PBL 1 REPORT EXPLOSIONS AND BROMINATOR BROMINATOR
GROUP 3
Baghaskara Surendra
1506710922
Raisya Afifah
1606862841
Muhammad Ivan arhan
1606862854
!ian Ra"ri #ahyani
1606896981
FACULT FACULTY Y OF ENGINEERING ENGINEERI NG INTERNATIONAL PROGRAM UNIVERSITAS INDONESIA DEPOK 2016
I$
In"r%du&"i%n
I I$
'he%ry
Carbo
#ar(%n is "he &hemi&a) e)emen" *i"h "he sym(%) # and a"%mi& num(er 6 +&%n"ains 6 ,r%"%ns in ,r%"%ns in i"s nu&)eus-$ nu&)eus-$ As a mem(er %f gr%u, 14 gr%u, 14 %n "he ,eri%di& "a()e. i" is n%nme"a))i& and "e"rava)en"/making f%ur e)e&"r%ns avai)a()e e)e&"r%ns avai)a()e "% f%rm &%va)en" &hemi&a) &%va)en" &hemi&a) (%nds$ (%nds$ 'he m%s" &%mm%n is%"%,e %f &ar(%n has 6 ,r%"%ns and 6 neu"r%ns 6 neu"r%ns.. and has an a"%mi& an a"%mi& mass %f 12$0107 amu$ I"s gr%und s"a"e e)e&"r%n &%nfigura"i%n is &%nfigura"i%n is 1s22s22,2$ I"s %id %ida"i a"i%n %n s"a s"a"e "e ranges ranges fr%m 4 "% 4. and i" has an e)e&"r%nega"ivi"y va)ue e)e&"r%nega"ivi"y va)ue %f 2$55 %n "he au)ing s&a)e$ I" is a s%)id. and s%)id. and su()imes a" 3.642 # +i" has "he highes" su()ima"i%n ,%in" su()ima"i%n ,%in" %f a)) "he e)emen"s-$ #ar(%n A))%"r%,es #ar(%n has severa) a))%"r%,es. %r differen" f%rms in *hi&h i" eis"s$ In"eres"ing)y. &ar(%n a))%"r%,es s,an a *ide range %f ,hysi&a) ,r%,er"ies diam%nd is "he hardes" na"ura))y %&&urring su(s"an&e. su(s"an&e. and gra,hi"e is %ne %f "he s%f"es" kn%*n su(s"an&es$ !iam%nd is "rans,aren". "he u)"ima"e a(rasive. and &an (e an e)e&"ri&a) insu)a"%r and "herma) &%ndu&"%r $ #%nverse)y. gra,hi"e gra,hi"e is %,aue. a very g%%d )u(ri&an". a g%%d &%ndu&"%r %f e)e&"ri&i"y. and a "herma) insu)a"%r$ A))%"r%,es A))%"r%,es %f &ar(%n are n%" )imi"ed "% diam%nd and gra,hi"e. (u" a)s% in&)ude (u&ky(a))s +fu))erenes-. am%r,h%us +fu))erenes-. am%r,h%us &ar(%n. &ar(%n. g)assy &ar(%n. &ar(%n nan%f%am. nan%"u(es. and %"hers$
A))%"r%,es %f #ar(%n S%me a))%"r%,es %f &ar(%n a- diam%nd. (- gra,hi"e. &- )%nsda)ei"e. df- fu))erenes +#60. #540. #70- g- am%r,h%us &ar(%n. h- &ar(%n nan%"u(e$
#hemi&a) Rea&"ivi"y %f #ar(%n #ar(%n &%m,%unds f%rm "he (asis %f a)) kn%*n )ife %n ar"h. and "he &ar(%nni"r%gen &y&)e ,r%vides s%me energy ,r%du&ed (y "he sun and %"her s"ars$ #ar(%n has an affini"y f%r (%nding *i"h %"her sma)) a"%ms. in&)uding %"her &ar(%n a"%ms. via "he f%rma"i%n %f s"a()e. &%va)en" (%nds$ !es,i"e "he fa&" "ha" i" is ,resen" in a vas" num(er %f &%m,%unds. &ar(%n is *eak)y rea&"ive &%m,ared "% %"her e)emen"s under n%rma) &%ndi"i%ns$ A" s"andard "em,era"ure and ,ressure. i" resis"s %ida"i%n i" d%es n%" rea&" *i"h su)furi& a&id. hydr%&h)%ri& a&id. &h)%rine. %r any a)ka)i me"a)s$ A" higher "em,era"ures. &ar(%n *i)) rea&" *i"h %ygen "% give &ar(%n %ides. and me"a)s "% give me"a) &ar(ides$ #ar(%n has "he a(i)i"y "% f%rm very )%ng &hains %f s"r%ng and s"a()e in"er&%nne&"ing ## (%nds$ 'his ,r%,er"y a))%*s &ar(%n "% f%rm an a)m%s" infini"e num(er %f &%m,%unds in fa&". "here are m%re kn%*n &ar(%n&%n"aining &%m,%unds "han a)) "he &%m,%unds %f "he %"her &hemi&a) e)emen"s &%m(ined. e&e," "h%se %f hydr%gen +(e&ause a)m%s" a)) %rgani& &%m,%unds &%n"ain hydr%gen as *e))-$
