Redes de Computadoras
1
¿Qué es una Red de Computadores? Las redes (networks) son conjuntos de computadores que se conectan para compartir recursos. Estos recursos pueden ser dispositivos, tales como impresoras, o pueden ser datos tales como documentos creados con un procesador de palabras. La red de computadores computadores más importante es la Internet. Redes de Computadores ¿Qué es Internet? La Internet se compone de una gran cantidad de redes de computadoras grandes y pequeñas interconectadas. interconectadas. El término Internet significal sig nifical Interconnected Networks. Entre los servicios que provee el Internet se encuentran: El World Wide Web: conjuntos de documentos multimedios enlazados por vínculos (links) Correo Electrónico (E-mail) Transferencia de Archivos -
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Tarjeta de Interfaz de Red Una tarjeta de interfaz de red (Network Interface Card o NIC) permite conectar una PC a una red local. Los NIC también se conocen como adaptadores LAN y puede ser tarjetas insertadas en una ranura de expansión o una tarjeta integrada a la tarjeta madre. En los computadores portátiles, está comunmente integrado en los sistemas o está disponible como una pequeña tarjeta PCMCIA (tarjeta PC), del tamaño de una tarjeta de crédito. La NIC se comunica con la red a través de una conexión serial y con el computador a través de una conexión paralela. La NIC utiliza una petición de interrupción (IRQ, Interrupt Request ) para enviarle al CPU señales acerca de su operación. Al seleccionar una NIC, hay que tener en cuenta los siguientes factores: Protocolos: Ethernet Ethernet (más común), Token Ring o FDDI F DDI Tipos de medios: Cable de par trenzado, cable coaxial, inalámbrico o fibra óptica Tipo de bus de sistema: PCI (mucho más común) o ISA -
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Redes de Computadoras
2
Terminología de Redes Redes de Datos Originalmente, las empresas compartían datos y recursos usando computadores mainframe y terminales. Los microcomputadores microcomputadores (PC) surgieron a fines de la década década de los 1970 como una alternativa mucho más económica que los mainframes, Sin embargo em bargo los PC no estaban conectados entre sí como sí lo estaban las terminales de computadores mainframe, por lo cual no había una manera eficaz de compartir datos entre varios computadores. •
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Las redes de datos se desarrollaron como consecuencia de aplicaciones comerciales diseñadas para microcomputadores. Se tornó evidente que el uso de disquetes para compartir datos no era un método eficaz ni económico para desarrollar la actividad empresarial.
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Un gran problema era compartir las modificaciones a los archivos de datos.
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A principios de la década de 1980 el concepto de redes de datos se expandió enormemente, aun cuando en sus inicios su desarrollo fue desorganizado.
Historia de las Redes En la década de 1950 los computadores mainframe, que funcionaban con programas en tarjetas perforadas, comenzaron a ser utilizados habitualmente por las grandes instituciones. •
En la década década de 1960, los mainframes con terminales terminales eran comunes. En el modelo de mainframes con terminales, los mainframes llevan a cabo todo el procesamiento de datos y los terminales no son más que monitores y teclados (Input/Output). Historia de las Redes •
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Hacia fines de la década de 1960 y durante la década de 1970, se inventaron computadores computadores más pequeños, denominados minicomputadores.
En 1977, la Apple Computer Company presentó el microcomputador, microcomputador, conocido también como computador personal. En 1981 IBM presentó su primer computador personal. Historia de las Redes A mediados de la década de 1980 los usuarios con computadores autónomos comenzaron a usar módems para conectarse con otros computadores y compartir archivos. Estas comunicaciones se denominaban comunicaciones punto-a-punto (point-to-point ) o de acceso telefónico. •
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Redes de Computadoras
3
Historia de las Redes •
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Los usuarios se conectaban a los BBS, donde depositaban y levantaban mensajes, además de cargar y descargar archivos. Una limitación importante de los BBS era la necesidad de un módem por cada conexión al computador del tablero de boletín. Si cinco personas se conectaban simultáneamente, hacían falta cinco módems conectados conectados a cinco líneas telefónicas diferentes. Paralelamente al desarrollo de los computadores mainframe en el ámbito empresarial y de los BBS en las comunicaciones entre usuarios de PC, el Departamento de la Defensa desarrolló WANs de gran extensión y alta confiabilidad, para uso militar y científico. Esta tecnología era diferente de la comunicación punto-a-punto usada por los tableros de boletín ya que permitía la interconexión de varios computadores mediante diferentes rutas. La red del DoD fue desarrollada por la ARPA ( Advanced Research Projects Agency) y se llamaba originalmente ARPAnet. El propósito de ARPANet era mantener conectividad entre los diferentes computadores aún en caso de un ataque nuclear. ARPAnet finalmente se convirtió en la Internet cuando se permitió su uso comercial además de militar y científico.
