NOTES OF ISLAMIC HISTORY & CULTURE PART – I STUDY AREA – ONE : ANCIENT ARABIA
BABYLONIAN EMPIRE & CIVLIZATION: 1. ESTABLISHMENT: It was established about 2200 B.C. 2. LOCATION: Lower Mesopotamia ( central and southern Iraq ) 3. CAPITAL: Babylon 4. MOST FAMOUS KING: HAMMURABI; 1696-1954 B.C HEMMURABI was the 6th Babylonian ruler. He conquered the neighbouring countries and strengthened Babylonian empire a great deal. After remaining an unbeaten war champion for thirty years he also proved an equally great ruler for the rest of his life. 5. HEMMURABI’s Contributions: Hemmurabi’s Code He collected and codified old laws of the country. His code defined the rights and duties of husband and wife, master and slave, of merchants, of gardeners, of shepherds etc. Punishments were severe in his code. 6. BABYLONIAN SOCIAL SYSTEM: Babylonian society was divided into three social classes. THE AMELU: They were Babylonian aristocrats and constituted the upper class of the society. They were supposed to run the affairs of the state. THE MUSHKINU: They were the middle class and were chiefly engaged in business. They were free from state obligations and need not serve an army unless danger of invasion was imminent. THE SLAVES: They were the lower class. They had some specific privileges and could appeal to the law. However, they had no share in the state.
7. INTELLECTUAL CONDITIONS: Intellectually they were progressed than any other nation of their time. They were masters of ancient astrology. They divided the ZODIAC into twelve signs and named its constellations. They could foretell lunar and solar eclipse. They had more improved the calendar then that of Egyptians. They devised a week of seven days. They further divided the day into hours and hours into minutes.
8. RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS: Babylonians were worshippers of many gods. The most prominent feature of their religion was their belief in evil spirits. They sought to save themselves from the evil spirits by magic rites. Secondly, they believed in astrology or foretelling of events by the aspects of the planets and
stars. 9. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS: They were interested both in agriculture and commerce. They were especially interested in rearing flocks. No coinage was invented yet; trade and commerce was done through barter system. The Babylonian merchants devised a system of keeping accounts and banking; they also fixed weights and measures.
10. POSITION OF WOMEN: Women had exalted status and was recognized in society as an individual and citizen. She retained control over her own money and could go to the law independent of her husband. She had legal share in the estate of her father and her husband. She could possess her own business and slaves.
11. DECLINE OF BABYLONIAN EMPIRE: Babylonian empire was overthrown by the Persian king Cyrus the Great. (539 B.C)
BYZANTINE EMPIRE AND CIVILIZATION 1. NAME: It is also known as Eastern Rome or East Roman Empire. 2. ESTABLISHMENT: In 324 A.D Constantine-I transferred the capital of Roman Empire from Nicomedia to the side of the Greek town of Byzantine. He named the new capital “New Rome”. But it somehow became Constantinople. This Byzantine Empire got it separate recognition when the Roman Emperor Theodosius divided the empire between his two sons in 345 A.D 3. LOCATION: North Africa, Egypt, Syria, Palestine. 4. CAPITAL: CONSTANTINOPOLE 5. MOST FAMOUS KING: JUSTINIAN. 6. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS: CONSTANTINOPOLE’S geographical location made it the cross roads of the east and the west. It became not only a trading centre but also home of teeming industrial life. Thus, it provided Christendom with innumerable products in gold, silk, perfumes, carpets, leather goods, textiles etc. The Byzantine Empire regulated its economic life in much the same fashion as modern totalitarian states. 7. SOCIAL LIFE: Due to material progress and affluence the Byzantinian social life was very colourful. The centre of all social and cultural activities in the empire was Constantinople, the capital. It was known far and wide for its palaces, groves, gardens, fountains, barracks, stables filled with costly race horses.
Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest European city in the middle ages.
8. RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS: Christianity was the state religion of the Byzantine Empire. The emperor was master of both political and religious affairs. He claimed ‘Divine Right to Rule’.
9. POLITICAL CONDITIONS: Byzantine was absolute monarchy surrounded by a well trained and centralized bureaucracy. The control of the emperor was absolute.
10. POSITION OF WOMEN Women played an important part in the byzantine society. Empress Theodora, Irene and many other prominent women exercised great influence in social affairs. 11. DECLINE OF BYZANTINE EMPIRE: 1
SASSINID EMPIRE AND CIVILIZATION: 1. ESTABLISHMENT: Empire was founded by Ardashir I and lasted from 224 A.D to 651 A.D 2. LOCATION: It encompassed the present Iran, Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, Caucasus ( Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan and Dagestan ), South Western Central Asia and Persian gulf area. 3. CAPITAL: Ardshir-khwarrah ( Present Firouzabad in Iran ). 4. RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS: Zoroastrianism was the state religion of the Sassanid Empire. Besides Zoroastrianism, Christianity was also recognized by Yazd Eger I as allowable faith within the premises of Sassanid Empire. 5. SOCIAL CONDITIONS: According to historians, the Sassanid society was divided into four classes. 1 Priests 2 Warriors 3 Secretaries 4 Commoners 5 Apart from these, the royal princess, petty rulers and great landlords together constituted a privileged class.
6
At the centre of Sassanid caste system was the ‘SHEHNSHAH’, ruling over all the nobles.
6. INTELLECTUAL CONDITIONS: 1 The Sassanid kings were enlightened patrons of letters and philosophy. 2 Khusro I had the works of Plato and Aristotle translated into ‘Pehlvi’ and even read them himself. 3 Under his patronage, the college of ‘Gundi Shahpur’, founded in 5th Century, became the greatest intellectual centre of the time. 4 The art flourished tremendously in Sassanid Empire and influenced Islamic culture and architecture in the years to come. 7. POLITICAL CONDITIONS: 1 The Sassanid empire was absolute monarchy with the ‘Shehnshah’ being the absolute and ultimate ruler. 8. DECLINE AND DOWNFALL OF SASSANID EMPIRE: 2 After a series of wars, with the Sassanids, the Muslims brought the downfall of the empire, in the 651 A.D
ARABS BEFORE THE ADVENT OF ISLAM ( JAHLIYA PERIOD ) “Never in the annals of history of the world was the need so great, the time so ripe, for the appearance of a deliverer.” ( Ameer Ali ) 1. POLITICAL CONDITIONS: Politically Arabia was the under great chaos and unrest due to following reasons: The absence of a central government. Tribal wars on petty issues resulted into unending bloodshed and barbarism. The nomadic Bedouins were land pirates. They plundered their neighbours, caravans, the helpless and the weak. Political power depended solely on availability of man to kill and be killed. 2. MORAL CONDITIONS: “War, Women and Wine were the three absorbing passions of the Arabs.” (Khuda Bux) Before the advent of Islam, the Arabs were indulged in all vices; drinking, debauchery, robbery, murder and infanticide. Polygamy and polyandry were in vogue. Prostitution was a recognized profession. Women had no inheritance in property. 3. SOCIAL CONDITIONS: “For them, their existed only tribe and family but no Arab nation. What they further lacked was the sense of subordination.” ( Joseph Hell ) Socially, the Arabs had collapsed the fabric of society.
Chaos, disorder, violence was rampant. Building a civilized and rule based society was regarded by them as hindrance to their freedom. Slavery was immanent in Arab society. Slaves were treated most inhumanly.
4. RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS: Religiously, the Arabia painted a lamentable picture. They were indulged in idolatry and nature worshiping. They did not believe in oneness of God and life hereafter. The house of Ka’aba had become the house of idols. Only it had 360 idols. Magicians exploited the poor who believed in evil spirits and superstitions.
5. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS: Barren soil and non-navigable rivers and dry climate made cultivation of Arab desert impossible. Poverty made the most penniless Arabs to commit infanticide. Bedouins mainly reared flock and cattle. Camel acted as ship of the desert. In TRADE, Makkah was the a great commercial centre. South Arabia supplied super fine leather and valuable materials for dress. North Arabia supplied corn and weapons. Trade was carried out through barter system.
6. INTELLECTUAL CONDITIONS: The Arabs excelled the whole world especially in their poetry, memory power and eloquence. They had wild love for their language, Arabic. Amral Qais was the most prominent pre-Islamic poet. Education in the modern sense was yet to develop.
7. CONCLUSION: “The stage was set; the moment was psychological for the rise of a great religious and psychological leader. The Prophet came as a mercy towards the creatures and raised the Arabs from a fallen state to the highest pitch of glory.” ( Philip K. Hitti )
Significance of Islam as a Revolutionary Force
1. RELIGIOUS REFORMS BROUGHT BY ISLAM: Shift from polytheism to monotheism. Belief in one God, prophet, day of judgment. 2. SOCIAL REFROMS
1 2 3 4 5 6
Shift from tribal to egalitarian society. Muslim brotherhood prevailed. No more social evils. Blood thirsty enemies became brothers. Best example at Madinah after hijrah. End to all social classes existing in pre-Islamic world.
3. 1 2 3 4
POLITICAL REFORMS Islamic political system based on equality, liberty and fraternity. No more tribal warfare. Concept of pan-Islamism. Establishment of Islamic Empire which is one of the greatest empire of all the time.
4. INTELLECTUAL REFORMS 1 Islam brought a revolutionary change in the pre-Islamic intellectual domains. 2 Islam promoted learning and education. “It is obligatory for every Muslim man and woman to acquire knowledge.” (Al-hadith) 3 Arabs who were previously known as lizard eaters became the most civilized people on the face of earth. 4 Muslim rulers patronized educational, cultural and intellectual development in the cities of Baghdad, Damascus, Cordova and Granada which proved to be greatest centers of civilization in the world. 5. ECONOMIC REFORMS 1 Islam introduced the best economic system the human society ever witnessed. 2 Measures like Zakat, Charity, ensures the circulation of wealth and discourage its accumulation into few hands. 3 Islam strictly prohibits economic exploitation of people in any form or shape. 4 Islam gives right of inheritance to woman which the Arabs during Jahliya Period denied. STUDY AREA – TWO: THE HOLY PROPHET ( P.B.U.H)
HIJRAH: 13th Nabvi ( Sept 24, 622 A.D ) “ The years of rejection, persecution, and seemingly failure came to an end, and years of honour and success dawned in the life of Muhammad (P.B.U.H).” ( Philip K Hitti ) “Leaving the city of his birth as a despised Prophet, he entered city of adoption as an honoured chief.” ( Philip K Hitti ) CAUSES OF HIJRAH: 1. The refusal of Quraish to embarrass Islam.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
The atrocities of Quraish. the precedent of Hijrah to Habsha (Abyssinya). The love and considerations of Madinites. The death of Hazrat Khadija (R.A) and Abu Talib. The assassination plan by infidels. The divine revelation.
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF HIJRAH 1. Helpless minority in Makkah turned into powerful majority in Madinah. 2. Priendly climate of preaching. 3. Madinah, a centre for Muslims with strong defense. 4. Unshared political powers of Muslims. 5. Establishment of Islamic Society in Madinah. 6. Spread of Islam. 7. Economic growth of Muslims. 8. Separate identity for Muslims. 9. Emancipation from Quraish. 10. Beginning of Islamic calendar. “Seventeen years later, the caliph Umar (R.A) designated that lunar year in which the Hijrah took place as the official starting point of the Muslim era.” (Philip K Hitti) EVENTS OF HIJRAH 1 Departure from Makkah to Madinah with Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A). 2 Stay in Thawr Cave (3 miles from Makkah) for three days. 3 The chase by Quraish. 4 Arrival at Quba and stay for fourteen days. 5 Warm welcome at Madinah. CONCLUSION 1 Hijrah proved a turning point and a new chapter for both Muslims and the preaching of Islam. 2 Islam could have died down forever if Hijrah had not been carried out.