#ar(%n Is%"%,es #ar(%n has "*% s"a()e. na"ura))y %&&urring is%"%,es &ar(%n12 and &ar(%n13$ #ar(%n12 makes 98$93: and &ar(%n13 f%rms "he remaining 1$07:$ 'he &%n&en"ra"i%n %f 12# is fur"her in&reased in (i%)%gi&a) ma"eria)s (e&ause (i%&hemi&a) rea&"i%ns dis&rimina"e agains" 13#$ Iden"ifi&a"i%n %f &ar(%n in ;MR e,erimen"s is d%ne *i"h "he is%"%,e 13#$ 14# is a radi%a&"ive is%"%,e %f &ar(%n *i"h a ha)f)ife %f 5730 years$ I" has a very )%* na"ura) a(undan&e +0$0000000001:-. and de&ays "% 14; "hr%ugh (e"a de&ay$ I" is used in radi%me"ri& da"ing "% de"ermine "he age %f &ar(%na&e%us sam,)es +%f ,hysi&a) %r (i%)%gi&a) %rigin- u, "% a(%u" 60.000 years %)d$ In "%"a). "here are 15 kn%*n is%"%,es %f &ar(%n and "he sh%r"es")ived %f "hese is 8#. *hi&h de&ays "hr%ugh ,r%"%n emissi%n and a),ha de&ay. and has a ha)f)ife %f 1$98739 10<21 se&%nds$ 'he e%"i& 19# ehi(i"s a nu&)ear ha)%. *hi&h means i"s radius is a,,re&ia()y )arger "han *%u)d (e e,e&"ed if "he nu&)eus *ere a s,here %f &%ns"an" densi"y$ #ar(%n (%nds A &ar(%n a"%m &an f%rm &%va)en" (%nds *i"h %"her &ar(%n a"%ms %r *i"h "he a"%ms %f %"her e)emen"s$ #ar(%n %f"en f%rms (%nds *i"h hydr%gen$ #%m,%unds "ha" &%n"ain %n)y &ar(%n and hydr%gen are &a))ed hydr%&ar(%ns$ Me"hane +#=4-. *hi&h is m%de)ed in "he igure (e)%*. is an eam,)e %f a hydr%&ar(%n$ In me"hane. a sing)e &ar(%n a"%m f%rms &%va)en" (%nds *i"h f%ur hydr%gen a"%ms$ 'he diagram %n "he )ef" in "he igure (e)%* sh%*s a)) "he shared va)en&e e)e&"r%ns$ 'he diagram %n "he righ" in "he igure (e)%*. &a))ed a s"ru&"ura) f%rmu)a. re,resen"s ea&h ,air %f shared e)e&"r%ns *i"h a dash +-$
#ar(%n#ar(%n B%nds #ar(%n &an f%rm sing)e. d%u()e. %r even "ri,)e (%nds *i"h %"her &ar(%n a"%ms$ In a sing)e (%nd. "*% &ar(%n a"%ms share %ne ,air %f e)e&"r%ns$ In a d%u()e (%nd. "hey share "*% ,airs %f e)e&"r%ns. and in a "ri,)e (%nd "hey share "hree ,airs %f e)e&"r%ns$ am,)es %f &%m,%unds *i"h "hese "y,es %f (%nds are re,resen"ed (y "he s"ru&"ura) f%rmu)as in "he igure (e)%*$
'he #<= (%nd in genera) is very s"r%ng. s% i" is re)a"ive)y unrea&"ive$ In severa) &%m,%und &)asses. &%))e&"ive)y &a))ed &ar(%n a&ids. "he #<= (%nd &an (e suffi&ien")y a&idi& f%r ,r%"%n rem%va)$ >na&"iva"ed #<= (%nds are f%und in a)kanes and are n%" ad?a&en" "% a he"er%a"%m +@. ;. Si. e"&$-$ Su&h (%nds usua))y %n)y ,ar"i&i,a"e in radi&a) su(s"i"u"i%n$ Many enymes are kn%*n. h%*ever. "% affe&" "hese rea&"i%ns$ A)"h%ugh "he #<= (%nd is %ne %f "he s"r%nges". i" varies %ver 30: in magni"ude f%r fair)y s"a()e %rgani& &%m,%unds. even in "he a(sen&e %f he"er%a"%ms$ =ydr%&ar(%n
B%nd diss%&ia"i%n energy
M%)ar (%nd
radi&a)
+k&a)m%)-
diss%&ia"i%n energy
#=3<=
Me"hy)
104
440 kC
#2=5<=
"hy)
98
410 kC
+#=3-2=#<=
Is%,r%,y)
95
400 kC
+#=3-3#<=
"er"Bu"y)
93
390 kC
#=2D#=<=
viny)
112
470 kC
=#E#<=
e"hyny)
133
560 kC
#6=5<=
,heny)
110
460 kC
B%nd
#=2D#=#=2<
A))y)
88
370 kC
#6=5#=2<=
Beny)
85
360 kC
@#4=7<=
"e"rahydr%furany)
92
380 kC
a&e"%ny)
96
400 kC
=
#=3#+@-#=2< =
Moo!"r # Po$%!"r&
M%n%mers 'he *%rd m%n%mer &%mes fr%m m%n% +%ne- and mer +,ar"-$ M%n%mers are sma)) m%)e&u)es *hi&h may (e ?%ined "%ge"her in a re,ea"ing fashi%n "% f%rm m%re &%m,)e m%)e&u)es &a))ed ,%)ymers$ M%n%mers f%rm ,%)ymers (y f%rming &hemi&a) (%nds %r (inding su,ram%)e&u)ar)y "hr%ugh a ,r%&ess &a))ed ,%)ymeria"i%n$ S%me"imes ,%)ymers are made fr%m (%und gr%u,s %f m%n%mer su(uni"s +u, "% a fe* d%en m%n%mers- &a))ed %)ig%mers$ A re)a"ed "erm is Fm%n%meri& ,r%"einF. *hi&h is a ,r%"ein *hi&h (%nds "% make a mu)"i,r%"ein &%m,)e$ M%n%mers are n%" ?us" (ui)ding ()%&ks %f ,%)ymers. (u" are im,%r"an" m%)e&u)es in "heir %*n righ". *hi&h d% n%" ne&essari)y f%rm ,%)ymers un)ess "he &%ndi"i%ns are righ"$ am,)es %f