Dispositivos de Redes •
Los equipos que se conectan de forma directa a un segmento de red se denominan dispositivos (devices): -Dispositivos de usuario final (end-user devices) - incluyen los computadores, impresoras, escáneres, y demás dispositivos que brindan servicios directamente al usuario. -Dispositivos de red (networking devices) - todos aquellos que conectan entre sí a los dispositivos de usuario final, posibilitando su intercomunicación. intercomunicación.
Dispositivos de Redes •
Los dispositivos de usuario final que conectan a los usuarios con la red también se conocen con el nombre de hosts y permiten a los usuarios compartir, crear y obtener información.
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Los hosts están físicamente conectados con los medios de red mediante una tarjeta de interfaz de red (NIC).
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Los NICs también se conocen como adaptadores de red.
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Redes de Computadoras
4
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Otro nombre para la dirección MAC es dirección física.
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Los dispositivos de red son los que transportan los datos que deben transferirse entre dispositivos de usuario final.
Algunos ejemplos de dispositivos que ejecutan estas funciones son los repetidores (repeaters), concentradores (hubs), puentes (bridges), conmutadores (switches) y enrutadores (routers). Dispositivos de Redes Dispositivos de Redes •
Un repetidor Es un dispositivo de red que se utiliza para regenerar una señal.
Hubs concentran las conexiones. En otras palabras, permiten que la red trate un grupo de hosts como si fuera una sola unidad. Los hubs activos regeneran señales además de concentrar concentrar conexiones.
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Redes de Computadoras
5
(Ethernet y Token Ring, por ejemplo.
Switches son capaces de determinar si los datos deben permanecer o no en un segmento y pueden transferir los datos únicamente a la conexión que necesita esos datos. Los switches pueden conectar varios segmentos de un LAN.
Routers pueden regenerar señales, concentrar múltiples conexiones, convertir formatos de transmisión de datos, y manejar transferencias de datos. Los routers también pueden conectarse a una WAN, lo que les permite conectar LANs que se encuentran separadas por grandes distancias distancias y determinar la mej or ruta para llevar datos de un sitio a otro. Topologías de Redes •
La topología de red define la estructura de una red.
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La topología física indica la disposición real de los cables o medios.
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Por otro lado, la topología lógica define la forma en que los hosts acceden a los medios para enviar datos.
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Las topologías físicas más comúnmente usadas son las siguientes: -La topología de bus usa un solo cable como backbone y todos los hosts se conectan directamente a este backbone. backbone. -La topología de anillo conecta un host con el siguiente y al último host con el primero. -La topología en estrella conecta todos los cables con un punto central de concentración concentración (un hub o un switch).
Topologías de Redes
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Redes de Computadoras
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Topologías físicas (cont.): -La topología en estrella extendida conecta conecta estrellas individuales entre sí mediante la conexión de hubs o switches. -La topología jerárquica es similar a una estrella extendida. Pero en lugar de c onectar los hubs o switches entre sí, el sistema se conecta con un computador que controla el tráfico de la topología. -En la topología de malla (mesh) cada host tiene sus propias conexiones con los demás hosts.
Topologías de Redes •
La topología lógica de una red es la forma en que los hosts se comunican a través del medio. Los dos tipos más comunes comunes son: -La topología de broadcast : cada host envía sus datos hacia todos los demás hosts del medio de red en cualquier momento. (Ethernet) -La topología de transmisión de tokens controla el acceso a la red mediante la transmisión de un permiso electrónico a cada host de forma secuencial. Sólo cuando un host recibe el token es que que puede enviar datos a través de la red. (Token Ring y FDDI)
Protocolos de Red Protocolo Es una descripción formal de un conjunto de reglas y convenciones que rigen un aspecto particular de cómo los dispositivos de una red se c omunican entre sí.
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Los protocolos determinan el formato, la sincronización, la secuenciación y el control de errores en la comunicación de datos.
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Los protocolos controlan todos los aspectos de la comunicación de datos: -Cómo se construye la red física -Cómo los computadores se conectan a la red -Qué formato tienen los datos para su transmisión -Cómo se envían los datos -Cómo se manejan los errores er rores
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Redes de Computadoras
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Las redes de área local (LAN) permiten a las empresas aplicar tecnología informática para compartir localmente archivos y dispositivos tales como impresoras de manera eficiente, y posibilitar las comunicaciones comunicaciones internas. Algunas de las tecnologías comunes de LAN son: -Ethernet (la más común) -Token Ring -FDDI
Redes de Area Amplia (MAN) •
Las redes de área amplia (WAN) interconectan las LANs dentro de un área geográfica extensa.