CHARTER OF MADINAH IMPORTANT CLAUSES 1 Common nationality for all communities. 2 Common defense. Common enemies/Common friends. 3 (All parties are bound help each other in case of foreign assault. None among the stakeholders can sign a separate peace while Muslims are fighting in the path of Allah.) 4 Common interest against Quraish. (No non-believer in Madinah will intervene in favour of Quraish.) 5 Religious freedom for all. 6 Equal Rights for all. (Social, Legal and Economic Equality.) 7 Protection of the oppressed.
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Muslims help other Muslims. Mutual advice and consultation. Sanctity of Madinah. Muhammad (P.B.U.H) will be the sole arbitrator.
IMPORTANCE OF THE CHARTER “The constitution reveals Muhammad’s (P.B.U.H) great diplomatic skills for it allows the ideal that he cherished of an Ummah.” (Encyclopedia of Islam) “The charter of Madinah was a social contract derived from a treaty and was built upon the concept of one community of diverse tribes.” (L. Ali Khan, Legal Scholar) “The holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) of Islam had been neglected and abused by his own people at Makkah, while at Madinah he was not only received as an honoured chief but also made president of the republic.” (Hugh Kennedy) 1 First written constitution of the world. 2 Magna Carta of early Islam. 3 Statesmanship of holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) 4 Civil liberties and equal rights for all. 5 Defence of Madinah. 6 Protection of the Muslims. 7 Islam as politico-religious entity. 8 Legitimate right of Muslims to spread Islam. 9 Peace, the foremost lesson of Islam.
TREATY OF HUDAIBIYA
1. BACKGROUND Six years had passed since Muslims left Makkah. They had strong desire to visit their homes and pilgrimage. 2. 1 2 3 4
INTENTION OF PILGRIMAGE Departure from Madinah with 1400 companions. 6th Hijri, in the month of Zulqadha. Response of Quraish. Stay at Hudaibiya
3. 1 2 3 4
BAIT-E-RIDHWAN Hazrat Uthman (R.A) sent as a messenger. Quraish reluctance to allow to the pilgrimage. Rumour of Hazrat Uthman’s (R.A) death. Oath of allegiance under the tree.
4. TREATY OF HUDAIBIYA
1
SOHAIL BIN AMAR came from the side of Quraish to negotiate the terms of the treaty.
5. 2 3 4 5 6
TERMS OF THE TREATY Return this year and perform pilgrimage next year. Next year, Muslims will come unarmed. Suspension of war for ten years. Arabs tribe will be at liberty to join any either of the two groups. Muslims will return anyone going from Makkah to Quraish but the Quraish will not.
