A Critical Appraisal of African Feminist Theology

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CURRENT RESEARCH International Journal of Current Research Vol.2, Issue, 1, pp.154-162, January, 2011

ISSN: 0975-833X

REVIEW ARTICLE A CRITICAL APPRAISAL OF AFRICAN FEMINIST THEOLOGY Daniel Kasomo and Loreen Iminza Maseno Department of Religion, Theology and Philosophy, Maseno University, P.O. Box 333-40105 Maseno, Kenya ARTICLE INFO

ABSTRACT

Article History:

This paper presents a critical appraisal of African feminist theology in the twenty first century. It considers African feminist theology as a Diverse and growing area bringing forth new research, new arguments and insight by the day. Yet, this vast diversity brings with it important contributions and also poses problems and challenges for further examination. This paper proceeds to introduce constituent characteristics, norms, sources and themes for African feminist theology with the aim of attending to what African feminist theology is about. In proceeding, this paper focuses on one major theme in African women’s theology, that of community. It presents the treatment of community by African women theologians, thus showing that the community that is to be hoped for in African feminist theology is the ordering of relations that empower both men and women.

Received 7th October, 2010 Received in revised form 12th November, 2010 Accepted 30th December, 2010 Published online 6th January, 2011

Key words: African theology, African feminist theology, Norms, Sources and themes in African theology, Community.

© Copy Right, IJCR, 2011 Academic Journals. All rights reserved.

INTRODUCTION Undoubtedly, what has been considered African feminist theology is a diverse and growing area bringing forth new research, new arguments and insight by the day. Yet, this vast diversity brings with it important contributions and also poses challenges for examination. This paper shall consider African feminist theology. It begins with the problematic terrain of terminology and points to handicap of the linguistic complexity within the context in which these terms are set and used. The paper proceeds to introduce constituent characteristics, norms, sources and themes for African feminist theology with the aim of attending to what African feminist theology is about. *Corresponding author: [email protected]

This survey serves to highlight some contributions of African feminist theology to theology at large. In proceeding, this paper focuses on one major theme in African women’s theology that of community. It presents the treatment of community by African women theologians. Further it shows that the community that is to be hoped for in African feminist theology is the ordering of relations that empower both men and women. It is the recognition of people as human persons and not by sexist criteria. It is pulling down of all that seeks to limit woman’s full humanity and full acceptance as an equal. Though African feminist theology highlights some positive aspects of being in community that enrich the lives of its members,

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International Journal of Current Research, Vol.2, Issue, 1, pp.154-162, January, 2011

this paper does show that community also has limiting factors. Contexts and terminology in African feminist theology The title African feminist theology raises three likely areas where terminology may be contested. These are the terms African, feminist and feminist theology whose treatment is hereby very briefly given. The term African is often considered open to question precisely because it suggests uniformity where there is enormous diversity. The theologian Musa Dube maintains that it is a colonial and colonizing category that disregards the great differences in and among African people (Dube 2001:10). Nevertheless, the term African is consistently used as a category to facilitate discussions that address issues that cut across the continent and to command solidarity in the pursuit of liberation. The term ‘feminist’ is viewed as problematic in some circles and is not used by all women theologians in Africa. In some places is stigmatised as something foreign, with skeptics suggesting that sexism is not an issue in Africa, where men and women know their place and play their role ungrudgingly. According to Oduyoye, these sceptics maintain that issues of sexism are supposed to belong to a minority of disgruntled, leisure-saturated, middle class women of the capitalist west (Oduyoye 1983:249). Consequently, ‘in parts of Africa, feminism is often associated negatively with women who have ‘difficulty’ relating to men - that is, difficulty in keeping their marriages intact, through thick and thin’(Oduyoye 1994:169).Therefore, Oduyoye states, ‘Although I am using the word feminism, I am still struggling with the effect it has on African ears’ (Oduyoye 1994:167). In search of terminology that would provide for dialogue in Africa, women’s theology is preferred to feminist theology. Owing to the pluralistic nature of feminist theology and that it is not a systematically developed body of received knowledge handed down in theological institutions, women’s action and reflection as Christians is called by a variety of names. This theology is called ‘womanist’ by African American

