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1 Introduction Stuck pipe is a continuing industry problem for drilling operations that results in very significant nonproductive time and financial losses. Stuck pipe incident investigations have shown that all stuck pipe incidents can be prevented. As the world’s leading oilfield drilling services company, Schlumberger has a key role to play in helping to prevent and mitigate the risk of stuck pipe through the application of technology and good well planning and drilling practices. It is acknowledged throughout the industry that stuck pipe is an awareness issue. This Fundamentals of Stuck Pipe Prevention training package is intended to increase basic knowledge and awareness across the entire Schlumberger drilling population. It is not a replacement for the excellent stuck pipe prevention classroom training that already exists in Schlumberger. The package draws on many existing documents and best practices, including the Schlumberger Stuck Pipe Prevention manual, and is the result of a collaborative project between IPM and Drilling and Measurements (DM). On completion of this training you should be able to
list common causes of stuck pipe identify the different stuck pipe mechanisms describe appropriate preventive actions that can be taken to avoid stuck pipe incidents understand the importance of well planning and stuck pipe risk identification identify the parameters that influence hole cleaning in vertical and deviated wellbores understand the importance of keeping the wellbore stable understand the significance of drilling parameter trends and how they can be used to identify stuck pipe events be familiar with the recommended practices for avoiding stuck pipe while drilling, circulating, logging, running casing, making connections, tripping, surveying, and backreaming list the different actions for freeing stuck pipe.
How to use this training package Users can move quickly between sections and sub-sections using the menu on the left of the screen. For navigation within sections we recommend using the previous/next buttons at the bottom of each page. You can jump to different sections of the training package at any time, but we suggest you follow the order outlined in the Table of Contents. Each section includes links that explain key concepts through graphics or animations. Some of the links will provide additional information on a particular topic. We hope that you find the material useful and can apply the knowledge gained in your daily work. You have a key role to play in avoiding stuck pipe!
2 Definitions, units, and conversions 2.2 Units and conversions Units used in this CD Oilfield unit
Symbol
SI unit
depth
foot
ft
meter
hole or pipe diameter
inch
in
millimeter
bit size
inch
in
millimeter
weight on bit (WOB)
pounds force
lbf
decanewton
nozzle size
32nds of an inch
–
millimeter
drilling rate (rate of penetration, ROP)
feet/hour
ft/h
meters/hour
barrel
bbl
cubic meter
US gallon
galUS
cubic meter
gallons/minute
bbl/min
cubic meter/minute
barrels/minute
ft/min
cubic meters/minute
annular velocity or slip velocity
feet/minute
ft/min
meters/minute
pressure
pounds force/ square inch
psi
Quantity and property
volume
flow rate
kilopascal megapascal particle size
micron
micrometer
temperature
degrees Fahrenheit
°F
degrees Celsius
mud density
Pounds force/gallon
ppg
kilograms per cubic meter
mud gradient
psi/foot
psi/ft
kilopascals per meter
funnel viscosity
second/quart
s/qt
seconds per liter
apparent and plastic viscosity
centipoise
cP
millipascal-second
yield point
pounds force/100 square inch
lbf/100 in
gel strength
pounds force/100 square inch
lb/100 in
pascal
cake thickness
32nds of an inch
–
millimeter
filter loss
millimeter or cubic centimeter
cm
2
2
3
pascal
millimeter or cubic centimeter
torque
foot-pound
ft.lb
shear rate
reciprocal seconds
s
-1
newton-meter reciprocal seconds
Conversion factors Symbol
Multiply by
To obtain
Symbol
barrels
bbl
0.158984
cubic meters
m
barrels
bbl
5.6148
cubic feet
ft
barrels
bbl
42
gallons (US)
USgal
barrels
bbl
158.984
liters
L
bars
bar
14.5038
pounds-force per square inch
psi
bars
bar
100,000
pascals
Pa
bars
bar
100
kilopascals
kPa
bars
bar
0.1
megapascals
MPa
centimeters
cm
0.3937
inches
in
centimeters
cm
0.03280839
feet
ft
feet
ft
0.3048
meters
m
feet
ft
12
inches
in
cubic feet
ft
0.17811
barrels
bbl
gallons (US)
galUS
0.02380952
barrels
bbl
gallons (US)
galUS
3.7854
liters
L
horsepower
hp
0.7457
kilowatts
kW
inches
in
2.54
centimeters
cm
inches
in
0.0833333
feet
ft
square inches
in
6.4516
square centimeters