M%n%mers am,)es %f m%n%mers in&)ude viny) &h)%ride +,%)ymeries in"% ,%)yviny) &h)%ride %r G#-. g)u&%se +,%)ymeries in"% s"ar&h. &e))u)%se. )aminarin. and g)u&ans-. and amin% a&ids +*hi&h ,%)ymerie in"% ,e,"ides. ,%)y,e,"ides. and ,r%"eins-$ %)ymers 'he *%rd ,%)ymer &%mes fr%m ,%)y +many- and mer +,ar"-$ A ,%)ymer may (e a na"ura) %r syn"he"i& ma&r%m%)e&u)e &%m,rised %f re,ea"ing uni"s %f a sma))er m%)e&u)e +m%n%mers-$ Hhi)e many ,e%,)e use "he "erm ,%)ymer and ,)as"i& in"er&hangea()y. ,%)ymers are a mu&h )arger &)ass %f m%)e&u)es *hi&h in&)udes ,)as"i&s. ,)us many %"her ma"eria)s. su&h as as &e))u)%se. am(er. and na"ura) ru((er$
J%*er m%)e&u)ar *eigh" &%m,%unds may (e dis"inguished (y "he num(er %f m%n%meri& su(uni"s "hey &%n"ain$ 'he "erms dimer. "rimer. "e"ramer. ,en"amer. heamer. he,"amer. %&"amer. n%namer. de&amer. d%de&amer. ei&%samer ref)e&"s m%)e&u)es &%n"aining 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. and 20 m%n%mer uni"s$ am,)es %f %)ymers am,)es %f ,%)ymers in&)ude ,)as"i&s su&h as ,%)ye"hy)ene. si)i&%nes su&h as si))y ,u""y. (i%,%)ymers su&h as &e))u)%se and !;A. na"ura) ,%)ymers su&h as ru((er and she))a&. and many %"her im,%r"an" ma&r%m%)e&u)es$ I'ra!o$"()$ar a* I'"r!o$"()$ar For("&
'here are "*% kinds %f f%r&es. %r a""ra&"i%ns. "ha" %,era"e in a m%)e&u)e/ +'ra!o$"()$ar and +'"r!o$"()$ar$ Je"s "ry "% unders"and "his differen&e "hr%ugh "he
f%))%*ing eam,)e$
igure %f "%*e)s se*n and Ge)&r%ed re,resen"ing (%nds (e"*een hydr%gen and &h)%rine a"%ms He have si "%*e)s/"hree are ,ur,)e in &%)%r. )a(e)ed hydrogen and "hree are ,ink in &%)%r. )a(e)ed chlorine$ He are given a se*ing need)e and ()a&k "hread "% se* %ne hydr%gen "%*e)
"% %ne &h)%rine "%*e)$ Af"er se*ing. *e n%* have "hree ,airs %f "%*e)s hydr%gen se*ed "% &h)%rine$ 'he ne" s"e, is "% a""a&h "hese "hree ,airs %f "%*e)s "% ea&h %"her$ %r "his *e use Ge)&r% as sh%*n a(%ve$ S%. "he resu)" %f "his eer&ise is "ha" *e have si "%*e)s a""a&hed "% ea&h %"her "hr%ugh "hread and Ge)&r%$ ;%* if I ask y%u "% ,u)) "his assem()y fr%m (%"h ends. *ha" d% y%u "hink *i)) ha,,enK 'he Ge)&r% ?un&"i%ns *i)) fa)) a,ar" *hi)e "he se*ed ?un&"i%ns *i)) s"ay as is$ 'he a""a&hmen" &rea"ed (y Ge)&r% is mu&h *eaker "han "he a""a&hmen" &rea"ed (y "he "hread "ha" *e used "% se* "he ,airs %f "%*e)s "%ge"her$ A s)igh" f%r&e a,,)ied "% ei"her end %f "he "%*e)s &an easi)y (ring a,ar" "he Ge)&r% ?un&"i%ns *i"h%u" "earing a,ar" "he se*ed ?un&"i%ns$ a&")y "he same si"ua"i%n eis"s in m%)e&u)es$ Cus" imagine "he "%*e)s "% (e rea) a"%ms. su&h as hydr%gen and &h)%rine$ 'hese "*% a"%ms are (%und "% ea&h %"her "hr%ugh a ,%)ar &%va)en" (%nd/ana)%g%us "% "he "hread$ a&h hydr%gen &h)%ride m%)e&u)e in "urn is (%nded "% "he neigh(%ring hydr%gen &h)%ride m%)e&u)e "hr%ugh a di,%)edi,%)e a""ra &"i%n/ana)%g%us "% Ge)&r%$ HeL)) "a)k a(%u" di,%)edi,%)e in"era&"i%ns in de"ai) a (i" )a"er$ 'he ,%)ar &%va)en" (%nd is mu&h s"r%nger in s"reng"h "han "he di,%)edi,%)e in"era&"i%n$ 'he f%rmer is "ermed an intramolecular attraction *hi)e "he )a""er is "ermed anintermolecular attraction$
igure %f "%*e)s se*n and Ge)&r%ed re,resen"ing (%nds (e"*een hydr%gen and &h)%rine a"%ms. i))us"ra"ing in"erm%)ar and in"ram%)ar a""ra&"i%ns S% n%* *e &an define "he "*% f%r&es Intramolecular f%r&es are "he f%r&es "ha" h%)d a"%ms "%ge"her within a molecule$ Intermolecular f%r&es are f%r&es "ha" exist between molecules.
