaitu Tyler. Dalam buku Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction, Tyler banyak mengemukakan ide dan gagasannya tentang evaluasi. Salah satu bab dari buku tersebut diberinya judul how can the effectiveness of learning experience be evaluated? Model ini dibangun atas dua dasar pemikiran. Pertama, evaluasi ditujukan pada tingkah laku peserta didik. Kedua, evaluasi harus dilakukan pada tingkah laku awal peserta didik sebelum melaksanakan kegiatan pembelajaran dan sesudah melaksanakan kegiatan pembelajaran (hasil). Dasar pemikiran yang kedua ini menunjukkan bahwa seorang evaluator harus dapat menentukan perubahan tingkah laku apa yang terjadi setelah peserta didik mengikuti pengalaman belajar tertentu, dan menegaskan bahwa perubahan yan terjadi merupakan perubahan yang yang disebabkan oleh pembelajaran. Dalam implementasinya, model Tyler juga menggunakan unsure pengukuran dengan usaha secara konstan, parallel, dengan inkuiri ilmiah dan melengkapi legitimasi untk mengangkat pemahaman tentang evaluasi. Pada model Tyler sangat membedakan antara konsep pengukuran dan evaluasi. Menurut Tyler, pengetahuan pengukurran dan evaluasi terpisah dan merupakan proses dimana pengukuran hanya satu dari bebrapa kemungkinan salah satu cara dalam mendukung mendukung tercapainya evaluasi. Dilingkungan pembelajaran, model Tyler masih sangat luas penggunaanya. Karena beberapa kelebihan seperti yang telah disebutkan diatas disamping itu, pada lingkungan yang lebih luas, misalnya dibidang kurikulum, kurik ulum, secara rasional Tyler telah menggambarkan selangkah lebih maju, dimana evaluasi berfokus pada penyaringan kurikulum kurik ulum dan program sebagai sentral kepercayaan evaluasi. Focus model Tyler pada prinsipnya adalah lebih menekankan perhatian pada sebelum dan sesudah perencanaan kurikulum. Disamping itu, model Tyler juga menekankan bahwa perilaku yang diperlukan diukur minimal dua kali, yaitu sebelum dan sesudah perlakuan( treatments) dicapai oleh pengembangan kurikulum. (Sukardi, 2008: 56-57).
Penggunaan model Tyler memerlukan informasi perubahan tingkah laku terutama pada saat sebelum dan sesudah terjadinya pembelajaran. Istilah yang popular di kalangan guru adalah tes awal dan tes akhir. Model ini mensyaratkan validitas informasi pada tes akhir. Untuk menjamin validitas ini, maka perlu adanya control dengan menggunakan desain eksperimen. Model Tyler disebut juga model Black box karena model ini sangat menekankan
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5
a. Menentukan tujuan pembelajaran yang akan dievaluasi b. Menentukan
situasi
dimana
peserta
didik
memperoleh
kesempatan
untuk
menunjukkan tingkah laku yang berhubungan dengan tujuan, dan c. Menentukan alat evaluasi yang akan dipergunakan untuk mengukur tingkah laku peserta didik. Kelebihan Model Tyler :
Model paling popular
Digunakan dalam perkembangan kurikulum
Sistematik
Mudah digunakan
Logikal
Evaluator dapat memfokuskan kajian evaluasinya hanya pada satu dimensi kurikulum yaitu dimensi hasil belajar. Sedang dimensi dokumen dan proses tidak menjadi focus evaluasi.
Kelemahan Model Tyler :
Model ini cenderung tidak peduli terhadap proses padahal hasil belajar adalah produk dari proses belajar. Sehingga evaluasi yang mengabaikan proses berarti mengabaikan komponen penting dari kurikulum.
Model ini tidak dapat digunakan untuk mencari alasan atas kegagalan suatu kurikulum.
