Kas 2 Ancheta WF 830-10 LE2 reviewer.docx

HINDUISM -

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Misnomer -

Term used by scholars to refer to various religions and traditions in India

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No one foundation, approximation, unorganized, fragmented

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Kings were devotees of some deities, not Hinduism per se

Became flexible/adaptive to survive -

Buddhism adapted by Hinduism -

Buddha became deity in Hinduism

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Buddhism became less popular in India

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Conglomeration of Indian belief system

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Did not really spread because of lack of devotee leaders

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Resurgence of Hinduism / Bhakti movements in 7th - 10th centuries AD -

Because of different paths to salvation instead of just through karma

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Bhakti (literal meaning: devotion) movements -

Intense emotional attachment of a devotee to his/her personal god is another way of salvation

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Union of human soul with god

Bhagavad Gita -

Most important part of Mahabharata epic

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Prince Arjuna and god Krishna

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Battle between cousins of Prince Arjuna

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Path of Bhakti is superior to path of karma = devotion to god is more important than the dharma

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Caste system became more relaxed -

Bhakti followers believed in equality of all humans -

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Reaction to Brahmanism

Bhakti movements open to all castes

Puja (literal meaning: worship) -

Practices showing devotion and reverence to gods

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Spiritual connection to the deity and its representations

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Direct connection

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Physical representations a way to gain access to the divine

Darshan (literal meaning: experience) -

Experience of communicating with and seeing the divine

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Seeing and to be seen

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Major Bhakti movements -

Shiva (Saivism / Saivites) -

Shiva: one of the Trimurti (main gods) -

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Shiva, the destroyer; Brahma, the creator; Vishnu, the preserver

Shiva’s family: -

Parvata: Shiva’s wife, a representation of the mother goddess Skanda: Shiva’s child, god of war

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Ganesh: Shiva’s child, god of wisdom

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Elephant-headed

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Represents wisdom (one of the most respected)

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His tusk was used to write Mahabharatstories of humbleness, snake belt, moon phases, race with Skanda

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Shiva: Lord of the Yogi (meditation) and Lord of Sexual Power

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Linga-Yoni worship

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Linga: erect phallus; Yoni: female genital

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Sexual union is important; creates life

Still considered a Saivite if you follow the gods in Shiva’s family -

To worship Shiva is to worship his family

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Ganesh more popular than Shiva

Mother Goddess (Shaktism) -

Major female gods & wives of major gods were reincarnations of the mother goddess, Devi/Shakti

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Ultimate god is the mother goddess

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Mother goddess created everything

Vishnu (Vaisava / Vaishnavism) -

Vishnu worshipped through his avatars / incarnations -

Avatar = “to ascend”

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Vishnu: the preserver / god of preservation p reservation

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10 avatars: Dasavatara -

Incarnations to preserve cosmic harmony

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Matrya (fish)

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Kurma (tortoise) Varaha (boar)

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Narasimha (man-lion / lion-headed man)











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currently 9 avatars; Kalki is the future avatar -

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Buddha (enlightened) Kalki (has the ability to destroy the world) Buddha became the 9th avatar of Vishnu

Kurma -

Stabilized mountain to churn the waters of the world and gain the nectar of immortality for the devas and asuras

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Vamana -

Devas: lesser gods; lead by Indra, king of the Devas Asuras: malevolent gods and demons; lead by Vali / Bali

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Asuras won against the Devas and conquered the realm of

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humans and gods -

The Devas approached Vishnu for help

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Vishnu transformed into a dwarf / Vamana

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Vishnu, as Vamana, asked Vali if he could have 3 steps on l and

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Vishnu’s first step was on the world of gods, and he became giant

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His second step was on the world of Earth; Vali figured out the Vamana is Vishnu

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Vishnu’s third step was on the head of Vali, offered by Vali himself as humility

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Interpretation of Vishnu’s avatars -

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Vishnu then made Vali the king of the underworld as appreciation From simple life forms to humans to gods (concept of evolution)

Vahana -

“the one which bears/carries”

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Vehicle / mount of a god

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Familial relationship; not merely a relationship between master & servant

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Considered as more superior than humans -

Because they are divine and part of the divine aspect of the gods

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Connects devotees to their god

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Also represents the power and specific energies of their deity

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Airavata (for Indra) -

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Three-headed white elephant; symbolizes royalty