women, ‘women’s liberation theology’ by many in Latin America and women’s theology in Africa while for others it is merely ‘feminist theology’. Thus, the terms ‘feminist theology’ and ‘women’s theology’ may be differentiated by virtue of particular contexts and the time. For Oduyoye, if African women-centered women name themselves feminists or womanists it should not be understood as a total imitation of one particular group. Instead it signifies the handicap of the linguistic complexity of the contexts (Oduyoye 2001:124). In general, as long as we are talking of women’s action and reflection as Christians and there is a conscious awareness of their different methods and contexts, the possibility of interchangeability of the terms ‘women’s theology’ and ‘feminist theology’ may be utilised. Still, with regards to terminology, the theologian Isabel Phiri argues that on the African continent, Christian women call reflection of their context and the Christian faith, ‘African women theologies’. Phiri makes a move from theology to theologies and maintains that African women theologies is used instead of African women theology to acknowledge the fact that within Africa there is a diversity of women’s experiences due to the differences in race,culture, politics, economy and religions (Phiri 2004:152). Certainly, a characteristic of theology from the developing countries, is it is multiple. This is clarified by the theologian Diane Stinton succinctly as follows Stemming from this increased attention to particular contexts of theology is the shift from ‘theology’ being used in the singular to the plural form ‘theologies’. With the diversity of contexts in Africa, a corresponding plurality of theologies naturally developed (Stinton 2004:109). Acknowledging the multiplicities of theologies in Africa, I nevertheless free and limit myself to the given title by utilizing ‘women’s theology’ and ‘feminist theology’ interchangeably. Origins and mainstay of African feminist theology The theologian Elizabeth Amoah notes that Christian theology in Africa can be done by the

Daniel Kasomo and Loreen Iminza, MasenoA critical appraisal of African feminist theology

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uneducated but also it is a professional, systematic discipline in itself. Amoah has described, “Theology from the perspective of African women” where she notes that genuine theologising by women involves reflections on the conceptions of God in their daily lives and needs in the church. Therefore, theology is done by those women who are not formally educated, who express theology through spontaneous poetic lyrics, songs and prayers. It is done at a formal level by women who are Sunday school teachers and Guidance Counsellors. At the same time, it can also be done at an academic level (Amoah 1995:1).

1980’s. Primarily, much of African feminist theology is to be gleaned from but not exclusively from writings of the Circle of Concerned African women theologians hereafter referred to as the Circle. The Circle is a contemporary network of women from across Africa, some of whom live outside Africa. It is a voluntary movement, whose work often takes place within regional meetings. It was inaugurated on the 25th September 1989 in Accra, Ghana in order to facilitate the writing, research and publication by a Pan-African multireligious and multiracial network of women (Pemberton 2003).

There are various positions on the origins of African feminist theology. I confine myself to two positions, one being that African feminist theology can be traced from developments within African theology. Oduyoye maintains that there was an expansion from doing theology based on experiences of classism and racism in the socioeconomic and political realms to include sexism anchored in religio-cultural perceptions. This led to the emergence of a new methodological stance where the concerns and experiences of African women as women was yet another locus for theology. Thus, African feminist theologians begun to articulate the sources of their oppression including Western Christianity, contemporary socio-political contexts and African religio-cultural traditions (Oduyoye cf Stinton 2004:114).

Characterising African feminist theology

Isabel Phiri posits that after the women’s movement in the 1960’s aimed at the liberation of women from all forms of sexism, Christian women of other racial and cultural groups brought to fore within theological circles that racial, cultural, social, historical and political situations contributed to their experiences of gender discrimination. In localising their concerns feminist theology spoke to particular experiences of Christian women the world over. On the African continent, their reflection was named ‘African women’s theology’ (Phiri 2004:152). Clearly, what emanates from these two complementary positions is that African feminist theology came to being following the inculcation of experiences and concerns of African women for theology. As written theology, the origins of African women’s theological contributions are recent and may be traced to the