2.2.2
Model yang Berorientasi pada Tujuan
Dalam pembelajaran, kita mengenal adanya tujuan pembelajaran umum dan tujuan pembelajaran khusus. Model evaluasi ini menggunakan kedua tujuan tersebut sebagai kriteria untuk menentukan keberhasilan. Evaluasi diartikan sebagai proses pengukuran untuk mengetahui seberapa sejauh mana tujuan pembelajaran telah tercapai. Evaluasi model bebas tujuan ini, diajukan oleh Scriven (1972). Menurutnya dan pendukungnya, seorang evaluator harus menghindari tujuan dan mengambil setiap tindak pencegahan. Menurut scrieven evaluasi program dapat dilakukan tanpa mengetahui tujuan itu sendiri. Oleh karena itu, evaluasi perlu menilai pengaruh nyata tentang profil kebutuhan
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Untuk melakukan evaluasi dengan model bebas tujuan, evaluator perlu menghasilkan dua item informasi, yaitu (a) penilaian tentang pengaruh nyata (actual effects) dan (b) penilaian tentang profil kebutuhan yang hendak dinilai. Jika suatu produk mempunyai pengaruh yang dapat ditunjukkan secara nyata dan responsive terhadap suatu kebutuhan, ini berarti bahwa suatu produk yang direncanakan berguna dan secara positif perlu dikembangkan, dan interpertasi sebaliknya terjadi, jika suatu produk, termasuk ekgiatan belajar mengajar, tidak mempunyai pengaruh nyata pada para siswanya. Walaupun demikian, model bebas tujuan yang diajukan Scrieven ternyata memiliki kelemahan yaitu (1). Model bebas tujuan ini pada umumnya gagal dalam menjawab penting, seperti apoa pengaruh yang telah diperhitungkan dalam suatu peristiwa dan bagaimana mengindentifikasi pengaruh tersebut? (2) walaupun ide Srieven tentang model bebas tujuan adalah sangat bagus untuk membantu kegiatan yang parallel dengan evaluasi atas dasar kejujuran pada tingkatan praktis Srieven tidak terlalu berhasil dalam menggambarkan bagaimana evaluasi sebaiknya benar-benar dilaksanakan. dilaksanakan. (3). Tidak merekomendasikan merekomendasikan bagaimana menghasilkan penilaian kebutuhan (needs assessment ), walau pada akhirnya mengarah kepada penilaian kebutuhan. Model bebas tujuan merupakan titik perkembangan evaluasi program, dimana objek yang dievaluasi tidak perlu terkait dengan tujuan dari objek atau subjek tersebut, tetapi langsung kepada implikasi keberadaan program apakah bermanfaat atau tidak objek tersebut atas dasar penilaian kebutuhan yang ada. (Sukardi, 2008: 61-62).
Model ini dianggap lebih praktis karena menentukan hasil yang diinginkan dengan rumusan tujuan pembelajaran dapat diobservasi dan diukur, maka kegiatan evaluasi pembelajaran akan menjadi praktis dan simple. Disamping itu, model ini dapat membantu guru menjelaskan rencana pelaksanaan kegiatan pembelajaran dengan proses pencapaian tujuan. Instrument yang digunakan bergantung pada tujuan yang ingin diukur. Hasil evaluasi akan menggambarkan tingkat keberhasilan tujuan program pembelajaran berdasarkan kriteria program khusus. Kelebihan model ini terletak pada hubungan antara tujuan kegiatan dan pembelajaran. Kekurangannya adalah memungkinkan terjadinya proses evaluasi melebihi konsekuensi yang tidak diharapkan. Model Goal oriented evaluation model ini merupakan model yang muncul paling awal. Yang menjadi objek pengamatan pada model ini adalah tujuan dari program yang
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7