cm
kilograms (force)
kgf
2.20462
pounds-force
lbf
kilograms (force)
kgf
9.81
Newtons
N
Multiply
3
2
3
3
2
kilopascals
kPa
0.01
bars
bar
megapascals
MPa
145.038
pounds-force per square inch
psi
meters
m
3.28084
feet
ft
Newtons
N
0.224809
pounds-force
lbf
pounds-force
lbf
4.44822
Newtons
N
pounds-forece per sqaure inch
psi
0.06894745
bars
bar
pounds-forece per sqaure inch
psi
6.894745
kilopascals
kPa
pounds-force/gallon
lbf/gal
0.1198
kilogram-force/liter
kgf/L
quart
qt
0.94635
liter
L
3 Stuck pipe mechanisms
3.1 Introduction and section objectives On completion of this section, you should be able to
describe the three main stuck pipe mechanisms and their causes describe the measures to prevent sticking recognize the warning signs of stuck pipe on the rig site.
3 Stuck pipe mechanisms 3.2 Stuck pipe mechanisms: Causes, occurrence, and prevention Experience has shown that stuck pipe incidents can occur during any stage of the drilling process, for example, drilling, tripping in and out, backreaming, logging, or running casing. But some operations, such as tripping, are more prone to sticking incidents. The chart below shows the distribution of IPM stuck pipe incidents by activity.
Figure 3.1: IPM stuck pipe incidents by activity in 2009. This wide distribution range is why field personnel must remain vigilant at all times if they want to prevent stuck pipe. There are three categories of sticking mechanism: solids-induced packing off, differential sticking, and wellbore geometry and mechanical issues. Each category is associated with different preventive measures and freeing techniques. In each category, you will encounter several specific causes that can lead to sticking. The following sections illustrate these causes and group them under the relevant sticking mechanism. A good understanding of the causes and the preventive measures should help to minimize the occurrence of stuck pipe.
3.2.1 Solids-induced packing off Packing off occurs when debris, such as cuttings, cavings or junk, accumulates between the drillstring and the wellbore. Large pieces of debris can easily create bridges and can cause pipe to stick. Pieces of debris that are smaller than the annular space can build up on the low side of the wellbore and make movement of the string difficult. If the right action is not taken, the string can become tightly packed. Historically, packing off is the most common stuck pipe mechanism. Packoffs occur most frequently when tripping and/or backreaming in deviated wells. The most common causes are related to poor hole cleaning.
3.2.1.1 Poor hole cleaning It has been observed that poor hole cleaning is responsible for many stuck pipe incidents. Some statistics show that up to one-third of the stuck pipe events recorded in nondeviated wells are related to poor hole cleaning. In high-angle wells, this figure is up to 80%. Section 5 covers the factors affecting hole cleaning in more detail. Good hole cleaning means removing enough solids from the wellbore to allow unhindered passage of the drillstring and the casing. When low annular velocities, poor mud carrying properties, and/or insufficient rotation (especially in deviated wellbores) are found, the cuttings and cavings are not transported out of the wellbore fast enough and hole cleaning becomes problematic.
Figure 3.2: Poor hole cleaning. In deviated wellbores, cuttings can settle on the low side and form accumulations called cuttings beds. Cuttings beds can form in open and cased holes. The BHA may become stuck if it is pulled into the cuttings bed. Cuttings beds that occupy just 10% of the hole diameter can cause problems. They increase the friction between the drillstring and the wellbore, and cause the hook load to increase. In wells with profiles that include inclinations of between 30 and 60°, cuttings can slide down the annulus and collect or pack around the drillstring. This sliding or avalanching effect is more likely when the pumps are switched off and/or when the drillstring vibration is high enough to destabilize the bed. At inclinations above 60–70°, the beds are usually stable, but tripping can still be difficult. Cuttings beds are easy to create but difficult to clean out. High flow rates, carefully controlled mud rheology, and pipe rotation in directional wells are critical for achieving good hole cleaning. Particular BHA tool shapes and stabilizer profiles can also reduce the risk by maximizing the flow to ease the passage of tools through any cuttings beds during trips, and allow cuttings to pass the tools during circulation.