6. IMPORTANCE OF THE TREATY 1 Revelation of clear victory. “We have given thee a clear victory.” (Al-Quran) 2 After the treaty Muslims started visiting Makkah having free interaction with the people there. This interaction paved the way for Makkans to study the positive changes in the lives of Muslims brought about by Islam. They were deeply impressed by the teachings of Islam and embraced Islam thick and fast. 3 The signing of the treaty with Muslims by Quraish was the obvious indicator that they are compelled to accept Muslims as no longer homeless and helpless people but an equally powerful group. 4 The treaty was the living example of peaceful co-existence of Muslims. It impacted well on the Arab tribes that were fed up with the bloody warfare going on for centuries. Thus they whole heartedly started joining Muslims. 5 Letters to foreign rulers; I. Byzantine Ruler Hercules received the Muslim envoy well. II. Sassanid Ruler Chosroe insulted the envoy. III. Christian Prince of Bannu Gussan treacherously killed the envoy. IV. Persian Governor of Yemen embraced Islam. 6 The treaty backfired to the Quraish (Abu Baseer at Aes) 7 The treaty proved to be precursor of the conquest of Makkah. 7. IMPORTANCE OF THE TREATY ACCORDING TO HISTORIANS “The treaty of Huddabiya gave a breathing space to the two combatants and of this the Prophet (P.B.U.H) reaped the whole advantage”. (Encyclopedia Britannica) “The treaty of Huddabiya is looked upon as a model for drawing up the draft of the model arbitration treaty”. (Majeed Khudri) “The treaty was thus favourable to Muhammad (P.B.U.H) in the long term strategy but for the moment it left him to deal with the disappointment of his followers. (Montgomery Watt)
THE CONQUEST OF MAKKAH 1) BACKGROUND 1
Treaty of Huddabiya violated (Bannu Bakr attacked Bannu Khuzza)
2 Three offers given to Quraish i. Pay blood money of the murdered ii. Quraish withdraw from their support for Bannu Bakr iii. It be announced that the treaty of Huddabiya has fallen apart 3 Quraish went for the third option but then regretted and requested to keep the treaty intact but it was rejected. 2) 1 2 3 4 5 6
EVENTS March of Army (10,000 Mujhadeen) Abu Sufyan arrested and pardoned The Prophet (P.B.U.H) was in Makkah The most peaceful conquest Breaking of idols Forgiveness for all
3) EFFECTS OF THE CONQUEST i. Triumph of truth over falsehood “Truth has come and falsehood vanished” (AL-Quran) ii. The hold of Muslims on the center of Arabs iii. Beginning of new era in the preaching of Islam iv. End to hostility against Arabia v. The day of rebirth of Humanity vi. The red letter day in the history of Arabs vii. Establishment of new power in the world viii.Islamic preaching of peace and the conquest 4) CONCLUSION “Thus Muhammad (P.B.U.H) entered again in His native city. Through all the annals of conquest, there is no triumphant entry comparable to this one” (Stanley L Poole)
THE LAST SERMON OF THE HOLY PROPHET (P.B.U.H)
1) BACKGROUND 10th Hijrah, The Prophet felt that his mission was completed and the sublime task accomplished Divine indications that he would soon join his Lord. (Surah Nasr) He decided to make farewell address on the occasion of Hajj All the tribes were informed
2) EVENTS Departure from Madina and arrival at Makkah Performance of Hajj rituals Arrival at Arafat (9 Zil-Hajj) The sermon
3) SALIENT FEATURES OF THE SERMON i. Equality “All of you are as equal as the fingers of a hand …… The Arabs are not superior to the Ajamis, nor the Ajamis superior to Arabs.” ii.Rights of wives