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Este tipo de red ha dado lugar a una nueva clase de trabajadores, los empleados a distancia (telecommuters), que no tienen que salir de sus hogares para ir a trabajar.
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Algunas de las tecnologías comunes de WAN son: Modems Routers DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) Líneas T1, T3 (Estados Unidos), E1, E3 (Europa) Frame Relay, SONET -
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Redes de Area Amplia Redes de Area Metropolitana Una red de área metropolitana (MAN) es una red que abarca una ciudad o una zona suburbana. suburbana. Por ejemplo, un banco con varias sucursales puede puede utilizar una MAN. •
Las tecnologías usadas incluyen: -Líneas privadas de comunicación
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Redes de Computadoras
8
Redes de Area de Almacenamiento Una red SAN (Storage Area Network) es una red dedicada, de alto rendimiento, que se utiliza para trasladar datos entre servidores y recursos de almacenamiento. Las SAN poseen las siguientes características: Rendimiento: Las SAN permiten el acceso concurrente de matrices de disco o cinta por dos o más servidores Disponibilidad: Las SAN tienen una tolerancia incorporada a los desastres, ya que se •
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Redes de Computadoras
9
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de red pública compartida, como la Internet.
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Las VPN conservan las mismas políticas de seguridad y administración que una red privada.
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Son la forma más económica de establecer una conexión punto-a-punto entre usuarios remotos y la red de un cliente clie nte de la empresa.
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Los tres principales tipos de VPN son: VPN de acceso: acceso: brindan acceso remoto a un trabajador móvil y una oficina pequeña/oficina hogareña (SOHO), a la sede de la red interna o externa, mediante una infraestructura compartida. Redes internas VPN: conectan a las oficinas regionales y remotas a la sede de la red interna mediante una infraestructura compartida, utilizando conexiones dedicadas. Redes externas VPN: conectan a socios comerciales a la sede de la red mediante una infraestructura compartida, utilizando conexiones dedicadas. -
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Intranets y Extranets
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Redes de Computadoras
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El ancho de banda ( badwidth) se define como la cantidad de información que puede fluir a través de una conexión de red en un período dado. El concepto de ancho de banda es análogo al diámetro de un tubo de agua y a la cantidad de carriles en una autopista.
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Más que una medida de velocidad es una medida de capacidad de transporte de información.
¿Por qué es importante el ancho de banda? -El ancho de banda es finito. El ancho de banda está limitado por las leyes de la física y por las tecnologías empleadas para colocar la información en los medios. -El ancho de banda no es gratuito. Para aumentar el ancho de banda hay que invertir dinero en mejorar la tecnología de comunicación de datos en una red. -El ancho de banda es fundamental para el desempeño de de la red. A mayor ancho ancho de banda, mejor desempeño de la red. -Los requisitos de ancho de banda aumentan a gran velocidad. Dos usos del Internet requieren gran ancho de banda: vídeos y sonidos fluidos (streaming ), y telefonía IP (voice over IP).
El Ancho de Banda •
En los sistemas digitales, la unidad básica del ancho de banda es bits por segundo (bps). (bps) .
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Redes de Computadoras
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El Ancho de Banda A pesar de que las expresiones ancho de banda y velocidad a menudo se usan en forma indistinta, no significan exactamente lo mismo. Se puede decir, por ejemplo, que una conexión T3 a 45Mbps opera a una velocidad mayor que una conexión T1 a 1.544Mbps. No obstante, si sólo se utiliza una cantidad pequeña de su capacidad para transportar datos, cada uno de estos tipos de conexión transportará datos a aproximadamente la •
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•
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Redes de Computadoras
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A continuación se detallan algunos de los factores que determinan la tasa de transferencia: -Dispositivos de internetworking -Tipo de datos que se transfieren -Topología de la red -Cantidad de usuarios en la red -Computador -Computador del usuario -Computador -Computador servidor -Estado de la alimentación (en términos de voltaje) La Tasa de Transferencia •
Las siguientes fórmulas muestran cómo calcular la tasa de transferencia ideal y la real al descargar (download) un archivo:
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Redes de Computadoras
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Capas y Procesos de Flujo de Datos •
En cualquier proceso de flujo, desde el flujo de autos en una autopista hasta el flujo de datos entre computadores, se deben responder las siguientes preguntas: ¿Qué fluye? ¿De qué forma los objetos fluyen? ¿Qué reglas rigen el flujo? ¿Dónde se produce el flujo? -
Capas y Procesos de Flujo de Datos •
Los procesos de flujos se pueden usar para explicar cómo una red informática distribuye la información desde el origen al destino.