Okure maintains that the particular approach of African women’s theology is not to exalt womens place in redeemed humanity, but to establish genuine cooperation and mutuality between women and men (Okure 1993:47). At the same time, when characterizing African feminist theology, the theologian Mercy Oduyoye asserts that African women’s theology is a theology of relations replacing hierarchies with mutuality (Oduyoye 2001:17). She adds, [African women’s theology] is therefore a theology that is ‘society sensitive’. There is a marked emphasis on relations because African culture is very community-oriented and therefore requires all to be sensitive not only to the needs of others, but also to the well-being of the community as a whole, Following from this is the characterization of interrelationships. There is a theology of inter-relationship being developed as women emphasise the inter-relationship of women and men as well as that of humans and the rest of creation As a theology developed in consciously multicultural and multireligious contexts, it is culture-sensitive and intentionally dialogue oriented. It undertakes dialogue between cultures as well as within cultures. With a developing cultural hermeneutic, this theology boldly criticizes what is oppressive while advocating for the enhancement of what is liberative not only for women but for the whole community (Oduyoye 2001:17). The reality in Africa is that is has over 150 denominations of Christianity present unveiling

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diversity within Christianity itself. Meanwhile, there are numerous cultures and ethnicities in Africa. At the same time, with colonialism and the mobility of globalized societies, Europeans and Asians claim a homeland in Africa as well. Consequently, there are the racial/ethnic and cultural diversities within the continent of Africa which must be attended to. Thus, a contribution of African women’s theology is in its grounding in maintaining relationships within the broader community. There is a stress on inter-relationships, on culture sensitivity and on dialogue across cultures, races and ethnicities. Isabel Phiri further adds, The uniqueness of the Circle lies in its methodology, key to African theology, of doing theology in community (Phiri 1999). It is to be noted that African women theologians have decided to portray their solidarity groupings. These are various and as important nodes of resistance for disruption of oppressive regimes such as colonial rule. From this background, African women theologians’ solidarities have been structures within wider cooperative ventures with men and this distinguishes them from particular solidarities formed by western feminists. African women theologians undertake feminist theological projects using many tools supplied by western feminist analysis. However, they do not stop at these but proceed to make alliances with men beside white sisterhood for what they consider as pragmatic purposes to secure an African future (Pemberton 2003). Nevertheless, some favoured positions by African women theologians may be jeopardised when it comes to alliances with African men when dealing with issues such as the deployment of patriarchy and analysis of violence against women. Sources and Norms for African women’s Theology Theological reflection labelled feminist has been typified by characteristic assumptions, themes and commitments. In a similar manner, African women’s theology appeals to women’s experience, a political and theoretical commitment to the emancipation of women and the use of gender as an analytical tool. One source for African women’s theology is the bible. Most of the African women

theologians are keen churchwomen, several ordained into the Eucharist ministry while others are laywomen. But the bible may very well be used to perpetuate oppression. The theologian Teresa Okure therefore, noting the central place of the bible states that African women’s approach to biblical interpretation would be best described as ‘doing theology from women’s perspective’. She presents her understanding of the methodology adopted by African women in their feminist interpretations of the bible, and notes that African women interpret along these lines. First; identify a woman’s situation in African culture and society, describe it and critically analyse it, then look at the gospel to see how Jesus handled such situations by using other socio-cultural sources in combination with the bible. Second; adopt the predominantly theological works like starting by reading a particular portion of the bible. Thirdly, use the experience of women in the church and then look to the gospel for more insight (Okure 1993:77-82). For African women theologians, the bible is central in their theologising. However, the bible cannot be the only norm since, ‘any interpretation of the bible is unacceptable if it does harm to women, the vulnerable and the voiceless’ (Oduyoye 2001:12). Theological reflection bearing on hermeneutical analysis of the bible in Africa is complemented by other sources such as stories, folklores, myths, wisdom literature and legends. Narrative theology prevails in both oral and written materials. Stories play a normative role in Africa in general and therefore, African women accept stories as a source for theology (Oduyoye 2001:10). Through story telling and folklores African women theologians seek to examine the cultural conditioning of African women’s thinking in order to establish the belief systems of which they subscribe to. At the same time, African religio-cultural heritage provides insights that are appropriated by African women theologians. African women theologians use African cultural cosmology and underline that in order for the message of the gospel to truly penetrate the spiritual perceptions of African Christians it must be conveyed in accordance with their understanding of the cosmos and humanity. African religio-cultural heritage inform African women theologians on the African