di dalam proses pelaksanaan program. Model ini dikembangkan oleh Tyler Tyler (Suharsimi arikunto, 2009 : 41). Kelebihan : Model penilaian yang berorientasi tujuan ini secara teknologis telah merangsang berkembangnya proses-proses perumusan tujuan secara spesifik serta pengembangan atau penemuan instrument-instrumen maupun prosedur pengukuran yang beragam. Dilihat dari kajian dan literature, pendekatan penilaian berorientasi tujuan sudah lebih banyak dan terarah kepada persoalan bagaimana pendekatan ini diaplikasikan dalam penilaian di kelas, penilaian sekolah, penilaian program sekolah di satu kabupaten, atau lainnya. Oleh karena itu, secara sederhana dapat dikatakan bahwa kelebihan pendekatan ini adalah mudah dipahami, mudah untuk diimpelementasikan, dan disepakati banyak pendidik dapat menghasilkan informasi yang relevan dengan misi mereka. Model ini juga telah menyebabkan para pendidik merefleksikan dan mengklarifikasi perhatian mereka terhadap pemikiran-pemikiran terdahulu berkaitan dengan ambiguitas tujuan-tujuan pendidikan. Diskusi-diskusi bersama masyarakat tentang tujuan pendidikan yang dianggap paling tepat, dijadikan ajang untuk meningkatkan validitas program pendidikan yang dilakukan. Dengan Dengan behitu, akuntabilitas dan legitimasi program yang sudah dirancang menjadi lebih kuat. Sebagai hasil dari perhatian berlebih para ahli terhadap pendekatan ini adalah berkembangnya tes (ujian) dan praktek-praktek pengukuran lainnya yang broadened unobtrusive unobtrusive and non paper and pencil evidence (http:/www.scribd.com). Kelebihan dari model bebas tujuan diantaranya adalah pengaruh konsep tersebut pada masyarakat bahwa tanpa mengetahui tujuan dari kegiatan yang telah dilakukan, seorang penilai bias melakukan evaluasi. Kelebihan lain dengan munculnya model bebas tujuan yang diajukan oleh Scrieven adalah mendorong pertimbangan setiap kemungkinan pengaruh tidak saja direncanakan, dire ncanakan, tetapi juga dapat diperhatikan pengaruh simpangan lain
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8
2) kurangnya standar untuk memberi pertimbangan pentingnya diskrepansi yang nampak antara tujuan dan kinerja; 3) mengabaikan nilai (value) dari tujuan itu sendiri; 4) mengabaikan alternative penting yang harus dipertimbangkan dalam perencaaan suatu program pendidikan 5) mengabaikan transaksi yang terjadi selama proses atau aktifitas program yang dinilai 6) mengabaikan konteks dimana suatu penilaian dilakukan; 7) mengabaikan tujuan-tujuan penting lainnya diluar yang tujuan yag dirumuskan (termasuk tercapainya tujuan-tujuan yang tidak diharapkan); 8) omit fakta dari nilai suatu program tidak merefleksikan tujuan 9) mempromosikan penilaian yang linier dan tidak fl eksibel Dari kesembilan kelemahan tersebut, secara umum dapat disimpulkan bahwa kelemahan pendekatan penilaian berorientasi tujuan dapat menghasilkan suatu tunnel vision yang cenderung membatasi efektifitas dan potensi penilaian (http://www.scribd.com). penilaian (http://www.scribd.com).
2.2.3 2.2.3 Model Evaluasi Lepas dari Tujuan Model evaluasi yang dikembangkan oleh Michael Scriven ini dapat dikatakan berlawanan dengan model pertama yang dikembangkan oleh Tyler. Jika dalam model yang dikembangkan oleh Tyler, evaluator terus-menerus memantau tujuan, yaitu sejak awal proses terus melihat sejauh mana tujuan tersebut sudah dapat dicapai, dalam model goal free evaluation (evaluasi lepas dari tujuan) justru menoleh dari tujuan. Menurut Michael Scriven, dalam melaksanakan evaluasi program evaluator tidak perlu memerhatikan apa yang menjadi tujuan program. Yang perlu diperhatikan dalam program tersebut adalah bagaimana kerjanya program, dengan jalan mengidentifikasi penampilan-penampilan yang terjadi, baik hal-hal positif (yaitu hal yang diharapkan) maupun hal-hal negatif (yang
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9
khusus. Model ini hanya mempertimbangkan tujuan umum yang akan dicapai oleh program, bukan secara rinci per komponen (Suharsimi arikunto, 2009 : 41-42).