Uchchaishravas (for Indra)











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Symbolizes swiftness and power of wind

Mushika (for Ganesh) -

Rat; represents humility, quickness, fear

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can be invoked to help against self-doubt, fear, & nervousness

Nandi (for Shiva) -

Bull; represents rage and raw power, as well as sexual energy

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Can be invoked to help with anger and also to heal

Garuda (for Vishnu) -

Divine eagle; transcended Hinduism

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Traveled at tremendous speeds; can be invoked to help clear mind

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Also symbolizes humans and entities that can be controlled by the gods

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Rama and Hanuman symbolizes the concept in Mahabharata

NORTH ASIA/MONGOL EMPIRE -

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Largest contiguous empire in history -

24 million sq. kms.

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Only larger empire is the British empire

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Spanned from Korea to Poland, during its peak

Fell strictly due to internal problems -

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Resurgence of colonies

Genghis Khan / Chinggis Khan (1162 - 1227) -

Genghis Khan: title meaning “supreme ruler”

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Born as Temujin

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United the nomadic Mongol tribes -

Nomadic lifestyle due to steppes / vast grasslands

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Lots of livestock & horses, which were used for traveling & warfare -

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From Mongolia, he invaded Central / North Asia

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From Central Asia, he invaded the Middle East -

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monetary

Spread of Islam was halted

Died unexpectedly in 1227; left 4 children and a still-expanding empire

Ogedai Khan











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Tolui -

Brother of Ogedai Khan

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Usurped power after Ogedai’s death

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Died, then Sorkhaqtani (his wife) took power

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Sorkhaqtani ruled the still-expanding Mongol Empire for a time because because Tolui’s son was young

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Said son also died at 2 years old

Mongke Khan -

Son of Tolui / Grandson of Genghis Khan

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Sought to invade the Song dynasty in China, bought failed

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Died, then his brothers, Halagu & Kublai, fought for power

Kublai Khan -

Initially failed to invade China

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Eventually succeeded and established the Yuan Dynasty

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Became Great Khan of Mongol Empire and Emperor of China

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Left nomadic lifestyle

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Capital city was changed from Karakorum to Khanbaliq (Beijing)

Sought to invade Japan twice -

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Invaded peninsular SEA -

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Failed both times due to weather (‘kamikaze’ typhoons) Failed to take insular SEA

Marco Polo -

European who visited China and the royal court of Kublai Khan through the Silk Road

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Mongol Empire divided into 5 Khanates during and after Kublai Khan’s death -

Khanates were considered provinces with regional capitals after Kublai Khan’s death

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Leaders of these 5 Khanates died and civil war broke out

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Yuan Dynasty: China

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Il Khanate: Middle East & Persia

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Blue Horde & White Horde : Russia; both united to become Golden

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Horde Chaghadai Khanate : Central Asia

Mongol Army











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Weapons became varied, due to adapting invaded countries

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Trained with diversionary tactics

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Trained in rotation = well-rounded

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Disciplined, from highest to lowest ranks -

Army was structured and were divided into units

2) Mixed battalion -

Soldiers from different ethnic groups/tribes/belief systems were mixed together to ensure loyalty and instill a sense of unity

3) Great mobility and speed -

Whole army could travel 60 - 100 miles per day

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Horses were small, sturdy, and fast -

Less food needed

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Each soldier had 4-5 horses to rotate around

4) Reconnaissance (info gathering) and espionage -

Messengers and scouts were fast

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Used vast network of spies to gather information

5) Used siege weapons -

Employed weapon makers and engineers from subjugated peoples

6) Psychological warfare - fake retreats - message of fear -

2010 study -

New information about the birth of the Mongol Empire

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Environmental history -

Age of trees in Siberia were measured using their rings

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Evidence of drought in Mongolian steppes => reason for different

Mongol tribes -

Division since low number of sources

In the 1200s, precipitation in the Mongolian steppes increased, which affected the expansion of the Mongols -

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Grass grew on the steppes, which served as food for the horses

Expansion of Mongol Empire stopped in Eastern Europe , because the grasslands of Europe turned into marshes/swamps due to the increased precipitation -

Unusual cold, wet environment not suitable for warriors













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Mongol Empire revived the Silk Road

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Ushered European colonization -

Marco Polo’s stories of travel inspired Europeans to find sea routes to Asia

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Lead to globalization

AGE OF EXPLORATION & DISCOVERY 1: COLONIALISM -

15th-16th century: Age of Exploration

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Spain & Portugal were at the forefront of discovery and exploration, which lead to colonialism

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Terra Incognita : unknown lands / Americas (New World) -

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Known lands: Europe, Asia, Africa (Old World)

Definition of colonialism: -

Forced subjugation

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Imbalance of power between colonies and colonizers

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Systemic exploitation of the colonies

Factors: -

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Spice trade -

Spices found in Asia had to go through the Silk Road to get to Europe.