Occurrence
When flow rate is inadequate (for example, large holes, formation washout, limited pump capacity) and/or the rotation is insufficient (for example, large bent housing, curved sections, sliding) Most common in deviated wells (30–60°) where unstable cuttings beds can be created When well is drilled faster than the hole is cleaned. In this case, the excess volume of solids generated modifies the flow profile of the drilling fluid and reduces its ability to carry solids.
Rig-site warnings
Increasing torque and drag. Usually, a trend to increased drag is a clear indicator while pulling out. Reduced cuttings returns at the shakers, i.e., the volume of cuttings being generated is not seen at the shakers Increasing pump pressure or equivalent circulating density (ECD), as the mud in the annulus contains more solids. Note that in deviated wells, a decrease in ECD can be a sign of poor hole cleaning and solids accumulating on low side of the wellbore (a decrease in the cuttings concentration in the annulus of the lower inclination section of the well). Poor weight transfer to bit when slide drilling in directional wells Reground cuttings Difficulty in orienting the toolface
Preventive measures
Maintain adequate annular velocity (both flow rate and annular clearance contribute to annular velocity). Maximize the drillpipe rotation to optimize cuttings bed agitation in directional wells, even when circulating or pumping sweeps. Ensure that the bottom-up circulation times are adequate before pulling out of hole. Monitor the rate of cuttings return at the shakers. Ensure that low, high, or weighted sweeps are properly used and that their efficiency is monitored. Optimize the drilling mud properties (increase low-end rheology in near-vertical wells). Design the well properly to provide an adequate flow rate. This may require using a larger drillpipe, thinner mud, a lower pressure drop bit or BHA, and/or a third mud pump. Establish an overpull limit before pulling out. Evaluate and monitor the torque and drag trends. Control the ROP, if necessary, to limit the amount of solids concentrating in the mud. Minimize the use of tools with restricted flow paths, i.e., those with a small junk slot area.
3.2.1.2 Unconsolidated formations
Figure 3.3: Unconsolidated formations. Unconsolidated formations are loosely packed rock layers having little or no bonding between the particles. As the well is drilled through such a formation, the formation becomes fragmented. Removing the supporting rock as the well is drilled causes formation collapse. This is very similar to digging a hole in the sand on the beach; the faster you dig, the faster the sand collapses. When drilled with a fluid that cannot build a mudcake, an unconsolidated formation cannot be supported by hydrostatic overbalance because the fluid simply flows into the formation. Sand or gravel then falls into the hole and packs off the drillstring. The effect can be sudden or may be seen as a gradual increase in drag with time. The problem is normally associated while drilling the surface hole sections. At depth, when mudcakes are usually present, unconsolidated sands are stable owing to their internal friction, and can be drilled easily if there is an overbalance. Causes
No bonding between particles in the formation Little or no mudcake present No formation support from the hydrostatic overbalance because the fluid flows into the formation Sand or gravel falling into the hole
Occurrence
While drilling tophole sections While drilling shallower unconsolidated formations
Rig-site warnings
Increasing pump pressure due to increased solids in the drilling mud Increasing torque and drag Overpull on connections Fill on bottom observed while running in hole Shaker blinding leading to mud losses at surface
Preventive measures
The mud must be designed to build a cohesive, low-permeability cake. The pump must provide sufficient flow rate to clean the hole. Avoid shaker, desilter, and desander overloading by controlling drilling to the limitations of the solids control equipment. Avoid unnecessary reaming and backreaming that will destabilize the mudcake. Avoid excessive circulating time with the BHA opposite unconsolidated formations to reduce hydraulic erosion. Check and clean out any hole fill before drilling ahead. Use sweeps (usually highly viscous sweep) to help maintain hole cleanliness. Consider spotting viscous pills to minimize the fill on bottom. Control drill the suspected zone to allow time for the mudcake to build up and to minimize the concentration of solids in the annulus. Minimize annulus loading and the resultant ECDs. Keep the BHA to the minimum length. Trip carefully across troublesome formations to minimize mudcake removal, surging, or swabbing. Start the pumps slowly to avoid a pressure surge being applied to the unconsolidated formation.
