Unit II RELATION BETWEEN CULTURE AND SOCIETY The word " culture " originated from the Latin word " colere " , which means " to cultivate " (Doshi and Jain : 2001)!n social anthroolog# the word " culture " means " $nowledge " , that is, $nowledge a%out those asects of humanit# which are not natural, %ut which are related to that " which is ac&uired " The common theme in all the definitions rovided is that culture is ac&uired through learning within a societ# societ# The anthroologists dealt with so far see culture as all'em%racing including societ# societ# culture and societ# are co'eistence ociet# is the com%ination of eole with different cultures !n the other hand, *ulture deal with the %ehaviours,language,occ %ehaviours,language,occuation,dressing,eat uation,dressing,eating ing and festival of a articular eole within a geograhical area societ# is " a relativel# large and relativel# autonomous collection of eole who have a common heritage that is transmitted from generation to generation and who interact with one another in sociall# structured relationshis "attach similar meanings to things and events +nd this shared voca%ular# of meanings forms one of the maor %ases for a societ# - s cohesion There is a dee set relation %etween culture and societ# societ# Different eole follow different culture %ut societ# rovides sace for them all *ulture is li$e sices of the societ# that ma$es societ# more charming and intresting .hen eole of different sect and culture congregate the# ma$e societ# Their individual culture hels them living with amenit# and fellowshi The eole in a societ# have a common heritage that is transmitted from generation to generation This common heritage is the culture and includes all the values, customs, %eliefs and artifacts of a societ# as earlier ointed out in T#lor T#lor - s definition of culture /ecause the eole in a societ# share the same material and nonmaterial culture, the# !t is imortant to clarif# that a societ# is a grou of eole held together %# common traditions, customs, and wa#s of life, or a common culture, and in which there eists among the mem%ers constituting it an awareness of %elonging to it here can %e no societ# without individuals The converse "no societ# without culture'holds for man: no cultureless human societ# is $nown The uni&ueness of the relationshi %etween the concets of culture and societ# could %e summaried as follows: that although the two concets are seemingl# inetrica%l# tied u li$e a $not, the $not could %e disentangled and la# %are the concets as two searate and distinct terms +nthroologists +nthroologists and sociologists have managed to achieve this fact with finesse or anthroologists, culture is the ultimate realit# and societ# is the vehicle of culture 3 a necessar# %ut not sufficient condition of culture *onversel#, sociologists contend that societ# is the ultimate realit# which renders intelligi%le the nature of humans and of social institutions %# which the# are governed +ctuall#, sociologists sociologists consider societ# as the creator of culture whereas anthroologists thin$ that it is culture which $ees the organiation of societ# going going Unit III Social conflict *onflict is an etreme form of %ehavior !n social social conflict , there are no rules of the game which are found in cooeration or cometition each art# see$s to win at an# cost The old adage that ever#thing is fair in love and war connotes this 4o%ert 5ar$ has held that while cometition ma# ta$e lace without social interaction %etween arties (for eamle nation wide eamination), conflicts entails social interaction %etween contending arties, and eist more on ersonal level 6ven where grou conflict is there, the interaction %etween arties oosing grous is ersonalied ocial conflict ma# have ositive ositive functions or eamle, when a nation is threatened %# an enem#, its citien citien stand united to drive out the aggressor ocial conflict can %e either 78 ero sum game8 or 7non ero sum game8 !n the former t#e , there are no limits which can %e imosed on a art# !n the latter t#e, there are certain limits which can