igure %f in"erm%)e&u)ar a""ra&"i%n (e"*een "*% =#) m%)e&u)es and in"ram%)e&u)ar a""ra&"i%n *i"hin =#) m%)e&u)e T%,"& o- +'ra!o$"()$ar -or("& o- a''ra('+o
1$
Io+( bo*. 'his (%nd is f%rmed (y "he &%m,)e"e "ransfer %f va)en&e e)e&"r%n+s-
(e"*een a"%ms$ I" is a "y,e %f &hemi&a) (%nd "ha" genera"es "*% %,,%si"e)y &harged i%ns$ In i%ni& (%nds. "he me"a) )%ses e)e&"r%ns "% (e&%me a ,%si"ive)y &harged &a"i%n. *hereas "he n%nme"a) a&&e,"s "h%se e)e&"r%ns "% (e&%me a nega"ive)y &harged ani%n$
igure %f i%ni& (%nd f%rming (e"*een ;a and #) 2$
Co/a$"' bo*. 'his (%nd is f%rmed (e"*een a"%ms "ha" have simi)ar
e)e&"r%nega"ivi"ies/"he affini"y %r desire f%r e)e&"r%ns$ Be&ause (%"h a"%ms have simi)ar affini"y f%r e)e&"r%ns and nei"her has a "enden&y "% d%na"e "hem. "hey share e)e&"r%ns in %rder "% a&hieve %&"e" &%nfigura"i%n and (e&%me m%re s"a()e$ A o,o$ar (o/a$"' bo* is f%rmed (e"*een same a"%ms %r a"%ms *i"h very simi)ar e)e&"r%nega"ivi"ies/"he differen&e in e)e&"r%nega"ivi"y (e"*een (%nded a"%ms is )ess "han 0$5$
igure %f &%va)en" (%nd f%rming (e"*een "*% #) m%)e&u)es A ,o$ar (o/a$"' bo* is f%rmed *hen a"%ms %f s)igh")y differen" e)e&"r%nega"ivi"ies share e)e&"r%ns$ 'he differen&e in e)e&"r%nega"ivi"y (e"*een (%nded a"%ms is (e"*een 0$5 and 1$9$
igure %f ,%)ar &%va)en" (%nd f%rming (e"*een = and #) 3$
M"'a$$+( bo*+. 'his "y,e %f &%va)en" (%nding s,e&ifi&a))y %&&urs (e"*een a"%ms
%f me"a)s. in *hi&h "he valence electrons are free to move through the lattice$ 'his (%nd is f%rmed via "he a""ra&"i%n %f "he m%(i)e e)e&"r%ns/referred "% as sea %f e)e&"r%ns/and "he fied ,%si"ive)y &harged me"a) i%ns$ Me"a))i& (%nds are ,resen" in sam,)es %f ,ure e)emen"a) me"a)s. su&h as g%)d %r a)uminum. %r a))%ys. )ike (rass %r (r%ne$
igure %f me"a) *i"h ,%si"ive)y &harged a"%ms and m%(i)e va)en&e e)e&"r%ns
'he free)y m%ving e)e&"r%ns in me"a)s are res,%nsi()e f%r "heir a ref)e&"ing ,r%,er"y/free)y m%ving e)e&"r%ns %s&i))a"e and give %ff ,h%"%ns %f )igh"/and "heir a(i)i"y "% effe&"ive)y &%ndu&" hea" and e)e&"ri&i"y$ R"$a'+/" &'r"' o- '" +'ra!o$"()$ar -or("& R"$a'+/" I'ra!o$"()$ar -or("
Ba&+& o- -or!a'+o
&'r"'
Me"a))i& (%nd
Me"a) &a"i%ns "% de)%&a)ied e)e&"r%ns
1. s"r%nges"
I%ni& (%nd
#a"i%ns "% ani%ns
2
ar"ia))y &harged &a"i%n "% ,ar"ia))y &harged %)ar &%va)en" (%nd
ani%n
3
;u&)ei "% shared e)e&"r%ns
4. *eakes"
;%n,%)ar &%va)en" (%nd I'"r!o$"()$ar -or("& o- a''ra('+o
;%* )e"Ls "a)k a(%u" "he in"erm%)e&u)ar f%r&es "ha" eis" (e"*een m%)e&u)es$ In"erm%)e&u)ar f%r&es are much weaker "han "he in"ram%)e&u)ar f%r&es %f a""ra&"i%n (u" are im,%r"an" (e&ause "hey de"ermine "he ,hysi&a) ,r%,er"ies %f m%)e&u)es )ike "heir (%i)ing ,%in". me)"ing ,%in". densi"y. and en"ha),ies %f fusi%n and va,%ria"i%n$ T%,"& o- +'"r!o$"()$ar -or("& 'a' "+&' b"'"" !o$"()$"&
1$
D+,o$"4*+,o$" +'"ra('+o&. 'hese f%r&es %&&ur *hen "he ,ar"ia))y ,%si"ive)y &harged
,ar" %f a m%)e&u)e in"era&"s *i"h "he ,ar"ia))y nega"ive)y &harged ,ar" %f "he neigh(%ring m%)e&u)e$ 'he ,rereuisi"e f%r "his "y,e %f a""ra&"i%n "% eis" is ,ar"ia))y &harged i%ns/f%r eam,)e. "he &ase %f ,%)ar &%va)en" (%nds su&h as hydr%gen &h)%ride. "e"N=#)O=#)=. #. )$ !i,%)edi,%)e in"era&"i%ns are the strongest intermolecular force of attraction$
igure %f =#) "% =#) di,%)edi,%)e a""ra&"i%n
2$
5%*ro" bo*+. 'his is a s,e&ia) kind %f di,%)edi,%)e in"era&"i%n "ha" %&&urs
s,e&ifi&a))y (e"*een a hydr%gen a"%m (%nded "% ei"her an %ygen. ni"r%gen. %r f)u%rine a"%m$ 'he ,ar"ia))y ,%si"ive end %f hydr%gen is a""ra&"ed "% "he ,ar"ia))y nega"ive end %f "he %ygen. ni"r%gen. %r f)u%rine %f an%"her m%)e&u)e$ =ydr%gen (%nding is a re)a"ive)y s"r%ng f%r&e %f a""ra&"i%n (e"*een m%)e&u)es. and &%nsidera()e energy is reuired "% (reak hydr%gen (%nds$ 'his e,)ains "he e&e,"i%na))y high (%i)ing ,%in"s and me)"ing ,%in"s %f &%m,%unds )ike *a"er. and hydr%gen f)u%ride$ =ydr%gen (%nding ,)ays an im,%r"an" r%)e in (i%)%gy f%r eam,)e. hydr%gen (%nds are res,%nsi()e f%r h%)ding nu&)e%"ide (ases "%ge"her in !;A and R;A$