3.2.1.3 Reactive shales
Figure 3.4: Reactive shales. Issues arise when water-sensitive shales or clays are drilled with a less inhibited drilling mud than required, which causes the rock to swell or weaken. As a result, chunks of shale break off and fall into the borehole, thereby restricting the annular space. The amount of swelling varies from that of highly reactive gumbo (fast absorption rate) to that of shales that absorb water very slowly. The swelling process can occur in hours or over several days. Occurrence
Occurs more frequently with water-base mud (WBM) than with oil-base mud (OBM) The reaction is time dependent, and is determined by the mud and formation interaction Often happens while tripping Can happen while drilling Generally occurs while the BHA is passing the reactive formation
Hydrated or mushy cavings Shaker screens blind off and clay balls form Increase in low-gravity solids (LGS), mudcake thickness, plastic viscosity (PV), yield point (YP) and methyl blue test (MBT) Increasing pump pressure Restricted or impossible circulation Increasing torque and drag
Preventive measures
Use an inhibited mud system such as salt or polymer mud. If the effect is severe, use OBM. Drill and case off reactive formations as quickly as possible. Perform wiper trips to gauge the hole (the frequency of wiper trips should be based on the exposure time and warning signs). Keep the mud properties on specification. Monitor the mud properties (MBT, PV, YP).
3.2.1.4 Naturally overpressured shale
Figure 3.6: Naturally overpressured shale. A naturally overpressured shale is one with a pore pressure greater than the normal hydrostatic pressure gradient. This situation is caused by geological conditions such as undercompaction, naturally removed overburden, for example, by weathering, or tectonic uplift. Using insufficient mud weight in these naturally overpressured formations will cause the hole to become unstable and collapse. Fractured shales and cavings will then fall into the wellbore and may lead to packing off.
Multimedia 3.3: Abnormal pressure. Occurrence
Drilling through a formation with abnormal pressure Removal of ECD Most likely while tripping out because swabbing can contribute to hole instability by reducing the wellbore hydrostatic pressure When using an inappropriate mud weight
Rig-site warnings
The appearance of splintery cavings at the shakers Increasing torque and drag Increased gas levels Restricted or impossible circulation once pipe is stuck Hole fill after trips An increase in ROP due to underbalanced conditions Changes in sonic or resistivity measurement trends if LWD tools are used
Preventive measures
Monitor shale shakers for cuttings and cavings. Use sufficient mud weight to control the pore pressure. Use pore pressure analysis and confirm the results with gas readings. Plan to minimize the hole exposure time. Do not reduce the mud weight once the shale has been exposed. Employ wellsite monitoring techniques or services such as LWD and/or mud logging.
3.2.1.5 Induced overpressured shale
Figure 3.7: Induced overpressured shale. Induced overpressured shales develop when a shale formation assumes the hydrostatic pressure of the wellbore fluids. This usually happens after several days of exposure to that pressure. The shale will have now a higher internal pressure. If the hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore is subsequently reduced, the shale will collpase. The collapse process is similar to that found in naturally overpressured shales (see Section 3.2.1.4). Occurrence
After a reduction in mud weight or a long exposure with a constant mud weight Most likely to occur with WBM but can happen with OBM While drilling or tripping In the casing rathole when the mud weight has to be decreased after drilling out the shoe
Rig-site warnings
Splintery cavings at shakers Cuttings or cavings that show no sign of hydration Increasing torque and drag
Restricted or impossible circulation once pipe is stuck Hole fill after trips Tight hole in casing rathole
Preventive measures
Control the ECD properly to minimize the induction of overpressure in sensitive formations. Use the appropriate mud weight. If cavings are observed, apply good hole cleaning practices, such as pumping combined high viscous–weighted sweeps, and controlling ROP. Minimize the casing rathole length.