experience of God. They use these beliefs and practices of the traditional religions to enrich African Christian theology and Spirituality. The Christian feminist movement of the west serves as another source for African women’s theology. According to Kanyoro, “feminist methodology is used because it challenges cultural socialization and rejects the assumption that the roles of women and men have already been fixed, either by the creator or by the culture” (Kanyoro 2001:168). African women’s theology draws much from womens’ context and experience since they do not write theology that is remote and removed from their daily living. They grant that there are unique experiences and insights that come from individuals in their contexts. For this reason, an additional norm and source for African women’s theology is African women’s experience. Themes in African women’s Theology Of the many ways in which African feminist theology might further be introduced, a thematic approach is conducive to illustrating how various voices contribute to developing fundamental theological issues from their respective contexts. African women’s theology is an effort to make a contribution to Christian theology in Africa, so that the latter will be the words of both women and men, lay and ordained, teachers and preachers etc. Contributions by African women’s theology have been made by theologians exploring several themes. Oduyoye succinctly brings to fore these varied themes. One theme is that of community. This is explored by many African women theologians due to their sense of and responsibility for extended families and the respect accorded to ancestors. Another theme by African women theologians is ecclesiology, where attention is paid to the household of God. This household of God is viewed by African women theologians as able to provide a model of community through which to discern the characteristics of a community under God. However, Oduyoye and Kanyoro lament that, Churches in Africa lack solidarity with African women though women keep filling the pews. In this regard, African women theologians encourage

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the inclusion of women pastors into ordained ministry in order to create opportunity for women pastors to be pillars for establishing mutuality with women in the congregations. This, they maintain would make it possible for women to be included in the telling of the story of faith to the community of faith (Kanyoro 2001). Eschatology with reference to the resurrection of the body and the words of women and Christology are other themes looked into. The themes of hospitality and spirituality are also explored together with themes such as sacrifice, ecology and missiology (Oduyoye 2001:20). Two other themes explored by African women are the themes of empowerment and liberation. Liberation as a theme grants a voice to the voiceless, motivates to social change and helps develop a new sense of responsibility and solidarity. By empowerment African women theologians choose to understand power in a new way. This new understanding of power implies ‘enabling power’, empowerment that can be collective, can develop and increase so that all who participate in it are affirmed and strengthened. This is different from the power that is practised in a dominant, hierarchical mode where power is exercised as ‘power over’ (Oduyoye 2001:20). In general, the themes by African women theologians indicate their variety of commitments. At the same time, their emphasis is on praxis, on doing theology as an activity that is ongoing and rooted in praxis. It is from issues frequently encountered that they raise their theological concerns and hence the themes they attend to. African women theologians have been dealing with many themes as afore mentioned however, given the need for selection, the theme that I shall look further into is that of community. Pemberton points to the affinity between womanist theology and African women’s theology being that both involve the labouring of women to create community and the over-riding invisibility of women’s contribution (Pemberton 2003:55). In what follows, I proceed by examining what African feminist theology offers on community as a contribution to feminist theology, and the challenges and problems that an emphasis on community may pose. 159 International Journal of Current Research, Vol.2 Community Community is a term that has been defined variously in different fields. It may be said to be a

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group of people living in a particular local area, sharing an organisational chain and who have a common culture and historical heritage. It may also be the locality inhabited by such a group. Within Sociology, Ferdinand Tönnies argued that "community" as opposed to society is to be perceived as tighter and more cohesive social entity within the context of the larger society. He added that family and kinship were the perfect expressions of community, but that other shared characteristics, such as place or belief, could also be pertinent (Tönnies 1988:i-xxv). African women theologians, emphasise community as a major theme in their work. Their take on community is the group of people and not the place inhabited by the group. They take up the theologian John Mbiti’s statement, “I am because we are and since we are therefore I am” (Mbiti 1969:108-109). African women theologians do show us that through the rites of passage, people are incorporated into their communities and further that a person’s individuality is best fulfilled in relation to the good of others in kin-group. The theologian Nasimiyu Wasike posits that community participation is a very prominent value among African people. To her, it permeates all life. It is the matrix upon which all the human and social values, attitudes, expectations and beliefs are based and it is the foundation of an African theology (Nasimiyu Wasike cf Stinton 2004:129). African women theologians present community deriving from biblical and African traditions. As they do so, they challenge individualism that seems rampant in Western Christianity. African women theologians make a case that African religiosity lends itself readily to Church development is its communality and corporateness. African religion and social life lay great emphasis on communal welfare, values, concerns and kinship, both horizontally and vertically (to include the departed). This, when fully reflected upon would shift the development of the church from ignoring the community dimensions of the church’s existence and concerns. Musimbi Kanyoro maintains that the needs of society and in our Church yearn for a communal response. In this communal process we reject domination over one another (Kanyoro 1996:155). African feminist