Generalmente, la información que se desplaza por una red recibe el nombre de paquetes de datos. Capas y Procesos de Flujo de Datos Cuando los computadores intercambian datos, el flujo desde el origen hasta el destino puede ser un proceso complejo ya que se deben tomar en consideración aspectos tales como: Cómo se representan las señales en el medio físico (cable) Cómo se mueven los datos dentro de una red Cómo transitan los datos de una red a otra
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Redes de Computadoras
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El Modelo de Referencia OSI En sus inicios, el desarrollo de redes sucedió con desorden en muchos sentidos. Había muchas empresas que desarrollaban tecnologías propietarias (propiedad de la empresa desarrolladora). Las tecnologías de networking que respetaban reglas propietarias en forma estricta no podían comunicarse con tecnologías que usaban reglas propietarias diferentes. Para enfrentar el problema de incompatibilidad i ncompatibilidad de redes, la Organización Internacional de Normalización (ISO – International Standards Organization) desarrolló un modelo de red que ayudara a los fabricantes a crear redes que fueran compatibles con otras redes. El modelo de referencia de Interconexión de Sistemas Abiertos (OSI – Open System Interconection) proporcionó a los fabricantes un conjunto de e stándares. Estos estándares aseguraron una mayor compatibilidad e interoperabilidad entre los distintos tipos de tecnología de red producidos por las empresas a nivel mundial. Ventajas del Modelo de Referencia OSI son: Reduce la complejidad de la comunicación de datos ya que se divide en capas. Estandariza Estandariza cómo se comunica cada capas con sus capas vecinas (las interfaces entre capas). Facilita el diseño modular (dispositivos y protocolos son diseñados para capas específicas). Asegura la interoperabilidad de la tecnología (diferentes fabricantes siguen los -
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Redes de Computadoras
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Las capas del modelo OSI son: Física (Physical) Enlace de Datos (Data Link) Red (Network) Transporte (Transport)
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Comunicación Comunicación de Par-a-Par •
Protocol Data Units) recien diferentes nombres de acuerdo a la capa en que se Las PDU (Protocol encuentran:
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La capa de Acceso a la R ed guarda relación con todos los componentes, tanto físicos como lógicos, necesarios para lograr un enlace físico. Corresponde Corresponde a las Capas 1 (Física) y 2 (Enlace de Datos) del modelo mo delo OSI.
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•
El cable Thicknet o red gruesa se usaba como cable de backbone de Ethernet ya que tiene mejores características de longitud de transmisión y de limitación del ruido. Sin embargo, su instalación es muy costosa por su diámetro y su r igidez.
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de medios para networking. -La distancia que puede abarcar la señal sin el uso de repetidores es menor para UTP que para los cables coaxiales y de fibra óptica.
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Redes de Computadoras
62
•
Por ejemplo, en la red, 176.10.0.0 1 76.10.0.0
•
Los últimos 16 bits componen el campo del host o la parte de la dirección del host.
•
El broadcast que se envía a todos los dispositios de la red incluye una dirección destino de 176.10.255.255.
•
Esto se produce porque 255 es el valor decimal de un octeto que contiene 11111111.
Direcciones IP públicas y privadas Es necesario que cada dispositivo de la red tenga una dirección exclusiva. Hizo falta un procedimiento para asegurar que las direcciones fueran, de hecho, exclusivas. En un principio, el Centro de información de la red Internet (InterNIC) manejaba este procedimiento y ha sido remplazado por la Agencia de asignación de números de Internet (IANA). IANA administra, cuidadosamente, cuidadosamente, la provisión restante de las direcciones IP para garantizar que no se genere una repetición de direcciones utilizadas de forma pública. La repetición suele causar inestabilidad en la Internet y compromete su capacidad para entregar datagramas a las redes.
Direcciones IP públicas y privadas •
Las direcciones direcciones IP públicas son exclusivas. exclusivas. Dos máquinas máquinas que se conectan a una red red pública nunca pueden tener la misma dirección IP porque las direcciones IP públicas son globales y están estandarizadas. estandarizadas. Todas las máquinas que se conectan conectan a la Internet acuerdan adaptarse al sistema. Hay que obtener las direcciones IP públicas de un proveedor de servicios de Internet (ISP) o un registro, a un costo. Con el rápido crecimiento de Internet, las direcciones direcciones IP públicas comenzaron a escasear. Se desarrollaron nuevos esquemas de direccionamiento, tales como el enrutamiento entre dominios sin clase (CIDR) y el IPv6, I Pv6, para ayudar a resolver este problema. CIDR y IPv6 se tratan más adelante.