%e imosed on art# or instances, when a trade union is in confrontation with the management, it ma# withdraw some of its demand ocial conflict often act as a sur to social change +ccording to the 9arist theor# of social change, no fundamental change can %e %rought a%out in societ#, without conflict or revolution .hen there is an eloitation of one grou %# another, a social conflict develos at some oint of time and leads to class struggle !n a communist societ# in which eloitation is a%sent, social conflict will also %e a%sent !n such an eventual societ#, there will %e neither class nor state nor ine&ualit# Social control ocial control refers to the arrangement %# which the values and norms are communicated and instilled The agencies of social control are %oth informal and formal and include customs, fol$wa#s, mores, u%lic oinion , education, law, religion, morals etc The o%ective of social control is to realie the social e&uili%rium which is vital for the continuation of social structure !n reliterate societies the customs, ta%oos, etc ,control the divergence !n larger societies social control see$s to ensure conformit# of individuals and grous with societ# %# adating elicit and o%ective methods ol$wa#s and mores la# an vital role in enforcing social control !n man# reliterate societies The suernatural elements instil fear of rerisal in the minds of deviant individuals !n comle societies religion and morals, notion of 7guilts8 or 7sins8, have %een owerful instrument of conformit# !n the east , on the %road level, the notion of conformit# to the cosmic order etc have all guided the %ehavior of individual and grous UNIT IV BUREACRACY “Bureaucracy is te i!est for" of rationality#$ E%&lain + 'ureaucracy is an organiation of non'elected officials of a governmental or organiation who imlement the rules, laws, and functions of their institution, and are occasionall# characteried %# officialism and red tae %ureaucrac# is derived from two words 7%ureau8 meaning 7office8 and 7crac#8 meaning 7rule of8 , hence %ureaccrac# means 7rule of the office8 ffice is nothing %ut center of the rule %ecause it is attached with some function and dut# to erform%ureaccrac# ! an organiation with some' 1) 2) <)
fied rule(official ;rule) rocedure tas$s
caracteristic of 'ureaucracy 1)hierarch#: official are given ran$ according to the dut# assigned to them 2)fied rules and regulation: fied rules and regulation are there for officials and if the# cant o%e#, then the# are corrut <)searation;ersonal: officials have searate u%lic and rivate life =)aointment: in %ureaucrac# aointments are alwa#s from a%ove ne erson in not assigned ost %ecause of his ascri%ed status 6ver#one is given e&ual oortunit# ortunit# is on the %asis of rational osition >)fied tenure: aointments are for fied eriod of time Dut# or aim of %ureaucrac# is to esta%lish culture and function of ar%itration
4ationalit# means an#thing %ased on reason, cause and not on emotions, fairla#, ust +nd %ureaucrac# is the s#stem %ased uon rules and regulation Duties arenot imosed on the %asis of ersonal choice or wil %ut are on the %asis of rules .e%er said that all new large'scale organiations were similar 6ach was a %ureaucrac# Toda# man# of us regard bureaucracy as a dirt# word, suggesting red tae, inefficienc#, and officiousness +s we shall see, %ureaucracies can develo these features, eseciall# if authorit# is highl# centralied .e%er-s urose, however, was to define the essential features of new organiations and to indicate wh# these organiations wor$ed so much %etter than traditional ones
Wat "a(es 'urecracy rational) (1) functional secialiation (2) clear lines of hierarchical authorit#, (<) eert training of managers, and (=) decision ma$ing %ased on rules and tactics develoed to guarantee consistent and effective ursuit of organiational goals To ensure eert management, aointment and romotion are %ased on merit rather than favoritism, and those aointed treat their ositions as full'time, rimar# careersTo ensure order in decision ma$ing, %usiness is conducted rimaril# through written rules records, and communications !n %ureaucrac# there is clear "levels of graded authorit#" hierarchical authorit# is re&uired in %ureaucracies so that highl# trained eerts can he roerl# used as managers 4ational %ureaucracies can %e oerated, onl# %# delo#ing managers at all levels who have %een selected and trained for their secific o%s , .e%er stressed that rational %ureaucracies must %e managed in accordance with carefull# develoed rules and rinciles that can %e learned and alied and that transactions and decisions must %e recorded so that rules can he reviewed nl# with such rules and rinciles can the activities of hundreds of managers at different levels in the organiation %e redicted and coordinated !f we cannot redict what others will do, then we cannot count on them Unit V Social stratification in sociolog# the social stratification is a concet of class, involving the "classification of ersons into grous %ased on shared socio'economic conditions a relational set of ine&ualities with economic, social, olitical and ideological dimensions" !n modern .estern