“O people! You have rights over your wives and your wives over you. Treat your wives with kindness. You have taken them on the security of Allah and made them lawful unto you by the words of Allah”. iii. Muslim Brotherhood “O people! Listen to my words and remember that all Muslims are brothers unto one another”. iv. Preaching of Justice “Guard yourself from committing injustice”. v.No exploitation of the weak “You will not take your brother’s belongings which he will not give you out of good will”. vi. Rights of slaves “Feed your slaves as you feed yourselves and cloth your slaves as you cloth yourselves”. vii. Bloodshed prohibited “All bloodshed in the days of ignorance is to be left unavenged”. viii. Islam perfected “This day have I perfected for you your faith and completed my blessing upon you, and have accepted for you Islam as religion”. (AL-QURAN) 4) IMPORTANCE OF THE SERMON “Never before had a spectacle been witnessed in the annals of world nor had humanity heard such moving words, advocating respect for the humans”. (Bashir-ud-Din Muhammad) “This sermon on the mount appeals by its practicality and strong common sense to higher minds”. (Syed Ameer Ali)
THE HOLY PROPHET (P.B.U.H) AS A SOCIAL REFORMER 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)
SOCIAL EQUALITY PARAGON OF PEACE SUPPORTER OF EDUCATION AND KNOWLEDGE SAVIOUR OF WOMEN RELIGIOUS TOLERENCE SAVIOUR OF SLAVES AND THEIR RIGHTS UPHOLDER OF JUSTICE DEATH OF ETHNOCENTRISM
9) INTERNATIONAL BROTHERHOOD AND PLURALISTIC VISION 10) CONCLUSION “Of all the religious personalities of the world, Muhammad (P.B.U.H) was the most successful”. (Encyclopedia Britannica) “He was the only man in history who was supremely successful on both the religious and secular levels”. (Michael H. Hart)
TEACHINGS OF THE HOLY PROPHET (P.B.U.H): AN ANALYSIS 1) ONENESS OF ALLAH: Foundation of his teachings 2) UNIVERSALITY OF HIS TEACHINGS
3) TEACHINGS ACCOMPANIED BY PRACTICE 4) PIETY AND RIGHTEOUSNESS: The foremost lessons 5) SPECIAL FOCUS ON THE HELPLESS AND THE WEAK Women, Children, Slaves, Old parents, Orphans etc
6) NO SUPERIORITY BASED ON RACE, COLOUR, CREED, CASTE 7) JUSTICE AND FAIR PLAY 8) GOOD MANNERS: THE PRIME VIRTUE 9) ISLAMIC BROTHERHOOD 10) SYED SULEMAN NADVI OBSERVES The Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) possesses all the four fundamental qualities required for the universal role model. a. Historical authenticity b. Completeness c. Comprehensiveness d. Practical implementation
HOLY PROPHET AS A SOLDIER
1) PURPOSE OF FIGHTING Not wealth, power and luxury To eradicate evils from the world To make man slave of Allah rather than that of man
2) POLICY OF FIGHTING Three choices for enemies i. Embrace Islam and become our brothers ii.Pay tax (Jazya) and take our security iii. Come out for fight
3) PEACE- NOT BLOODSHED THE FIRST OPTION Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) was not a warmonger He was a peace maker in the world i. Charter of Madina ii.Treaty of Hudabiya iii. Conquest of Makkah
4) QUALITIES AS A SOLDIR: Bravery and determination 5) TREATMENT WITH ENEMY
Clemency and forgiveness No revenge from the blood enemy i. Abu Sufyan ii.The people of Makkah were forgiven
6) ACHIEVEMENTS AS A SOLDIER
Victory in the war of Badr Victory in the Ditch Conquest of Makkah
7) CONCLUSION
NOTES OF STUDY AREA – IV HAZRAT ABU BAKR (R.A) 1. INTRODUCTION 1 Name: Abdullah 2 Kunyat: Abu Bakr 3 Title: Siddique 4 Tribal Link: Bani Tamim 5 First among men to embrace Islam. 6 Period of caliphate: 632 – 634 A.D (11 A.H – 13 A.H) 2. ELECTION 1 Demise of the Prophet (P.B.U.H): 8th June; 632 A.D 2 Aspirants of Caliphate: i) The orthodox Muslims ( Abu Bakr, Umar, Abu Ubaida, Sa’ad bin Abi Waqas, Abdur Rehman bin Auf) ii) Alids ( Supporters of Hazrat Ali (R.A) ) iii) The Ummayads headed by Abu Sufyan iv) Ansars
3. CONTROVERSY AND FINAL ELECTION i) Meeting at Saqifah bani Sa’dah 1 Ansars claim over the succession of the Prophet (P.B.U.H) for their services to Islam. 2 Abu Bakr’s acknowledgment of the services of Ansars. 3 But, the sovereignty of the Islamic state was the question of all the Arabs. 4 Arab tribes considered Quraish only superior to all Arabs due to their prestige and noble birth. 5 Hubab bin Manzar’s proposal for selecting two chiefs; one from Ansars and the other from Muhajireen. 6 Abu Ubaida al Jarrah’s these words pacified Ansars, “O Ansars! You were the first to uphold Islam. Do not be the first also to sow the seed of dissention in it.” 7 Abu Bakr proposed to select any between Umar and Abu Ubaida. 