3.2.1.6 Overburden stress
Figure 3.8: Overburden stress. The overburden (weight of the overlying formation) or vertical stress is usually the maximum stress in a formation. When a well is vertical, the overburden stress will apply equally around the wellbore. But as the wellbore angle increases, the overburden stress applies directly on the wellbore wall. If the mud weight is not adjusted, this will lead to wellbore collapse. Cavings will fall into the wellbore and result in stuck pipe. Occurrence
In deviated wellbores While drilling or tripping
Rig-site warnings
Packoffs and bridges may occur Angular cavings at the shakers Increasing torque and drag Restricted or impossible circulation Increasing volume of returns at the shakers relative to the volume of hole drilled
Preventive measures
Use offset data and mechanical earth models (MEM) to establish the optimum inclination and azimuth. Maintain the mud weight and ECD within the planned mud weight window. Plan to case off these formations as quickly as possible. If possible, drill these formations with smaller hole sizes. Maintain hole cleanliness and be prepared for increased amounts of cuttings and cavings.
3 Stuck pipe mechanisms
3.2 Stuck pipe mechanisms: Causes, occurrence, and prevention 3.2.1 Solids-induced packing off 3.2.1.7 Stressed formations
Figure 3.9: Stressed formations. All formations are stressed to some extent. In tectonically stressed areas, the rock is compressed or stretched owing the movement of the Earth’s crust, as shown in Figure 3.10. When a hole is drilled in a formation, the stress is redistributed around the wellbore wall and concentrated at specific points. If the hydrostatic pressure is reduced, the formation can shear at these points and produce angular cavings. The hydrostatic pressure required to stabilize the wellbore may be much higher than the fracture pressure of the other exposed formations.
Figure 3.10: Geological sources of rock stress. Note that the overburden stress is only maximum in Case A. Occurrence
Common in mountainous locations While drilling or tripping
Rig-site warnings
Packoffs and bridges may occur Angular cavings at the shakers Increasing torque and drag Restricted or impossible circulation when stuck Increasing volume of returns at the shakers relative to the volume of hole drilled
Preventive measures
Use offset data to establish the optimum inclination and azimuth for the well. Maintain mud weight and ECD within the planned mud weight window. Plan to case off these stressed formations as quickly as possible. Keep the hole clean and be prepared for increased cuttings and cavings. Consider pumping high-viscosity weighted sweeps to carry the cavings.
3.2.1.8 Faulted and fractured formations
Figure 3.11: Faulted and fractured formations. Natural fracture systems in rock can often be found near faults. These are common geological features that can affect all kinds of rocks, at all depths. The rock in fault and fracture zones may be broken before a well is drilled into small or large pieces that, if loose, can fall into the hole and jam the drillstring. In fractured shales, the fractures usually remain stable providing the minimum stress acting on the fractures is not exceeded. If it is exceeded, fluid begins to infiltrate the rock mass and loosen the blocks, thus releasing them into the wellbore. The symptoms are similar to those experienced when the rock shears because of low mud weight. However, increasing the mud weight in this situation will make the problem worse, as more mud infiltrates the rock mass. In addition, impacts from the BHA due to drillstring vibrations can cause the formation to fall into the wellbore. This sticking mechanism is unusual in that it may occur during drilling. Experience shows that the first sign of this stuck pipe mechanism while drilling is the string torquing up and sticking.
Figure 3.12: Field example of a fractured formation. Occurrence
In tectonically active zones Fractured limestone Highly dipping formations As the formation is drilled During trips
Rig-site warnings
Hole fill on connections Possible losses Fault-damaged cavings at shakers Blocky cavings (cavings with parallel faces) Instantaneous sticking
Preventive measures
Plan the well properly to minimize the exposure time. Design the well and use drilling practices to minimize fluctuations in the annular pressure. This may require thin mud, a slim drillpipe, or a bigger casing or hole in extreme or difficult situations. Keep the annular space as clean as possible and avoid overloading. Monitor the ECDs while drilling to avoid inducing losses (losses are often difficult to detect). Limit the rotary and tripping speeds across fractured formations. Wash and ream when running in and clean out the hole before drilling ahead. If coal is present, reduce the ROP and control drill the coal section. Drill the coal in “small bites”, and pick up and circulate out every 10–20 ft.