2.2.4
Model Pengukuran (Measurement Model)
Model pengukuran (measurement model) banyak mengemukakan pemikiran pemikiran dari R. Thorndike dan R.L.Ebel. sesuai dengan namanya, model ini sangat menitikberatkan pada kegiatan pengukuran. Pengukuran digunakan untuk menentukan kualitas suatu sifat (atribut) tertentu yang dimiliki oleh objek, orang maupun peristiwa, dalam bentuk unit ukuran tertentu. Dalam bidang pendidikan, model ini telah diterapkan untuk mengungkapkan perbedaan-perbedaan individual maupun kelompok dalam hal kemampuan, minat dan sikap. Hasil evaluasi digunakan untuk keperluan seleksi peserta didik, bimbingan, dan perencanaan pendidikan. Objek evaluasi dalam model ini adalah tingkah laku peserta didik, mencakup hasil belajar (kognitif), pembawaan, sikap, minat, bakat, dan juga aspekaspek kepribadian peserta didik. Instrument yang digunakan pada umumnya adalah tes tertulis (paper and pencil test) dalam bentuk tes objektif, yang cenderung dibakukan. Oleh sebab itu, dalam menganalisis soal sangat memperhatikan difficulty index dan index of discrimination. Model ini menggunakan pendekatan Penilaian Acuan Norma (Normreferenced assessment). Sesuai dengan namnya, model ini sangat menitik beratkan peranan kegiatan pengukuran di dalam melaksanakan proses evaluasi. Pengukuran dipandang sebagai suatu kegiatan yang ilmiah dan dapat diterapkan dalam berbagai bidang persoalan termasuk k edalamnya bidang pendidikan. Pengukuran menurut model ini tidak t idak dapat dilepaskan dari pengertian kuantitas atau jumlah. Jumlah ini akan menunjukkan besarnya (magnitude) objek, orang ataupun peristiwa yang dilukiskan dalam bentuk unit-unit ukuran tertentu seperti misalnya menit, derajat,
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10
Dapat disimpulkan bahwa menurut model ini, evaluasi pendidikan pada dasarnya tidak lain adalah pengukuran terhadap berbagai aspek tingkah laku dengan tujuan untuk melihat perbedaan-perbedaan individual atau kelompok yang hasilnya diperlukan dalam rangka seleksi, bimbingan dan perencanaan pendidikan bagi para siswa di sekolah (Daryanto, 2005 : 72-73). Tokoh model pengukuran adalah Edward L. thorndike dan Robert L. Ebel. Menurut kedua tokoh ini dalam Purwanto (2009) beberapa ciri dari model pengukuran, adalah : a. Mengutamakan pengukuran dalam proses evaluasi. Pengukuran merupakan kegiatan ilmiah yang dapat diterapkan pada berbagai bidang termasuk pendidikan b. Evaluasi adalah pengukuran terhadap berbagai aspek tingkah laku untuk melihat perbedaan
individu
atau
kelompok.
Oleh
karena
tujuannya
adalah
untuk
mengungkapkan perbedaan, maka sangat diperhatikan tingkat kesukaran kesukaran dan daya pembeda masing-masing butir, serta dikembangkan acuan norma kelompok yang menggambarkan kedudukan siswa dalam kelompok c. Ruang lingkup adalah hasil belajar aspek kognitif d. Alat evaluasi yang digunakan adalah tes tertulis te rutama bentuk objektif e. Meniru model evaluasi dalam ilmu alam yang menggunakan objektivitas. Oleh karena itu model ini cenderung mengembangkan alat-alat evaluasi yang baku. Pembakuan dilakukan dengan mencobakan kepala sampel yang cukup besar untuk melihat validitas dan reabilitasnya. Yang dijadikan objek dari kegiatan evaluasi model ini adalah tingkah laku, terutama tingkah laku siswa. Aspek tingkah laku siswa yang dinilai di sini mencakup kemampuan hasil belajar, kemampuan pembawaan (inteligensi, bakat), minat, sikap dan juga aspek-aspek kepribadian siswa. Dengan kata lain, objek evaluasi disini mencakup baik aspek kognitif maupun dengan kegiatan evaluasi pendidikan di sekolah, model ini menitik beratkan pada
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11
ditekankan oleh model ini perlu dijadikan landasan yang terus-menerus dalam rangka mengembangkan sistem penilaian pendidikan. Di samping itu, evaluasi dalam model ini memungkinkan untuk melakukan analisis intrumen dan hasil evaluasi secara statistik. Keterbatasan Model Model Pengukuran Pengukuran (Measurement Model) Model) Keterbatasan dari model ini terletak pada penekanannya yang berlebihan pada aspek pengukuran dalam kegiatan penilaian pendidikan. Konsekuensinya, penilaian cenderung dibatasi pada dimensi tertentu dari sistem pendidikan yang “dapat diukur”, dalam hal ini adalah hasil belajar yang bersifat kognitif. Yang menjadi persoalan adalah hasil belajar yang bersifat kognitif tersebut bukan merupakan satu-satunya indikator bagi keberhasilan kurikulum. Kurikulum sebagai suatu “alat” untuk mencapai tujuan pendidikan diharapkan dapat mengembangkan berbagai potensi yang ada pada diri siswa, tidak terbatas hanya pada potensi kognitif saja. Adanya
beberapa
ketidakserasian
dengan
peranan
penilaian
dalam
proses
pengembangan kurikulum/sistem pendidikan berikut ini. a. Dalam pengembangan alat penilaian, model ini banyak dipengaruhi oleh prosedur yang ditempuh dalam pengembangan tes psikologis, antara lain tes intelegensi dan tes bakat. Untuk mengembangkan tes tersebut berlaku ketentuan bahwa soal tes yang memiliki daya pembeda rendah perlu direvisi atau diganti dengan tes lain, yang mempunyai daya pembeda tinggi. Prosedur semacam ini kurang cocok untuk diterapkan dalam penilaian hasil belajar. Hal itu dalam rangka/pengembangan pendidikan karena dalam penilaian pendidikan yang penting adalah butir soal tes yang dibuat
betul-betul
konsisten
dengan
tujuan
pendidikan
yang
ingin
dinilai
pencapaiannya. b. Dalam pengolahan hasil tes, model ini dipengaruhi oleh prosedur pengolahan hasil tes psikologis, dan nilai yang dicapai oleh masing-masing siswa lebih mencerminkan
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12
nilai keseluruhan lebih banyak “menyembunyikan” daripada mengungkapkan informasi yang diperlukan untuk kepentingan penyempurnaan sistem. Yang lebih diperlukan dalam proses pengembangan pendidikan adalah bentuk penyajian hasil tes yang dapat memberikan petunjuk tentang bagian-bagian mana dari sistem pendidikan yang masih lemah, dan karenanya memerlukan perbaikan.