igure %f in"ram%)e&u)ar ,%)ar &%va)en" (%nding *i"hin =20 m%)e&u)es and hydr%gen (%nding (e"*een @ and = a"%ms$ 3$
Lo*o *+&,"r&+o -or("& )*"r '" (a'"or% o- /a *"r 7aa$ -or("&. 'hese are
"he *eakes" %f "he in"erm%)e&u)ar f%r&es and eis" (e"*een a)) "y,es %f m%)e&u)es. *he"her i%ni& %r &%va)en"/,%)ar %r n%n,%)ar$ 'he m%re e)e&"r%ns a m%)e&u)e has. "he s"r%nger "he J%nd%n dis,ersi%n f%r&es are$ %r eam,)e. (r%mine. Br 2. has m%re e)e&"r%ns "han &h)%rine. #)2. ). s"ar" su(s&ri,". 2. end su(s&ri,". s% (r%mine *i)) have s"r%nger J%nd%n dis,ersi%n f%r&es "han &h)%rine. resu)"ing in a higher (%i)ing ,%in" f%r (r%mine. 59#. &%m,ared "% &h)%rine. 35 $ A)s%. "he (reaking %f J%nd%n dis,ersi%n f%r&es d%esnL" reuire "ha" mu&h energy. *hi&h e,)ains *hy n%n,%)ar &%va)en" &%m,%unds )ike me"hane %ygen. and ni"r%gen/*hi&h %n)y have J%nd%n dis,ersi%n f%r&es %f a""ra&"i%n (e"*een "he m%)e&u)es /freee a" very )%* "em,era"ures$
igure %f in"ram%)e&u)ar n%n,%)ar &%va)en" (%nding (e"*een #) a"%ms and J%ng dis,ersi%n f%r&es (e"*een #)#) m%)e&u)es R"$a'+/" &'r"' o- +'"r!o$"()$ar -or("& o- a''ra('+o I'"r!o$"()$ar -or("
O(()r& b"'"" 8
R"$a'+/" &'r"'
ar"ia))y %,,%si"e)y &harged !i,%)edi,%)e a""ra&"i%n
i%ns
S"r%nges"
= a"%m and @. ; %r
As s"r%ng as di,%)edi,%)e
=ydr%gen (%nding
a"%m
a""ra&"i%n
J%nd%n dis,ersi%n
'em,%rary %r indu&ed
a""ra&"i%n
di,%)es
Heakes"
5o -or("& o- a''ra('+o a--"(' ,ro,"r'+"& o- (o!,o)*&
%)ar &%va)en" &%m,%unds/)ike hydr%gen &h)%ride. =#). and hydr%gen i%dide. =I/have di,%)edi,%)e in"era&"i%ns (e"*een ,ar"ia))y &harged i%nsand J%nd%n dis,ersi%n f%r&es (e"*een m%)e&u)es$ ;%n,%)ar &%va)en" &%m,%unds/)ike me"hane and ni"r%gen gas-/ only have J%nd%n dis,ersi%n f%r&es (e"*een m%)e&u)es$ 'he ru)e %f "hum( is "ha" "he s"r%nger "he in"erm%)e&u)ar f%r&es %f a""ra&"i%n. "he m%re energy is reuired "% (reak "h%se f%r&es$ 'his "rans)a"es in"% i%ni& and ,%)ar &%va)en" &%m,%unds having higher (%i)ing and me)"ing ,%in"s. higher en"ha),y %f fusi%n. and higher va,%ria"i%n "han &%va)en" &%m,%unds$ B%i)ing and me)"ing ,%in"s %f &%m,%unds de,end %n "he "y,e and s"reng"h %f "he in"erm%)e&u)ar f%r&es ,resen". as "a(u)a"ed (e)%* R"$a'+/" or*"r obo+$+ a* T%," o- (o!,o)*
I'"r!o$"()$ar -or("& ,r"&"'
!"$'+ ,o+'&
I%ni& &%m,%unds
I%n "% i%n a""ra&"i%n (e"*een i%ns.
1. highes"-
R"$a'+/" or*"r obo+$+ a* T%," o- (o!,o)*
I'"r!o$"()$ar -or("& ,r"&"'
!"$'+ ,o+'&
J%nd%n dis,ersi%n f%r&es #%va)en" &%m,%unds &%n"aining hydr%gen
=ydr%gen (%nds. J%nd%n dis,ersi%n
(%nds
f%r&es
2
!i,%)edi,%)e a""ra&"i%n (e"*een di,%)es %)ar &%va)en"
&rea"ed (y ,ar"ia))y &harged i%ns. J%nd%n
&%m,%unds
dis,ersi%n f%r&es
3
J%nd%n dis,ersi%n f%r&es
4. )%*es"
;%n,%)ar &%va)en" &%m,%unds
Va,or Pr"&&)r"
M%)e&u)es &an es&a,e fr%m "he surfa&e %f a )iuid in"% "he gas ,hase (y eva,%ra"i%n$ Su,,%se *e ,)a&e a uan"i"y %f e"han%) 1 #=3 #=2 @=2 in an eva&ua"ed. &)%sed &%n"ainer. as in igure 11$23 $ 'he e"han%) ui&k)y (egins "% eva,%ra"e$ As a resu)". "he ,ressure eer"ed (y "he va,%r in "he s,a&e a(%ve "he )iuid in&reases$ Af"er a sh%r" "ime "he ,ressure %f "he va,%r a""ains a &%ns"an" va)ue. *hi&h *e &a)) "he va,%r ,ressure$
Na')ra$ Ga&"&
;a"ura) gas %&&urs dee, (enea"h "he ear"hs surfa&e$ ;a"ura) gas &%nsis"s main)y %f me"hane. a &%m,%und *i"h %ne &ar(%n a"%m and f%ur hydr%gen a"%ms$ ;a"ura) gas a)s% &%n"ains sma)) am%un"s %f hydr%&ar(%n gas )iuids and n%nhydr%&ar(%n gases$ He use na"ura) gas as a fue) and "% make ma"eria)s and &hemi&a)s$ ;a"ura) gas is %ne %f "he *%r)ds fav%uri"e fue)s. (u" in i"s usua) ,i,ed f%rm *e &an" use i" ?us" any*here$ He &an" use i" f%r %ur dai)y a&"ivi"y$ '% make "he gas usa()e. *e &an &%nver" "% JP +)iuefied ,e"r%)eum gas- *hi&h is a su,er,ressuried gas s"%red in )iuid f%rm in a "ank. &anis"er. %r (%"")e$ LPG