theology has also been presented by the Circle members as a ‘Two-winged’ theology that asserts a relationship with African men. Oduyoye maintains that a bird with one wing cannot fly, therefore in like manner for women’s theology, women work in co-operation with men of good will for the reconstruction of a cultural and religious praxis of sexual equality. But this theology also emphasizes the necessity of critiquing culture and religion from the perspective of ‘Christ as the norm for the fullness of the human being’ (Oduyoye 1990:27). Oduyoye addresses community and wholeness as a subtopic in her book, ‘Introducing African women’s theology’. She links community and wellbeing showing how life is an integrated whole which ought to be reflected in human beings lives and in their lives in community. Further, for her, community should be a source of wholeness and well-being and is for Africans an unalienable principle. Oduyoye notes that community is not static. She further states, The sense of community characterizes traditional life in Africa and in spite of modernization, moves people to care for children, the aged, strangers, the sick and the needy, widows, disabled and others deemed vulnerable. The religio-cultue is a common base for ethical and moral choices that highlights obligations and responsibilities. The alafia-well being of the individual is bound up with that of the community. Women comply with the needs of the community in the hope that their own alafia-well being will be seen to (Oduyoye 2001:34). Oduyoye further notes that in Africa Pluralism and multiculturalism are as evident in African cities and small towns, as they are elsewhere, but beneath this veneer is the socialization that is achieved through cultural education…The inculcation of how to live in harmony with your community and your environment and to avoid shame on one’s self and one’s kin, is the aim of socialization… Socialization is aimed at seeking a balance between the life and wellbeing of the individual and that of the community (Oduyoye 2001:30). African women theologians in highlighting community seek to identify what are deemed as some positive aspects of culture and promote them. In so doing they maintain there is a


constant challenge of struggling with their culture towards cultural transformation while at the same time fencing off those who would wish to use their culture to under-rate them (Oduyoye 2001:12-13). The theme community as expressed in African feminist theological circles is enhanced in an effort to show that it is not only sexism that plagues women on the continent. Rather there are other modes of oppression affecting both males and females. African women theologians see that they must partner with the men in continent if they are to move forward to confront cultural oppression, the colonial legacy, racism, economic exploitation, militarism, ethnicism and other injustices. Oduyoye posits that we must talk about these things in community, propose and act on solutions as a community of women and men. To her, African women do not perceive their men as the enemy (Oduyoye 2001:125). As such, the two-winged approach seeks to invite men over for dialogue and constructive reflection on the way forward for the continent at large. For Oduyoye, “the way forward is a ‘new community of men and women’, not a reversal; participation, not takeover or handover” (Oduyoye 1994:34). She sees the way forward in Africa being in togetherness, harmony and complementarity. She is quick to add that she does not speak of harmony, which is based on the muzzling of the other. She does not speak of a complementarity that allows one to determine the others role, neither does she give in to the harmony that is imposed by silencing dissonant voices (Oduyoye 2001:126-127). Problems and challenges of community It is imperative that African feminist theology addresses in some part the ways in which cultural, religious, and ethnic differences express how Africans relate to one another and experience God by incorporating women from these various groups in the spirit of community. African women’s theology has been characterised as a theology of relations, replacing hierarchies with mutuality. It is society sensitive, with marked emphasis on relations because African culture is very community-oriented thus requiring sensitivity to the needs of others and also to the well-being of the community as a whole. Rightly so, African women theologians do also present critiques to community