2.2.5
Model Kesesuaian (Congruence Model)
Menurut model ini, evaluasi adalah suatu kegiatan untuk melihat kesesuaian (congruence) antara tujuan dengan hasil belajar yang telah dicapai. Hasil evaluasi digunakan untuk menyempurnakan system bimbingan peserta didik dan untuk memberikan informasi kepada pihak-pihak yang memerlukan. Objek evaluasi adalah tingkah laku peserta didik, yaitu perubahan tingkah laku yang diinginkan (intended behavior) pada akhir kegiatan pendidikan, baik yang menyangkut aspek kognitif, afektif, maupun psikomotor. Untuk itu, teknik evaluasi yang digunakan tidak hanya tes (tulisan, lisan, dan perbuatan), tetapi juga non-tes (observasi, wawancara, skala sikap, dan sebagainya). Model evaluasi ini memerlukan informasi perubahan tingkah laku pada dua tahap, yaitu sebelum dan sesudah kegiatan pembelajaran. Berdasarkan konsep ini, maka guru perlu memerlukan pre dan post-test. Adapun langkah-langkah yang harus ditempuh dalam model evaluasi ini adalah merumuskan tujuan tingkah laku (behavioural objectivitas), menentukan situasi dimana peserta didik dapat
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13
Gambar 2.1 Hubungan ketiga dimensi Garis (a) menunjukkan hubungan antara tujuan pendidikan dan pengalaman belajar, garis (b) menunjukkan antara pengalaman belajar dan hasil belajar, dan (c) menunjukkan hubungan antara tujuan dan hasil belajar. Dalam diagram di atas, atas, kegiatan evaluasi dinyatakan oleh garis (c), atau atau dengan kata lain, evaluasi sini dimaksudkan sebagai kegiatan untuk melihat sejauh mana tujuan-tujuan pendidikan telah dapat dicapai siswa dalam bentuk hasil belajar yang mereka perlihatkan pada akhir kegiatan pendidikan. Ini berarti bahwa evaluasi itu dasarnya ingin memperoleh gambaran mengenai efektivitas dari sistem pendidikan yang bersangkutan dalam mencapai tujuannya. Mengingat tujuan-tujuan pendidikan mencerminkan perubahan-perubahan tingkah diinginkan pada maka yang penting dalam proses evaluasi adalah memeriksa sejauh mana perubahan-perubahan perubahan-perubahan tingkah laku yang diinginkan itu telah terjadi pada anak didik.