ocities, stratification is %roadl# organied into three main la#ers: uer class, middle class, and lower class 6ach class ma# %e further su%divided into smaller classes (eg occuational) These categories are articular to state'%ased societies as distinguished from, for instance, feudal societies comosed of no%ilit#'to' easant relations tratification ma# also %e defined %# $inshi ties or castes or 9awe%er, social class ertaining %roadl# to material wealth is distinguished from status class which is %ased on such varia%les as honor, restige and religious affiliation Talcott 5arsons argued that the forces of societal differentiation and the following attern of institutionalied individualiation would strongl# diminish the role of class (as a maor stratification factor) as social evolution went along !t is de%ata%le whether the earliest hunter'gatherer grous ma# %e defined as -stratified-, or if such differentials %egan with agriculture and %road acts of echange %etween grous ne of the ongoing issues in determining social stratification arises from the oint that status ine&ualities %etween individuals are common, so it %ecomes a &uantitative issue to determine how much ine&ualit# &ualifies as stratification caracteristics of stratifie* syste"s
1 The ran$ings al# to social categories of eole who share a common characteristic without necessaril# interacting or identif#ing with each other The rocess of %eing ran$ed can %e changed %# the erson %eing ran$ed ?1=@ •
6amle: The wa# we ran$ eole differentl# %# race, gender, and social class
2 5eole-s life eeriences and oortunities deend on their social categor# This characteristic can %e changed %# the amount of wor$ a erson can ut into their interests ?1=@ •
6amle: The greater advantage had %# the son or daughter of a $ing to have a successful life than the son or daughter of a minimum'wage factor# wor$er, %ecause the $ing has a greater amount of resources than the factor# wor$er A The use of resources can influence others
< The ran$s of different social categories change slowl# over time This has occurred fre&uentl# in the Bnited tates ever since the +merican revolution The B constitution has %een altered several times to secif# rights for ever#one
+ar%ist ,ie!n 9arist theor#, the caitalist mode of roduction consists of two main economic arts: the su%structure and the uerstructure The %ase comrehends the relations of roduction A emlo#er'emlo#ee wor$ conditions, the technical division of la%or, and roert# relations A into which eole enter to roduce the necessities and amenities of life !n the caitalist s#stem, the ruling classes own the means of roduction, which essentiall# includes the wor$ing class itself as the# onl# have their own la%our ower(7wage la%our8) to offer in order to survive These relations fundamentall# determine the ideas and hilosohies of a societ#, constituting the suerstructure + temorar# status &uo is achieved %# various methods of social control emlo#ed, consciousl# or unconsciousl#, %# the %ourgeoisie in the course of various asects of social life Through the ideolog# of the ruling class, false consciousness is romoted %oth through ostensi%l# olitical and non'olitical institutions, %ut also through the arts and other elements of culture 9ar %elieved the caitalist mode would eventuall# give wa#, through its own internal conflict, to revolutionar# consciousness and the develoment of egalitarian communist societ# +ccording to 9arvin Carris and Tim !ngold, Lewis Cenr# 9organ8s accounts of egalitarian hunter'gatherers formed art of arl 9ar and 6ngels8 insiration for communism 9organ so$e of a situation in which eole living in the same communit# ooled their efforts and shared the rewards of those efforts fairl# e&uall# Ce called this "communism in living" /ut when 9ar eanded on these ideas, he still emhasied an economicall# oriented culture, with roert# defining the fundamental relationshis %etween eole Eet, issues of owenershi and roert# are argua%l# less emhasied in hunter'gatherer societies This, com%ined with the ver# different social and economic situations of hunter'gatherers ma# account for man# of the difficulties encountered when imlementing communism in industrialied states +s !ngold oints out: "The notion of communism, removed from the contet of domesticit# and harnessed to suort a roect of social engineering for large'scale, industrialied states with oulations of millions, eventuall# came to mean something &uite different from what 9organ had intended: namel#, a rincile of redistri%ution that would override all ties of a ersonal or familial nature, and cancel out their effects"