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in Africa. Oduyoye shows that within community in Africa, relations between men and women are distorted. To her, African women traditionally believe in the worth of sacrifice for the community. Oduyoye has a problem in understanding why it is the prerogative of only one sex to sacrifice for the well being of the community. Further she adds that those who will examine our language, proverbs, myths and fables cannot entirely exalt our African culture into one that backs up the woman who seeks a fuller participation in her community or for that matter the man who finds so-called feminine roles fulfilling (Oduyoye 1994). In sum, she maintains that what is often noticeable is broken communities as can be seen in separate development and job appointment among women and men in many African communities (Oduyoye 1986:133). Other challenges of community include the position in community that women should primarily focus on what is life-giving for others. This is not necessarily an individually lifegiving framework for themselves. Indeed, everyone deserves the right to enhance and enjoy the life with which God grants them. A society where selfaffirmation is seen as selfishness stifles human development. Indeed, an exaggerated communal identity is equally harmful whether with male, female, or dual gender leadership. Yet, a balanced attention towards the ‘other’ or the community is also essential to every person’s fulfilment. Further, stress on community manifests an inadequate expression of the individual. When people can only be regarded as part of a community, there is no room for an individual and his or her freedom. It is of necessity that individual persons be recognised and not in terms of “the other”. To see a woman as the wife of ‘so and so’ or the daughter of ‘so and so’ or even as mother to ‘so and so’ subsumes her individuality. It denies the woman of her self. Her person is denied, because she is a person in her full right before she is a wife or mother. Therefore, maintaining a balance in African women’s theology where community should not overshadow individuality remains a challenge. Demands placed on an individual in the name of community deny a person of his or her freedom. This is especially so for women in Africa whom the community would prefer married and in the role of motherhood.

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Women’s lives are discussed within the framework of their sexuality. Consequently, women’s identity is bound up with their sexuality and ability to procreate. The traditional obligation of marriage places women in nurturing, homebound roles. Further, marriages without children are not considered fully consummated. In effect, such a view of marriage in the formation of community poses itself as oppressive. When community is romanticized as a very positive component of African culture, it may be presented as if all is well in as far as the African understanding and construction of community is concerned. At the same time, the kin group is portrayed as very important and that a person’s individuality is best fulfilled in relation to others, thus it is conceived that African communities are harmonious groups of persons bonded together. In like manner African feminist theology may fail at the level of normative reflection if and when it tends to uncritically promote social values that reflect the status quo and depict cultural values. By defending communal values simply because they are communal and traditional in nature, African feminist theology may have difficulty establishing self-criticism within individual communities. If African feminist theology shall focus on the stability and unity of African communities and traditions over time, it shall overlook the explicit surface stability that often hides practices of violence and exclusion. Other shortcomings of the contribution of community are that, an individual becomes dependent to the extent that his or her survival depends on staying in the group. For this reason, the stress on community relativizes the worth of the individual, so that one has to comply in order to survive. In general, through the suspicion of community norms there is a need to reinterpret what is worthy, just and liberative to women, men and children. Certainly, African women theologians agree that it is not sufficient to promote community in Africa as an integral part of African culture, if the quality of community is not analysed and deemed worthy in terms of enhancing justice and support for women. Community in Africa ought to entail relationships that promote reciprocity, mutuality, partnership and denounce hierarchies that promote power relations between men and women.

Conclusion African feminist theology is a wide field that addresses different themes. A survey of it’s characteristics, its origins, source, norms and themes shows various contributions to feminist theology at large. Regarding the theme community, the community that is to be hoped for by African feminist theology is the one that is inclusive and encourages the flourishing of all. It is one with wholesome and meaningful relationships where male humanity is partner to female humanity. It is the ordering of relations that empower both men and women. It is the recognition of people as human persons and not by sexist criteria. It is pulling down of all that seeks to limit woman’s full humanity and full acceptance as an equal. Though African feminist theology highlights some positive aspects of being in community that enrich the lives of its members, noted however, community also has limiting factors. An understanding of modernity in present day Africa cannot allow us to perceive community as it was in traditional society. The reality of modernity in African countries plays a major role in determining what forms of community there can be. The traditional society’s outlook and presentation of community is not of the very same forms as is in present times since there are shifts across time and space. Within the urban settings in African today what could practically fit, as ones community is no longer the extended family and village members, instead it could be the neighbours in housing estates. In general, features of an ideal community of both women and men to be hoped for, is namely; partnership, reciprocity, mutuality and one that is void of hierarchical relations and power seeking. This is very much in line, with the understanding that feminists globally focus on: a normative, ideal community, a community that yearns for and seeks equality, while at the same time attending to the finer details of actual communities in their diversity and fluidity.

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A Critical Appraisal of African Feminist Theology

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