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14
Berhubung tujuan-tujuan pendidikan menyangkut perubahan perubahan tingkah laku yang diinginkan pada diri didik, maka evaluasi yang diinginkan itu telah terjadi Hasil evaluasi yang diperoleh berguna bagi kepentingan, menyempurnakan sistem bimbingan siswa dan untuk memberikan informasi kepada pihak-pihak di luar pendidikan mengenai hasil-hasil yang telah dicapai (Daryanto, 2005 : 77-79). Tokoh yang mengembangkan evaluasi model kesesuaian adalah Ralph W Tyler, John B Carrol dan Lee J Cronbach. Ciri-ciri evaluasi model kesesuaian yang dikembangkan oleh tokoh tersebut di atas adalah : a. Pendidikan adalah proses yangmemuat tiga hal, yaitu tujuan pendidikan, pengalaman belajar dan penilaian hasil belajar. Kegiatan evaluasi dilakukan untuk melihat sejauh mana tujuan pendidikan yang diberikan dalam pengalaman belajar telah dapat dicapai siswa dalam bentuk hasil belajar. Dengan kata lain, evaluasi dilakukan untuk melihat kesesuaian antara tujuan pendidikan yang diinginkan dengan hasil belajar yang dicapai. b. Objek evaluasi adalah tingkah laku siswa dan penilaian atas perubahan dalam tingkah laku pada akhir kegiatan pendidikan. Tujuan pendidikan adalah mencerminkan perubahan-perubahan perilaku peri laku yang diinginkan pada p ada anak. Evaluasi dilakukan untuk memeriksa sejauh mana perubahan itu telah terjadi dalam hasil belajar. Oleh karena itu, penilaian dilakukan atas perubahan perilaku sebelum dan sesudah kegiatan
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15
ter kandung secara implisit dalam uraian-uraian yang lalu, terutama diartikan sebagai tingkah laku hasil belajar yang dicapai siswa. Tingkah laku hasil belajar ini tidak hanya terbatas pada segi pengetahuan (kognitif), melainkan juga men- cakup dimensi-dimensi lain dari tingkah laku yang ter gambar dalam tujuan-tujuan pendidikan. Dalam bukunya yang terkenal: Basic Principle of Curriculum and Instruction, Tyler memberikan ilustrasi tentang dimensi-dimensi tujuan pendidikan dalam suatu unit pelajaran tertentu, seperti yang terlihat dalam dalam bagan di bawah bawah ini:
Gambar 2.2 Ilustrasi dimensi yujuan pendidikan Dari bagan di atas, dapat dikemukakan bahwa tingkah laku hasil belajar yang perlu dinilai menurut model ini mencakup aspek pengetahuan, keterampilan dan nilai/ sikap,
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16
rumusannya sehingga memberikan arah yang lebih tegas di dalam proses perencanaan evaluasi yang akan akan dilakukan. b) Menetapkan "test situation" yang diperlukan. Dalam langkah ini ditetapkan jenis-jenis situasi yang akan memungkinkan para siswa untuk memperlihatkan tingkah laku yang akan dievaluasi tersebut. Situasi-situasi yang dimaksudkan dalam demonstrasi menggunakan mikroskop, memecahkan persoalan-persoalan secara tertulis memimpin kegiatan kelompok, kelompok, dan sebagainya. c) Menyusun alat evaluasi. Berdasarkan rumusan tujuan dan test situation yang telah ditetapkan dalam langkahlangkah sebelumnya, kini dapat ditetapkan dan disusun alat-alat evaluasi yang cocok untuk digunakan dalam menilai jenis- jenis tingkah laku yang tergambar dalam tujuan tersebut di atas. d) Menggunakan hasil evaluasi. Setelah tes dilaksanakan, hasilnya diolah sedemikian rupa agar dapat memenuhi tujuan diadakannya evaluasi tersebut, baik untuk kepentingan bimbingan siswa maupun untuk perbaikan siswa (Daryanto, 2005 : 7983). Keunggulan model kesesuaian (Congruence Model) Sumbangan yang cukup berarti congruence model adalah:
Menghubungkan hasil belajar dengan tujuan pendidikan sebagai criteria perbandingan
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17
Stufflebeam, Michael Scriven, Robert E. Stake Malcolm M. Provus, yang masing-masing pandangannya akan dibahas di dalam bagian lain. Model ini bertitik tolak dari pandangan, bahwa keberhasilan dari suatu sistem pendidikan dipengaruhi oleh berbagai faktor, karakter istik anak didik maupun lingkungan di sekitarnya, tujuan sistem dan peralatan yang dipakai, serta prosedur dan mekanisme pelaksanaan sistem itu sendiri. Pandangan tersebut ters ebut di atas ternyata mempengaruhi konsep evaluasi yang dikembangkan oleh model ini. Evaluasi, menurut model ini dimaksudkan untuk membandingkan performance dari berbagai dimensi sistem yang sedang dikembangkan dengan sejumlah kriteria tertentu, untuk akhirnya sampai pada suatu deskripsi dan judgement mengenai yang dinilai dinilai tersebut. Ada beberapa hal di dalam isi pandangan di atas yang perlu digarisbawahi dan diuraikan lebih lanjut menginga pentingnya hal-hal tersebut di dalam konteks pandangan tentang evaluasi yang dianut oleh model ini