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Because of this, spices became expensive in Europe.

Marco Polo -

Stories of his travels in the 14th century inspired Europeans to explore Asia

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Renaissance -

Production of knowledge Invention of the movable printing press helped the spread of the stories











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The Counter Reformation , by the Catholic Church, was against the Reformation.

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Every expedition had priests (Jesuits, Dominicans, etc.) to spread the Catholic faith.

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Banks -

Banks were privately-owned and they participated in trade.

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Their capital was used to finance expeditions; empires loaned money from banks.

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Most prominent banking family was the Fugger banking family in Germany.

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Fall of Constantinople in 1453 -

Constantinople was taken over by the Ottoman Turks .

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The Silk Road was closed, however, Venetian traders had a special trading relationship with the Turks.

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These Venetian traders sold spices at high prices in Europe.

1492 Reconquista -

The Reconquista was a series of campaigns by the Christians in Spain and Portugal against the Muslims. It ended in 1492.

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Southern Spain was occupied by the Muslim Moors for 800 years, until 1492.

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The Spanish crowns / Catholic monarchists were unified, and they repulsed the Moors from Spain. This also strengthened Spain and Portugal.

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Both needed to explore to maintain their growing power.

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Both had access to the Atlantic Ocean

Colonies:

Portuguese: Moluccas, Macao, Goa (in India), Hong Kong











AGE OF EXPLORATION AND DISCOVERY 2: PORTUGAL, SPAIN, AND THE NETHERLANDS IBERIAN POWERS: Portugal -

Prince Henry the Navigator established navigational schools in Sagres , Portugal on 1418. The Portuguese discovered the Azores and the Madeira islands in the Atlantic.

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They then went along Africa, through the Cape of Good Hope , and in 1498, they arrived at India, under Vasco de Gama . The Portuguese encountered the Muslim

Mughal Empire in India , but their merchant ships were armed. -

Evidence for many purposes of merchant ships

In 1510, they took over Goa, India . From here, they traveled to Malacca for better trade opportunities.

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In 1511, Malacca (area between Malaysia & Indonesia) fell to the Portuguese.

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At this time, the Portuguese dominated trade in the Indian Ocean. Their goal now was to travel to the Moluccas (Indonesia), because they wanted to obtain 3

spices: cloves, nutmeg, and mace . -

The Portuguese set up their trading posts before establishing colonies.

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In 1557, they arrived and colonized Macau. The Portuguese became the first Europeans who connected with China. -

became the primary base of the Europeans who were looking to connect/trade with China

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also a diplomatic base, and was used as a staging point by the Portuguese to Japan

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The dominance of the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean trade lasted from the











The Netherlands / The Dutch (Colonies) -

From the 1600s to 1720, the Dutch replaced almost all Portuguese colonies.

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The Dutch were a large commercial empire; hence, they did not give importance to religion in their colonies. -

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Not controlled by government

During the Battle of Manila , the invading Dutch were defeated by ill-equipped Spanish men in what is known as the Miracle of La Naval. = Our Lady of La Naval

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In the 1500s, the Dutch were taken over by the Spanish and they were called the

Spanish Netherlands for a time -

Gained support from European powers to wage war

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During the Dutch-Spanish wars, which were due to the unification of the Spanish and Portuguese crowns in the 1560s, the Dutch invaded Portuguese trading stations including Moluccas

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The Dutch then took over Batavia (Jakarta) in Indonesia

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In Taiwan, the Dutch established strongholds/trading posts which were used as a staging point to reach Japan in the 1620s.

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They were also the first to discover Australia, which they called New Holland. However, since the lands were infertile, no Dutch settlements were built.

(Dutch atrocities) -

The Dutch put down revolts in their colonies violently.

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imported Chinese immigrants to Indonesia to help with the production of resources.