Direcciones IP privadas Las direcciones direcciones IP p rivadas son otra solución al problema del inminente agotamiento de las d irecciones irecciones IP públicas. Las redes públicas requieren que los hosts tengan direcciones IP únicas. Sin embargo, las redes privadas que no están conectadas a la Internet pueden utilizar cualquier dirección de host, siempre que cada host dentro de la red privada sea exclusivo. exclusivo. Existen muchas redes redes privadas junto con las redes públicas. Sin embargo, no es recomendable recomendable que una red privada utilice una dirección dirección cualquiera debido a que, con el tiempo, dicha red podría conectarse a Internet.
El RFC 1918 asigna tres bloques de de la dirección IP para uso uso interno y privado. Estos tres bloques consisten en direcciones direcciones Clase A, Clase B y Clase C especiales. especiales. Las direcciones direcciones que se encuentran en estos rangos no se enrutan hacia el backbone de la Internet.
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Redes de Computadoras
63
Direcciones IP privadas Los Routers de Internet descartan inmediatamente las direcciones privadas. Si se produce un direccionamiento hacia una intranet que no es pública, un laboratorio de prueba o una red doméstica, es posible utilizar las direcciones privadas en lugar de direcciones exclusivas a nivel global. global. Las direcciones direcciones IP privadas pueden pueden entremezclarse entremezclarse con las direcciones IP públicas. Así, se conservará conservará el número de direcciones utilizadas para para conexiones conexiones internas.
Direcciones IP públicas y privadas •
La conexión de una red que utiliza direcciones privadas a la Internet requiere que las direcciones privadas se conviertan a direcciones públicas. Este proceso de conversión se conoce como Traducción de direcciones de red (NAT). En general, un Router es el dispositivo que realiza la NAT. NAT, junto con CIDR e IPv6 se describen con mayor detalle más adelante en el currículo.
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Redes de Computadoras
64
Basado en el texto CCNA: Cisco Certified Network Asociate Study Asociate Study Guide , Exam 640-801 640-801 por Todd Lammle. Editorial Sybex. 2004.
¿Por Qué Crear Subredes? La creación de subredes ( subnetting ) implica tomar una dirección de red y, usando bits reservados para los hosts, crear redes más pequeñas. pequeñas. Algunas razones para crear subredes subredes son: 1. Se simplifica la administración de la red porque se pueden administrar separadamente las subredes. 2. Se reduce el tráfico de la red ya que las subredes están conectadas por routers y por esta razón son dominios de broadcast separados. 3. Se mejora el desempeño de la red como consecuencia del tráfico reducido. 4. Permite crear redes que cubran grandes distancias geográficas ya que éstas se compondrían de subredes que son a su vez LA Ns interconectadas.
Cómo Crear Subredes Para crear subredes, se toman prestados bits de la porción de los hosts en una dirección IP y se reservan para las direcciones de las subredes. subredes. Esto implica menos bits para los hosts. Por lo tanto, tanto, mientras más subredes se creen, menos bits están disponibles para los hosts. Como los bits son números binarios, conviene aprender las potencias de 2: 2
7
2
6
2
5
2
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
0
128
64
32
16
8
4
2
1
Máscar áscaras as de Subredes Subredes Para que el esquema de direcciones de subredes trabaje, cada máquina en la red debe reconoce cual parte de la dirección del host debe usarse usarse como dirección dirección de la subred. Esto se logra asignando una máscara de subred a cada cada máquina. La máscara de subred es un número número de 32 bits que le permite al receptor de un paquete IP distinguir la porción del ID de la red de la porción del ID del host. Los 1s en la máscara máscara de red representan las posiciones posiciones que identifican identifican la red o la subred.
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Redes de Computadoras
65
La tabla que se muestra a continuación muestra la máscara por defecto para cada clase: Clase
Máscara por Defecto
Significado
A
255.0.0.0
El primer octeto identifica la red, el resto el host.
B
Los primeros dos octetos
255.255.0.0
identifican la red, el resto el host.
C
Los primeros tres octetos
255.255.255.0
identifican la red, el resto el host.