JP &%nsis" %f gr%u, %f a f)amma()e hydr%&ar(%ns gases "ha" are )iuefied "hr%ugh ,ressurisa"i%n and &%mm%n)y used as fue)$ #hemi&a))y. JP is a mi"ure %f ,r%,ane +#3=8- and (u"ane +#4=10-$ Hhi)e is%(u"ane has "he same &%m,%nen" )ike "he (u"ane. (u" in a s)igh")y differen" *ay$
Ma+!)! Pr"&&)r"
r%,ane ,ressure is dire&")y re)a"ed "% "he "em,era"ure$ A" 44# "he ,ressure is er%$ As "he "em,era"ure in&reases. "he ,ressure *i)) in&rease$ A" 0# y%u have a )i"")e %ver 60,si and a" 21# a(%u" 130,si$ A" 43# "he ,ressure is 220,si$ #y)inders have ,ressure re)ief va)ve se""ings %f 375,si and "anks are se" a" 250,si *i"h "he e&e,"i%n %f "anks m%un"ed in vehi&)e "runks f%r m%"%r fue) *hi&h are se" a" 312,si$ 'here are s"i)) s%me very %)d s"%rage "anks %u" "here "ha" migh" have 200,si re)ief va)ves. (u" "hese are ge""ing rarer "% find$ S% "hese va)ues *%u)d (e "he maimum F*%rkingF ,ressure f%r ,ra&"i&a) a,,)i&a"i%ns$ I*"a$ Ga& La
'he idea) gas )a* is "he eua"i%n %f s"a"e %f a hy,%"he"i&a) idea) gas$ I" is a g%%d a,,r%ima"i%n %f "he (ehavi%r %f many gases under many &%ndi"i%ns 'he idea) gas )a* firs" s"a"ed (y mi)e #)a,ey"%n in 1834 as a resu)" %f a &%m(ina"i%n %f (e"*een em,iri&a) B%y)eLs. #har)esL. Av%gadr%Ls Ja* @f"en *ri""en in
,$G D n$R$'
He &an &%n&)ude. v%)ume %f "he gas is dire&")y ,r%,%r"i%na) *i"h "he am%un" %f gas and dire&")y ,r%,%r"i%na) *i"h "em,era"ure in Qe)vin a)s% inverse)y ,r%,%r"i%na) *i"h ,ressure$ 'his &%n&)usi%n &an (e &%n&)uded (y &%m(ining "hree )a*s$ Bo%$"9& La
B%y)es )a* +- is an e,erimen"a) gas )a* "ha" des&ri(es h%* "he ,ressure %f a gas "ends "% in&rease as "he v%)ume %f "he &%n"ainer de&reases$ 'he a(s%)u"e ,ressure eer"ed (y a given mass %f an idea) gas is inverse)y ,r%,%r"i%na) "% "he v%)ume i" %&&u,ies if "he "em,era"ure and am%un" %f gas remain un&hanged *i"hin a &)%sed sys"emReferen&es #an (e ma"hema"i&a))y s"a"ed (y P : V ; <
*here P is "he ,ressure %f "he gas. V is "he v%)ume %f "he gas. and k is a &%ns"an"$
'he eua"i%n s"a"es "ha" ,r%du&" %f ,ressure and v%)ume is a &%ns"an" f%r a given mass %f &%nfined gas as )%ng as "he "em,era"ure is &%ns"an"$ P1V1 ; P2V2 A/oa*ro9& La
Av%gadr%s )a* +s%me"imes referred "% as Av%gadr%s hy,%"hesis %r Av%gadr%s ,rin&i,)e- is an e,erimen"a) gas )a* re)a"ing v%)ume %f a gas "% "he am%un" %f su(s"an&e %f gas ,resen"$ A m%dern s"a"emen" %f Av%gadr%s )a* is
Av%gadr%s )a* s"a"es "ha". Feua) v%)umes %f a)) gases. a" "he same "em,era"ure and ,ressure. have "he same num(er %f m%)e&u)esF$2 %r a given mass %f an idea) gas. "he v%)ume and am%un" +m%)es- %f "he gas are dire&")y ,r%,%r"i%na) if "he "em,era"ure and ,ressure are &%ns"an"$ #an (e ma"hema"i&a))y e,ressed (y Gn D Q 'his )a* des&ri(es h%*. under "he same &%ndi"i%n %f "em,era"ure and ,ressure. eua) v%)umes %f a)) gases &%n"ain "he same num(er %f m%)e&u)es$ %r &%m,aring "he same su(s"an&e under "*% differen" se"s %f &%ndi"i%ns. "he )a* &an (e usefu))y e,ressed as f%))%*s G1n1 D G2n2 'he eua"i%n sh%*s "ha". as "he num(er %f m%)es %f gas in&reases. "he v%)ume %f "he gas a)s% in&reases in ,r%,%r"i%n$ Simi)ar)y. if "he num(er %f m%)es %f gas is de&reased. "hen "he v%)ume a)s% de&reases$ 'hus. "he num(er %f m%)e&u)es %r a"%ms in a s,e&ifi& v%)ume %f idea) gas is inde,enden" %f "heir sie %r "he m%)ar mass %f "he gas$ 5"r%9& La