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18
Educational Eaaluation, Stake mengemukakan bahwa from relative judgment or as MM jud rment, tae obtain an ovenal ampwssite salixe of merit, a nating to be used in making ze educational dicision. sesuai dengan apa yang terkandung dalam ucapan Stake di atas, dalam mengadakan jadsment, kita dapat menggunakan suatu standar yang mutlak yang sudah ditetapkan, ataupun yang relatif dalam bentuk perbandingan dengan sistem pendidikan yang lain. Informasi yang diperolah dari hasil evaluasi berfungsi sebagai bahan atau input bagi pengambilan keputusan mengenai mengenai sistem yang bersangkutan dalam rangka: (1) Penyempurnaan (1) Penyempurnaan
sistem
selama
sistem
tersebut
masih
dalam
tahap
pengembangan, dan (2) Penyimpulan (2) Penyimpulan mengenai kebaikan (merit, worth) dari sistem pendidikan yang bersangkutan dibandingkan dengan sistem yang lain. Dalam hubungan dengan fungsi evaluasi tersebut di atas Michael Scriven
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19
Stake membagi objek evaluasi atas tiga kategori yaitu antecedents, transactions, dan outcomes. Dengan antecedents dimaksudkan adalah sumber/model/input yang ada pada saat sistem itu dikembangkan, seperti tenaga, keuangan, karakteristik siswa, dan tujuan yang ingin dicapai. Dimensi yang disebut transaction mencakup rencana kegiatan yang disebut pelaksanaannya di lapangan, termasuk maupun proses waktu, ke dalamnya urutan antara guru murid, cara menilai hasil di kelas, dan sebagainya. Dengan outcomes di sini dimaksudkan antara lain adalah hasil yang dicapai para tersebut, dan efek sampingan dari sistem yang bersangkutan. Stufflebeam, dalam bukunya Educational Evaluation and Decision Making, menggolongkan sistem pendidikan atas 4 dimensi yaitu context, input, process, dan product, serta mengajukan suatu model evaluasi dengan nama CIPP model yang merupakan singkatan dari keempat dimensi di atas. Keempat dimensi perlu selama dan pada akhir proses pengembangan kurikulum atau
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20
yang dicapai, terutama dari segi para siswa itu sendiri Dengan demikian, objek evaluasi yang diajukan oleh Scriven di sini mencakup mencakup sarana/bahan, proses dan hasil yang dicapai. Akhirnya, dalam membahas tahap-tahap evaluasi yang perlu ditempub, Provus mengemukakan 4 dimensi yang perlu dinilai dalam proses pengembangan sistem pendidikan, yaitu design, operation program, interim products dan terminal products. Pengertian design di sini dapat dihubungkan dengan rencana/sarana, sedangkan program operation dapat diartikan sebagai proses pelaksanaan. Yang dimaksudkan dengan interim products oleh Provus adalah hasil belajar jangka pendek sedangkan terminal terminal products adalah hasil belajar dalam jangka waktu yang lebih panjang. Dengan demikian, objek evaluasi yang diajukan oleh Provus di sini mencakup pula dimensi sarana/rencana proses, dan hasil yang dicapai. Sehubungan dengan ruang lingkup objek evaluasi yang diajukan oleh model yang ketiga ini, jenis-jenis data yang dikumpulkan dalam kegiatan evaluasi menuru model ini baik data-data objektif (skor hasil tes) maupun data-data subjektif atau judgmental data
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21
menjadi empat tahap, yaitu (1) needs assessment, (2) program planning, (3) formative evaluation, dan (4) summative evaluation.
Gambar 2.3 Tahap model CSE-UCLA Keterangan: (1) CSE Model: Needs Assessment Dalam tahap ini evaluator evaluator memusatkan perhatian pada penentuan penentuan masalah. Pertanyaan yang diajukan: diajukan:
Hal-hal apakah yang perlu dipertimbangkan sehubungan dengan keberadaan program?