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They were responsible for some state-sponsored famines, since they forced natives to plant cash crops instead of food. f ood. -

In the Banda islands (Indonesia), the Dutch forced the natives to plant cloves and nutmegs to maximize sales of these spices.











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Half of the world’s rubber production, ¼ of the world’s coconut production, ⅕ of tea, sugar, coffee, coffee, and pepper production, and ⅕ of the world’s oil production (coconut) -

In Indonesia under the VOC

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The Dutch colonization of Asia was under the VOC, and not the Dutch government.

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When Japan closed its borders due to the isolationist policy of the Tokugawa

shogunate, the Dutch maintained a special trading relationship with Japan. - Trade between the two took place on the Japanese island of Dejima in the Nagasaki harbor -

Dutch had a monopoly on goods from Japan

During the 1750s, the VOC went bankrupt -

due to company mismanagement

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spice industry was replaced by the textile industry as the most profitable

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the Dutch government took over the VOC

(Colonies under the Dutch government) -

By 1800, the Dutch lost control of their colonies in Asia, because of the change in the balance of power in Europe due to Napoleon

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The British temporarily took over the Dutch colonies in Asia, because they were allies. In 1824, the British returned control of Indonesia back to the Dutch government ( Dutch-

Anglo Treaty ) -

Lasted until 1946

Acquired New Amsterdam (now Manhattan) -

Introduced tea

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Renamed to New York by British and adapted tea drinking













in Asia were taken taken over by the British. -

In 1858, the French returned to Asia. Rumors about French missionaries in Vietnam

were being mistreated, so the French used it as excuse to send naval forces against the Vietnamese. -

The French naval forces won, and the French were given 3 southern Vietnamese

provinces. -

During the Opium Wars , the French, along with other European powers, fought against the Chinese. The French army in Beijing negotiated for trade concessions, along with the

British. The French also set up a trading station in Shanghai while the British got Hong Kong -

The French eventually took over Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia , which became collectively known as French Indochina , and they held these territories until 1946.

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In 1869, the French established the Suez Canal in Egypt , which served as a connection between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea -

shortened the travel time between Asia and Europe

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allowed for easier access of goods and troops

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was eventually nationalized by the Egyptians.











(British colonies in the Americas) -

In 1604, Spain and Britain signed the Peace Treaty of London .

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The British also began going to the Americas, and in 1607, they established Jamestown and also eventually arrived in the Caribbean islands .

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In 1759, the British took over Canada from the French.

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Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade was sponsored by the British -

Around 70,000 Africans were sent to America yearly.

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The Africans who were sent back to Africa established Liberia when the slave trade was abolished in the 1800s.

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French supported American Revolution

(British colonies in Asia) -

The British East India Company (EIC) was established in 1600 -

In 1602, landed on Surat, India

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In 1639, founded St. George (Madras) , which was the center of the British EIC -

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used as a staging point to invade Manila in 1762.

In 1688, the English War of Succession broke out -

William of Orange became the King through union of monarchy.

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An alliance between Britain and the Netherlands was formed











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The rebellion was crushed by strong British forces called from Britain -

the British crown took over the colony in I ndia from the British EIC. – EIC. –

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Queen Victoria became the Empress of India, and Britain retained control of India until WW2.

(British Colonies in SEA) -

In 1819, under, Sir Thomas Ruffles , the British arrived in SEA -

established Singapore as a British trading station, and from Singapore, they took over Malaysia.

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Thailand is the only SEA country that was not colonized. This was because Thailand

served as a buffer zone between the French and the British territories in Asia. (European Scramble for Colonies) -

During the 19th century, the Europeans scrambled to establish colonies in Africa and in Asia -

In 1871, the German states unified into one country, the German Empire .

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Germany and Italy colonized parts of Africa.

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Belgium took over the Congo, and the Europeans also colonized Samoa and Polynesia.











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In Asian history, nationalism was used to mobilize support against foreigners and colonizers. It was seen as a long-lasting response to imperialism. -

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1st wave was seen in Latin Americas

In the present European context, it is seen as closed and anti-immigration.

(Nationalism in Asia) -

There is no one Asian nationalism; nationalism manifested in different ways in different countries.

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The Philippines were the first ones to triumph over the Spanish colonizers, however, their victory was hijacked by the Americans who eventually colonized them.