=enrys )a* is %ne %f "he gas )a*s f%rmu)a"ed (y Hi))iam =enry in 1803 and s"a"es FA" a &%ns"an" "em,era"ure. "he am%un" %f a given gas "ha" diss%)ves in a given "y,e and v%)ume %f )iuid is dire&")y ,r%,%r"i%na) "% "he ,ar"ia) ,ressure %f "ha" gas in eui)i(rium *i"h "ha" )iuid$F
An euiva)en" *ay %f s"a"ing "he )a* is "ha" "he s%)u(i)i"y %f a gas in a )iuid is dire&")y ,r%,%r"i%na) "% "he ,ar"ia) ,ressure %f "he gas a(%ve "he )iuid 'he f%rmu)a is C ; K Pa&
*here # is "he s%)u(i)i"y %f a gas a" a fied "em,era"ure in a ,ar"i&u)ar s%)ven" +in uni"s %f M %r mJ gasJQ is =enrys )a* &%ns"an" +%f"en in uni"s %f Ma"mgas is "he ,ar"ia) ,ressure %f "he gas +%f"en in uni"s %f A"m-
Car$"&9 La
#har)ess )a* +a)s% kn%*n as "he )a* %f v%)umes- is an e,erimen"a) gas )a* "ha" des&ri(es h%* gases "end "% e,and *hen hea"ed$ A m%dern s"a"emen" %f #har)ess )a* is Hhen "he ,ressure %n a sam,)e %f a dry gas is he)d &%ns"an". "he Qe)vin "em,era"ure and "he v%)ume *i)) (e dire&")y re)a"ed$ G' D Q *here G is "he v%)ume %f "he gas ' is "he "em,era"ure %f "he gas +measured in Qe)vin-$ k is a &%ns"an"$ Ea!,$" o- I*"a$ Ga& La Ca$()$a'+o
'he densi"y %f e"hane is 1$264 g dm 3 a" 20# and 1 a"m%s,here$ #a)&u)a"e "he re)a"ive f%rmu)a mass %f e"haneK 'he densi"y va)ue means "ha" 1 dm 3 %f e"hane *eighs 1$264 g$ Again. (ef%re *e d% any"hing e)se. ge" "he a*k*ard uni"s s%r"ed %u"$ A ,ressure %f 1 a"m%s,here is 101325 a$ 'he v%)ume %f 1 dm 3 has "% (e &%nver"ed "% &u(i& me"res. (y dividing (y 1000$ He have a v%)ume %f 0$001 m 3$ 'he "em,era"ure is 293 Q$
III$
Assignmen"s
1: 7a' *o %o) <o abo)' (arbo a* +'& bo* +' (aro a'o!& a* +' o'"r "$"!"'= G+/"& '" "a!,$" o- (o!,o)* -or C4 bo*& a* (4( bo*&> 'he m%s" &%mm%n "y,e %f %nd f%rmed (y &ar(%n is a &%va))en" (%nd$ 'his is (e&ause
&ar(%n "y,i&a))y (%nds *i"h e)emen"s$ Hhi&h have a simi)ar e)e&"r%nega"ivi"y$ Sing)e (%nd • Sharing a sing)e ,air %f e !%u()e (%nd • 'ri,)e (%nd • =ydr%&ar(%n +#=-
• • •
A)kanes A)kenes A)kynes
## • • • • • •
A)&%h%) "her A)dehid Qe"%n #ar(%y)i& a&id s"her
2: 5o '" "$"('ro& o- (arbo ar" r",r"&"'"& + '" orb+'a$& #D 2.8.2 #D1s2.2s2.2,6.3s2
3: I- *+a!o* a* ra,+'" ar" !a*" o$% o- (arbo& a' +/" '"! *+--"r"' ,ro,"r'+"&= B%"h diam%nd and gra,hi"e are made en"ire)y %u" %f &ar(%n a$ !iam%nd "he &ar(%n a"%ms are arranged "e"rahedra))"$ I" is s"r%nf. rigid "hree
dimensi%na) s"ru&"ure "ha" resu)" in an infini"e ne"*%rk %f a"%ms ($ Pra,hi"e a)s% aranges in an infini"e s"ru&"ure. (u" "hey are )ayered$ 'hese ,)anar arrays are he)d "%ge"her (y *eaker f%r&e kn%*n as s"a&king in"era&"i%ns
'here are 5 reas%n a$ I"s a(i)i"y "% f%rm )%ng &ar(%n&ar(%n &hains ($ I" &an (ind "% ea&h %"her n%" %n)y in s"raigh" &hains. (u" in &%m,)e (ran&hing &$ I" &an d% sing)e (%nds and a)s% d%u()e and "ri,)e (%nds d$ Same &%))e&"i%n %f a"%ms &an have differen" ge%me"ri&a) arrangemen"
?: 7a' +& '" *+--"r"(" b"'"" +'ra!o$"()$ar a* +'"r!o$"()$ar -or("&= In"ram%)e&u)ar is f%r&es "ha" h%)d a"%ms "%ge"her *i"hin a m%)e&u)e In"rm%)e&u)ar is f%r&es "ha" eis" (e"*een m%)e&u)e @: 7a' '%,"& o- +'"r!o$"()$ar -or("& "+&' b"'"" !o$"()$"&= 7a' +& '" 'r"*= a$ !i,%)edi,%)e )e&"r%nega"ivi"y differen&e. ,%)ari"y is im,)ified *hen
e)e&"r%nega"ivi"y differen&e is )arge and minied *hen "he differen&e is sma)) (%nd )eng"h. in&resasing (%nd )eng"h. de&reases di,%)e ($ =ydr%gen B%nding 'he m%re e)e&"r%nega"ive "he a"%m a""ra&"ed "% =. "he S"r%nger "he (%nd &$ J%nd%n !is,ersi%n S"reng"h de,ends %n "he ,%)aria(i)i" y. "he higher "he ,%)aria(i)i"y. "he s"r%nger "he a""ra&"i%n 6: 7% /a,or ,r"&&)r" o- &)b&'a("& a&&o(+a'"* +' +'"r!o$"()$ar -or("&= 'he s"r%nger "he in"erm%)e&u)ar f%r&es. "he s"r%nger "he in"era&"i%ns "ha" h%)d "he su(s"an&e a" "he given '. harder i" is "% va,%rie su(s"an&e$ If "he f%r&es are easy "% (reak. i" is easier f%r a su(s"an&e "% eva,%ra"e. "heref%re "he va,%r ,ressure a)s% in&reasing$ : Ra< '" !o$"()$"& + or*"r o- +(r"a&+ +'"r!o$"()$ar -or(" -or C ?510O 52O C53O5 #4=10@ di,%)edi,%)e T )%nd%n dis,ersi%n =2@ hydr%gen T !i,%)edi,%)e #=3@= =ydr%gen