Cuando una compañía contacta un ISP ( Internet Service Provider ) para obtener una dirección de red, usualmente esta dirección se indica usando la notación de diagonal ( slash notation). Por ejemplo: 192.168.10.32/27. El /27 indica que la máscara de red tiene 27 bits encendidos encendidos (son 1s). En otras palabras, que los primeros 27 bits identifican la red en una una dirección IP. Por lo tanto, /27 significa que la máscara es 255.255.255.224. La siguiente tabla muestra todas las máscaras de subred disponibles en notación de diagonal y binaria: Notación Diagonal ( Slash Notation )
Máscara de Subred
/8
255.0.0.0 (Clase A por defecto)
/9
255.128.0.0
/10
255.192.0.0
/11
255.224.0.0
/12
255.240.0.0
/13
255.248.0.0
/14
255.252.0.0
/15
255.254.0.0
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Redes de Computadoras
/18
255.255.192.0
/19
255.255.224.0
/20
255.255.240.0
/21
255.255.248.0
/22
255.255.252.0
/23
255.255.254.0
/24
255.255.255.0 (Clase C por defecto)
/25
255.255.255.128
/26
255.255.255.192
/27
255.255.255.224
/28
255.255.255.240
/29
255.255.255.248
/30
255.255.255.252
66
La máscara más pequeña es /8 porque menos sería pretender pedir prestado a la porción de la red red en Clase A y eso no se puede (el subnetting pide prestado a la porción de los hosts). La máscara más grande es /30 porque se tienen que reservar por lo menos dos (2) bits para definir hosts.
II. CREACION DE SUBREDES A. Creación de Subredes en Clase C En una dirección de Cl Clase ase C, solamente hay 8 bits disponibles para los hosts (el último último octeto). octeto). Por lo tanto, las únicas máscaras de subred de Clase C son: Notación Binaria
Notación
Diagonal
(Slash Máscara de Subred
Notation ) 1000 0000
/25 (¡Inválida en clase C para
255.255.255.128
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Redes de Computadoras
1110 0000
/27
255.255.255.224
1111 0000
/28
255.255.255.240
1111 1000
/29
255.255.255.248
1111 1100
/30
255.255.255.252
67
Tome en cuenta que los bits se t oman prestados de izquierda a derecha.
Ejemplo #1: Usted desea crear subredes subredes de la red 192.168.10.0 con la máscara /26. Esto implica la máscara 255.255.255.192.
192 = 1100 0000
(hay 2 bits para la subred y 6 bits disponibles para los hosts de cada subred)
a. ¿Cuántas subredes subredes hay? ¿Cuáles son?
Regla: Los bits de la subred no pueden ser todos 0s o todos 1s.
Las subredes son: 0000 0000 0000 = 0 0100 0100 0000 = 64
(¡inválido usar todos 0s para bits de la subred!)
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Redes de Computadoras
68
1. Los hosts de la subred 192.168.10.64 son: 0100 0100 0000 = 64 (¡inválido usar todos 0s para bits del host porque está es dirección de subred!) 0100 0100 0001 = 65 (el primer host válido) 0111 0111 1110 = 126 (el último host válido) 0111 0111 1111 = 127 (¡inválido usar todos 1s para bits del host porque está es dirección de broadcast!)
126 – 65 + 1 = 62 hosts por cada subred.
192.168.10.65 es el primer host válido.
192.168.10.126 es el último host válido.
192.168.10.127 es la dirección de broadcast.
2. Los hosts de la subred 192.168.10.128 son: 1000 1000 0000 = 128 (¡inválido usar todos 0s para bits del host porque está es dirección de subred!) 1000 1000 0001 = 129 (el primer host válido) 1011 1011 1110 = 190 (el último host válido) 1011 1011 1111 = 191 (¡inválido usar todos 1s para bits del host porque está es dirección de broadcast!)
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Redes de Computadoras
69
Regla: Los bits de la subred no pueden ser todos 0s o todos 1s.
Las subredes son: 0000 0000 0000 = 0 (¡inválido usar usar todos 0s para bits de la subred!) subred!) 0010 0010 0000 = 32 0100 0100 0000 = 64 0110 0110 0000 = 96 1001 1001 0000 = 128 1010 1010 0000 = 160 1100 1100 0000 = 192 1110 1110 0000 = 240 (¡inválido usar todos 1s para bits de la subred!)
Por lo tanto, hay seis (6) subredes válidas (192.168.10.32, 192.168.10.64, 192.168.10.96, 192.168.10.128, 192.168.10.160 y 192.168.10.192).
b. ¿Cuántos hosts por cada subred? subred? ¿Cuál es la dirección del primer primer host válido y del último host válido en cada subred? ¿Cuál es la dirección de broadcast para cada subred?
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Redes de Computadoras
62 – 33 + 1 = 30 hosts por cada subred. 192.168.10.33 es el primer host válido. 192.168.10.62 es el último host válido. 192.168.10.63 es la dirección de broadcast .