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In Thailand and Japan, nationalism was signified as a return to Buddhism and

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Shintoism, and the return of power to the king and the emperor , respectively. Nationalism was also used, in conjunction with political ideologies , in China to fight against the colonizers.

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One of the most successful and extreme nationalistic movements was in Indonesia. The Indonesians used their shared resentment against the Dutch, Japanese, and Chinese in their country as a base for their nationalism -

expelled all Dutch and half-Dutch people from Indonesia.











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In Japan, however, modernization and traditionalism can be seen with the revival of Shintoism while utilizing Western weapons and a Western education system.

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Existence of many movements in a single “movement” with a goal to be free from the colonizers.

(Other Factors on Nationalism) -

Language was also an important factor regarding rifts in nationalistic movements. -

Leaders of nationalistic movements were well-versed in colonial languages due to their upbringing. This highlighted a disconnect between the leaders and the masses.

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national language/s can help in nationalism and nation-building. -

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Example: Bahasa Indonesia/Malaysia

The threat of an external enemy was also used as a base for nationalism, and it kept the state together. The existence of a state depends on how it responds to its neighbors. -

Some examples are Pakistan vs. India, China vs. Japan, and North Korea vs. South Korea.

Nationalism in Japan













Nationalism in China -

Nationalism in China was primarily a response to the humiliation they suffered from the foreign powers (Western countries and Japan). -

China was divided into different spheres of influence , each under a particular country.

(1900: Boxer Rebellion) -

Boxers: members of the Society of the Righteous and Harmonious Fists . -

Located in Northeastern China

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created as a response to the corrupt and ineffective Manchu/Qing dynasty -

the dynasty did not properly address the drought and disruption caused by foreign influences











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Sun Yat Sen was the founder of the KMT (Kuomintang/Guomindang) , which is the current Nationalist Party of China in Taiwan (Republican Party) -

prominent Chinese nationalist

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united nationalistic Chinese in overthrowing the Manchu/Qing Dy nasty

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His ambition was to set up a republic to replace the dynasty. Both Chiang Kaishek and Mao Zedong supported him

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One of his primary generals was Huang Xing.

Chiang Kai-shek became the leader of the Kuomintang, and he fought against the Communist Party of China , which was under Mao Zedong. -

Civil war resulted to exile of KMT to Taiwan (brought Chinese historical treasures) Taiwan eventually overtaken by China ass











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It also signalled the start of the partition of British India between India, West

Pakistan, and East Pakistan. West and East Pakistan were majorly Muslim, with West Pakistan being lead by Jinnah. -

East Pakistan eventually became Bangladesh in 1971 which was supported by India (resulted to only minor warfares)

(Assassination of Gandhi) -

In 1948, Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated by a Hindu nationalist .

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Jawaharlal Nehru became the first prime minister of India , and he implemented Gandhi’s Gandhi’s vision of a secular state -

eventually died in the 1970s.











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Beijing and Shanghai were taken by the Japanese, and in doing so, killed many Chinese.

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The focus of the Chinese was to blockade the Japanese advance, which continued into Central China.

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While all of this was happening, the Muslims in Xinjiang province revolted but stopped when the Soviets also invaded Xinjiang to obtain the resources located there.

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The Rape of Nanking / Nanjing Massacre is considered as one of the worst war atrocities. -

after the Japanese took the city of Nanking (Central China)

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More than 300,000 Chinese civilians died in just 6 weeks. December 1937 January 1938











(1940) -

The Japanese took the southern provinces of Hainan and Guangxi by going through the coast => supply line of China was cut off.

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These provinces were used by the Japanese as a base to attack Central China

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Chinese guerillas held the countryside and destroyed Japanese infrastructure

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Many railways destroyed by Japanese

The only supply line remaining was the Hump, which was an aerial path through the

Himalayas. -

Volunteer American and European pilots called the Flying Tigers flied supplies to

India through the Hump. Japan Germany, and Italy signed the Tripartite Pact in 1940, becoming the Axis Powers













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Many Chinese offensives were launched against Japanese-held cities.

- The US also returned to the Philippines, the UK to Malaysia, the French to Indochina, and the Dutch to Indonesia -

The Japanese were pushed back to northeastern China and the coast .











(1950s) -

Korean War -

North Korea conquered by China (supported by Soviet Union )

Kas 2 Ancheta WF 830-10 LE2 reviewer.docx

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