#4=10@U #=3@=U =2@ : Ba&"* o '" +'"r!o$"()$ar -or("& ,r"&"' + '"&" !o$"()$"& a' ar" A B C (o!,o)*& +& '" /a,or ,r"&&)r" ,$o' b"$o
: 7"r" +& a')ra$ a& -o)* !o&'$%= 5o +& a')ra$ a& a')ra$$% (r"a'"*=
;a"ura) gas is ,r%du&ed *ide)y in "he *%r)d Mi))i%ns %f years ag%. "he remains %f ,)an"s and anima)s +dia"%ms- de&ayed and (ui)" u, in "hi&k )ayers. s%me"imes mied *i"h sand and si)"$ @ver "ime. "hese )ayers *ere (uried under sand. si)". and r%&k$ ressure and hea" &hanged s%me %f "his %rgani& ma"eria) in"% &%a). s%me in"% %i) +,e"r%)eum-. and s%me in"% na"ura) gas$ In s%me ,)a&es. "he na"ura) gas m%ved in"% )arge &ra&ks and s,a&es (e"*een )ayers %f %ver)ying r%&k$ In %"her ,)a&es. na"ura) gas %&&urs in "he "iny ,%res +s,a&es- *i"hin s%me f%rma"i%ns %f sha)e. sands"%ne. and %"her "y,es %f sedimen"ary r%&k *here i" is referred "% as sha)e gas %r "igh" gas$ ;a"ura) gas a)s% %&&urs in &%a) de,%si"s and is &a))ed &%a) (ed me"hane$ 10: 5o LPG +& ,r",ar"*= Do"& '" )&" o- $, +!,a(' o "/+ro!"'= JP is a mi"ure %f "*% f)amma()e (u" n%n "%i& gases *hi&h is ,r%,ane and (u"ane$ =%*ever. &%m,are "% "he %"her energy s%ur&e su&k as &%a) %r %i). gas re)ease )ess #@ 2 "han &%a) and %i) 11: 7a' +& '" *+--"r"(" b"'"" a')ra$ a& LPG a* SNG= ;a"ura) gas is "he gas "ha" ,)a&ed % "%, %f &rude %i) de,%si"s. a mi"ure %f me"hane and e"hane JP is a mi"ure %f ,r%,ane and (u"ane S;P is a ()end %f JP and di)uen"$ 12: 7a' (o*+'+o (a)&"& '" ",$o&+o o- LPG ,r"&&)r" /"&&"$&(%$+*"r= 7'a +& '" !a ,r"&&)r" 'a' (a " "$* b% LPG (%$+*"r= 'he (igger "he ,ressure is. "he easier i" is "% e,)%de 13: 5o *o %o) *"&(r+" '" +*"a$ a& $a a* o'"r a& $a&= 5"r%9& $a a* bo%$"9& $a=
Idea) gas )a* is defines as %ne in *hi&h a)) &%))isi%ns (e"*een a"%ms %r m%)e&u)es
are ,erfe&")y e)as"i& and *hi&h "here are n% in"erm%)e&u)ar a""ra&"ive f%r&es$ =enryLs Ja*. a" any &%ns"an" "em,era"ure. "he am%un" %f a given gas "ha" diss%)ves in a given "y,e and v%)ume %f )iuid is dire&")y ,r%,%r"i%na) "% "he
,ar"ia) ,ressure B%y)eLs )a*. f%r fies am%un" %f an idea) gas ke," a" a fied "em,era"ure. ,ressure
and v%)ume are inverse)y ,r%,%r"i%na) 1?: 5o !a% ra!& o- CO2 +& *+&&o$/"* + a 1 L o''$" o- (arboa'"* a'"r +- '" !a)-a(')r"r )&"& a ,r"&&)r" o- 2? a'! + '" bo''$+ ,ro("&& a' 2@ o(= K;26 a' 2@o(: V ; 1L P ; 2? a'! T ; 2@o( K;26 Ma'!
# D Qh$ D29.76$2$4 D71.424 M
n
D#$G D71.4$1 D71.4 Prams D 71.4$44D3141.6 grams 1@: I' +& o' &a-" 'o ,)' LPG (%$+*"r ($o*"& 'o a(a!,-+r" b"(a)&" '" ,r"&&)r" +&+*" '" (%$+*"r "'& /"r% + a* '"% (a ",$o*": I- %o) a/" r")$ar 2@L (%+*"r 'a' o$*& 2@ !o$"& o- a* '" T ar)* (a!,-+r" +& 2 oC: 7a'+& '" ,r"&&)r" +&+*" ,ro,a" a&= V;2@L ;2@ T;2oC P;=
G DnR' $25D25$0.082$+727V273D0.082$1000 D82 a 16: Yo) a/" 20 L (%$+*"r (o'a+ b)'"a" a& a* '" ,r"&&)r" a)" &o& ,r"&&)r" o- ? bar + 2@ oC: 7" '" /a$)" +& o," '" a& (o!b+" +' o%" + a+r a* b)r +' -$a!": 5o !)( L o- CO 2 ,ro*)("*=
G1 D 20J '1 D 25# 1 D 4 (ar D 3.94 a"m D 4 a"m GDnR' 4$20Dn$0.082$298 n1D 3.2 m%) 2#4=10V13@2
8#@2 V 10=2@
#@2 n2D 82 $3.2 D12.8 m%) V 1 V 2
20 V 2
=
=
n1 n2
3,2 12,8
V 2=80 L
IG$
Referen&es
Historyof carbon. >niversi"y %f Qen"u&ky. 2013
R%(er"$ C. #aseri%$ M+1977- Basic Principles of Organic hemistry. se&%nd edi"i%n$ Ben?amin$ In& h"",s***$(%und)ess$&%m&hemis"ry"e"(%%ks(%und)ess&hemis"ry"e"(%%kn%nme"a))i& e)emen"s21&ar(%n150,r%,er"ies%f&ar(%n5793570 h"",***$&k12$%rg,hysi&a)s&ien&e#ar(%nB%ndinginhysi&a)S&ien&e)ess%n#ar(%n B%ndingMSS h"",s***$khana&ademy$%rg"es",re,m&a"&hemi&a),r%&esses&%va)en" (%ndsain"ram%)e&u)arandin"erm%)e&u)arf%r&es