2. Los hosts de la subred 192.168.10.64 son: 0100 0100 0000 = 64 (¡inválido usar todos 0s para bits del host porque está es dirección de subred!) 0100 0100 0001 = 65 (el primer host válido) 0101 0101 1110 = 94 (el último host válido) 0101 0101 1111 = 95 (¡inválido usar todos 1s para bits del host porque está es dirección de broadcast!)
94 – 65 + 1 = 30 hosts por cada subred. 192.168.10.65 es el primer host válido. 192.168.10.94 es el último host válido. 192.168.10.95 es la dirección de broadcast .
3. Los hosts de la subred 192.168.10.96 son: 0110 0110 0000 = 96 (¡inválido usar todos 0s para bits del host porque está es dirección de subred!)
70
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Redes de Computadoras
71
4. Los hosts de la subred 192.168.10.128 son: 1000 1000 0000 = 128 (¡inválido usar todos 0s para bits del host porque está es dirección de subred!) 1000 1000 0001 = 129 (el primer host válido) 1001 1001 1110 = 158 (el último host válido) 1001 1001 1111 = 159 (¡inválido usar todos 1s para bits del host porque está es dirección de broadcast!)
158 – 129 + 1 = 30 hosts por cada subred.
192.168.10.129 es el primer host válido.
192.168.10.158 es el último host válido.
192.168.10.159 es la dirección de broadcast.
5. Los hosts de la subred 192.168.10.160 son: 1010 1010 0000 = 160 (¡inválido usar todos 0s para bits del host porque está es dirección de subred!) 1010 1010 0001 = 161 (el primer host válido) 1011 1011 1110 = 190 (el último host válido) 1011 1011 1111 = 191 (¡inválido usar todos 1s para bits del host porque está es dirección de broadcast!)
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Redes de Computadoras
222 – 193 + 1 = 30 hosts por cada subred.
192.168.10.193 es el primer host válido.
192.168.10.222 es el último host válido.
192.168.10.223 es la dirección de broadcast.
72
B. Otra Forma de Crear Sub redes de Clase C: C: Una forma de agilizar los cálculos es usando las siguientes sig uientes fórmulas: n
a. ¿Cuántas subredes? 2 – 2, donde n es la cantidad de bits de la subred. m b. ¿Cuántos hosts por subred? 2 – 2, donde m es la cantidad de bits de los hosts. c. ¿Cuáles son las subredes válidas? 256 – mascara de subred. Esto da el número base y da da la primera subred. A cada subred se le suma el número número base. d. ¿Cuál es la dirección de broadcast de cada subred? subred? La dirección inmediatamente antes de la próxima subred. e. ¿Cuáles son las direcciones del primer y último host válido en cada subred? Las direcciones que están entre la dirección de subred y la dirección de broadcast.
Ejemplo #1: Usted desea crear subredes subredes de la red 192.168.10.0 con la máscara /26. Esto implica la máscara 255.255.255.192.
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Redes de Computadoras
73
Usted desea crear subredes de la red 192.168.10.0 con la máscara /27. Esto implica implica la máscara máscara 255.255.255.224.
224 = 1110 0000
(hay 3 bits para la subred y 5 bits disponibles para los hosts de cada subred) 3
a. ¿Cuántas subredes? 2 – 2 = 6 subredes. 5 b. ¿Cuántos hosts por subred? 2 – 2 = 30 hosts por subred c. ¿Cuáles son las subredes válidas? 256 – 224 = 32 es el número base. Las subredes son 32, 32, 64, 96, 128, 160 y 192
Subred
32
64
96
128
160
192
Primer host
33
65
97
129
161
193
Ultimo host
62
94
126
158
190
222
Dirección de broadcast
63
95
127
159
191
223
Ejemplo #3 :
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Redes de Computadoras
74
Ejemplo #4 : Usted desea crear subredes de la red 192.168.10.0 con la máscara /29. Esto implica implica la máscara máscara 255.255.255.248. 248 = 1111 1000
(hay 5 bits para la subred y 3 bits disponibles para los hosts de cada subred) 5
a. ¿Cuántas subredes? 2 – 2 = 30 subredes. 3 b. ¿Cuántos hosts por subred? 2 – 2 = 6 hosts por subred c. ¿Cuáles son las subredes válidas? 256 – 248 = 8 es el número base. Las subredes son 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56, 64, 72, 80, 88, 96, 104, 112, 120, 128, 136, 144, 152, 160, 168, 176, 184, 192, 200, 208, 216, 224, 232 y 240.