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22
yang menggunakan manusia sebagai instrument pengukuran. (2). Model ini diturunkan dari model metaphoric atau perumpamaan dan menggunakan kiasan kritik artistic untuk menghasilkan konsep-konsep dasar evaluasi. Model connoisseurship ini juga menggunakan pengumpulan data, analisis, penafsiran, atau interprestasi data yang berlangsung dalam dalam pemikiran si pembuat keputusan. Proses ini terjadi, ketika keputusan berjalan di dalam otak pembuat keputusan berdasarkan pada model organisator bahwa ia telah menginternalisasi berdasarkan pada pelatihan dan
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23
kelemahan yang menonjol, yaitu bahwa model connoisseurshipgagal memberikan petunjuk operasional bagi para para evaluator yang hendak mengikuti konsep tersebut secara mendalam. Selain itu, batasan connoisseurship itu sendiri juga merupakan sebutan yang terlalu tinggi dan cenderung mengarah pada elitis dimana para ahli kurang mampu memberikan dukungan secara nyata. (Sukardi, 2008: 64-65). Model evaluasi CIPP yang dikemukakan oleh Stufflebeam & Shinkfield (1985)
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24
Tahapan evaluasi dalam model ini yakni penggambaran (delineating ( delineating ), ), perolehan atau temuan (obtaining (obtaining ), ), dan penyediakan (providing) bagi para pembuat keputusan. Model evaluasi ini merupakan model yang paling banyak banyak dikenal dan diterapkan oleh para evaluator. Oleh karena itu, uraian yang diberikan relatif panjang dibandingkan modelmodel lainnya. Model CIPP ini dikembangkan oleh Stufflebeam, dkk. (1967) di Ohio state university. CIPP yang merupakan sebuah singkatan dari huruf awal empat buah kata, yaitu:
Context evaluation
: evaluasi terhadap konteks
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25
Tujuan pengembangan apakah yang belum dapat tercapai oleh program, misalnya peningkatan kesehatan dan prestasi siswa karena adanya makanan tambahan?
Tujuan pengembangan apakah yang dapat membantu mengembangkan masyarakat, misalnya kesadaran orang tua untuk memberikan makanan bergizi kepada anak-anaknya? 4) Tujuan-tujuan mana sajakah yang paling mudah dicapai, misalnya pemerataan makanan, ketepatan penyediaan makanan? Evaluasi Masukan
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26
menerima makanan tambahan. Evaluasi produk merupakan tahap akhir dari serangkaian evaluasi program. Dalam program PMTAS, pertanyaan-pertanyaan yang dapat diajukan, diajukan, antara lain:
Apakah tujuan-tujuan ditetapkan sudah tercapai? Pernyataan-pernyataan apakah yang mungkin dirumuskan berkaitan antara rincian proses dengan pencapaian tujuan? Dalam hal-hal apakah berbagai kebutuhan siswa sudah dapat dipenuhi selama proses pemberian makanan tambahan (misalnya variasi makanan
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27
isu-isu pokok yang memerlukan jawaban pada setiap level dan aspek program, sehingga
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28
Hakikat evaluasi menurut sistem model adalah untuk membandingkan performance
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h. Judgements : menilai pendekatan dan prosedur yang digunakan dalam pelatihan, para
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mendalam mengenai semua aspek program pembelajaran, yang tidak hanya memnugkinkan
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Keterikatannya dengan sistem. Dengan model pendekatan system ini kegiatan sekolah dapat
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DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Arifin, zaenal. 2009. Evaluasi 2009. Evaluasi Pembelajaran. Pembelajaran. Bandung: PT.Remaja Rosdakarya Daryanto. 2005. Evaluasi 2005. Evaluasi Pendidika. Pendidika. Jakarta : PT. Rineka Cipta Nurdin, Diding. http://file.upi.edu/Direktori/FIP/JUR._ADMINISTRASI_PENDIDIKAN/1971080820011 21-DIDING_NURDIN/Bab_2_Model_Evaluasi_SP.pdf Suharsimi, Arikunto. 2009. Evaluasi Program Pendidikan Pedoman Teoritis Praktis bagi Mahasiswa dan Praktisi Pendidikan Pendidikan.. Jakarta : PT. Bumi Aksara Sukardi. 2008. Evaluasi 2008. Evaluasi Pendidikan Prinsip dan dan Operasionalnya. Operasionalnya . Jakarta : PT. Bumi Aksara http://www.scribd.com/mobile/doc/188510877/Model-model-pendekatan-Evaluasi-1#
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63
LAMPIRAN
Lampiran 1. Buku Sumber
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Lampiran 2. Mengetik Buku Sumber
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65
Lampiran 3. Mendiskusikan Makalah