Subred
8
16
24
…
216
224
232
240
Primer host
9
17
25
…
217
225
233
241
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Redes de Computadoras
75
Subred
4
8
12
16
…
240
244
248
Primer host
5
9
13
17
…
241
245
249
Ultimo host
6
10
14
18
…
242
246
250
Dirección de broadcast
7
11
15
19
…
243
247
251
Ejemplo #6 ¿Cuál es la dirección de broadcast de la subred donde está 192.168.10.33 con la máscara 255.255.255.248?
Solución: 248 = 1111 1000
(hay 5 bits para la subred y 3 bits disponibles para los hosts de cada subred)
256 – 248 = 8 es el número base. Las subredes son 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, …
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Redes de Computadoras
n
76
6
¿Cuántos hosts por subred? 2 – 2 >= 31 hosts por subred. 2 – 2 = 62. Por lo tanto, n debe ser 6 bits en la porción de los hosts y esto deja 2 bits para la porción porción de la subred. Esto implica el valor 1100 0000 = 192. La máscara de subred debe ser 255.255.255.192. 255.255.255.192.
Ejemplo #9 ¿Cuántas subredes y hosts se pueden obtener de la red 192.168.254.0/26? Solución: /26. Esto implica la máscara 255.255.255.192. 255.255.255.192.
192 = 1100 0000
(hay 2 bits para la subred y 6 bits disponibles para los hosts de cada subred)
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Redes de Computadoras
La A y la C son direcciones válidas de host.
Ejemplo #11 ¿Cuál de las siguientes es una dirección vál ida de host para la red 192.168.10.32/28? A. 192.168.10.39 B. 192.168.10.47
77
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Redes de Computadoras
78
¿Cuáles son las subredes válidas? 256 – 252 = 4 es el número base. Las subredes son 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, …, 240, 244 y 248.
La C es la subred a la cual pertenece el host.
C. Creación de Subredes en Clase B: En una dirección de Clase B, hay 16 bits disponibles para los hosts (los últimos dos (2) octetos). Por lo tanto, las máscaras de subred de Clase B son:
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Redes de Computadoras
79
El proceso para crear subredes de una red Clase B es bien parecido a lo que se hace con C lase C, excepto que se disponen de más bits para los hosts. Se deben usar usar los mismos valores para el tercer octeto con Clase B que se usaban para el cuarto octeto con Clase C, pero añadiéndole un cero (0) en la porción de la red y un 255 para broadcast en el cuarto octeto.
Ejemplo #1 Usted desea crear subredes subredes de la red 172.16.0.0 con la máscara /18. Esto implica la máscara 255.255.192.0
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Redes de Computadoras
80
240.0 = 1111 0000 0000 0000 (hay 4 bits para la subred y 12 bits disponibles para para los hosts de cada subred)
4
a. ¿Cuántas subredes? 2 – 2 = 14 subredes. 12 b. ¿Cuántos hosts por subred? 2 – 2 = 4094 hosts por subred c. ¿Cuáles son las subredes válidas? 256.0 – 240.0 = 16.0 es el número base. Las subredes son 16.0, 32.0, 48.0, 64.0, 80.0, 96.0, 112.0, 128.0, 144.0, 160.0, 176.0, 192.0, 208.0 y 224.0.
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Redes de Computadoras
Ultimo host Dirección
de
81
3.254
5.254
7.254
…
247.254
249.254
251.254
253.254
3.255
5.255
7.255
…
247.255
249.255
251.255
253.255
broadcast
Ejemplo #4 Usted desea crear subredes subredes de la red 172.16.0.0 con la máscara /24. Esto implica la máscara 255.255.255.0. Esto no tiene que ver con Clase C. Es simplemente una una máscara de clase B con 8 bits para las subredes
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Redes de Computadoras
82
255.128 = 1111 1111 1000 0000 (hay 9 bits para la subred y 7 bits disponibles disponibles para los hosts de cada subred)
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Redes de Computadoras
83
255.192 = 1111 1111 1100 0000 (hay 10 bits para la subred y 6 bits disponibles disponibles para los hosts de cada subred) 10
a. ¿Cuántas subredes? 2 – 2 = 1022 subredes.
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Redes de Computadoras
Subred
0.64
0.128
0.192
1.0
1.64
1.128
1.192
2.0
…
84
255.128
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Redes de Computadoras
85
255.0 = 1111 1111 0000 0000 (hay 8 bits para la subred y 8 bits disponibles disponibles para los hosts de cada subred)
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Redes de Computadoras
/12
255.240.0.0
/13
255.248.0.0
86
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