8 They both paid homage to Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A) and selected him as the first caliph. ii) Confirmation of Election 1 Next day 9th June; 632. 2 All the people of Madinah assembled in mosque. 3 After the funeral of the Prophet (P.B.U.H) general pledge taking ceremony was held which confirmed Abu Bakr’s caliphate. iii) Inaugural Speech by Hazrat Abu Bakr “O People! You have chosen me as your chief, although I am not best amongst you…if I do well, support me; if I make a mistake, then set me right. As long as I obey Allah and His Prophet (P.B.U.H), obey me; wherein I disobey, obey me not.” PROBLEMS FACED BY HAZRAT ABU BAKR (R.A): 1. USAMA’S EXPEDITION: Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) during his last days set Usama to leave for Syrian expedition. But due to the Prophet’s (P.B.U.H) demise Usama could not leave Madinah. Now in the new state of affairs Madinah was badly threatened by rebellious Bedouin tribes and apostates assembled around Madinah. Many prominent Sahaba advised Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A) either to put off the expedition or send it under the command of an experience general rather than Usama, the seventeen year Youngman. Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A) replied: “ The army shall go even if I alone have to fight against the rebellious Bedouins. As regards Usama, I do not dare to dismiss a person whom the Prophet (P.B.U.H) of Allah has himself appointed. Madinah may stand or fall; the caliph may live or die; but the last words of the Prophet (P.B.U.H) must be obeyed.” 2. DEFENCE OF MADINAH: 1 After the departure of Usama with the main fighting force, Madinah was left defenseless. 2 Thus it was vulnerable to be attacked and plundered by the hostile and rebellious Bedouins and apostates.
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A), in this critical situation, himself marched against them with Hazrat Ali (R.A), Talha (R.A) and Zubair (R.A). He posted them on the outer defense of Madinah. He ordered the people of Madinah to be ready at a moment’s notice. Finally there happened the ‘Battle of Dhul Qassa’ in which the three Najadi tribes; Banu Abs, Banu Zubyan, and Banu Sulaym attacked Madinah. It resulted in the victory of Muslims. When Usama returned victorious from Syrian expedition, Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A) appointed him to disperse the rebellion tribes around Madinah which he did in the ‘Battle of Rabadah’. Thus the defense of Madinah which once was a great challenge was strengthened by Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A).
3. NON-PAYERS OF ZAKAT: 1 After the demise of the Prophet (P.B.U.H) different tribes refused to pay Zakat. 2 Due to grim circumstances at the threshold of Hazrat Abu Bakr’s caliphate some prominent companions thought it tactful to give relaxation in payment of Zakat. 3 Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A) strictly turned down any idea of allowing distortion in the teachings of Islam and said, “I swear by Allah that even if so much as a piece of string is withheld from Zakat, I shall order war against them.” 4. PRETENDERS OF PROPHETHOOD: i) Musailma, the liar: He belonged to the powerful tribe of Banu Hanifa. He lived in Yamama. Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A) dispatched Akrama and Shurahbil to put him down. But they were unable to do so before the might of Musailama. Finally Hazrat Khalid defeated and killed him in a fierce battle. ii) Sajah Bint Al - Harith 1 She belonged to Bani Tamim. 2 She gathered might. 3 On way to Madinah she met Musalama and married him. 4 Hazrat Khalid crushed the revolt in Bani Tamim. iii) Tulaiha 1 He belonged to Bani Asad. 2 He was given a crushing defeat by Hazrat Khalid. 3 After defeat he escaped and returned to Islam again. iv) Aswad Ansi 1 He rose in Yemen. 2 Due to split in his army, he was killed by his own commander. APOSTASY MOVEMENT: 1 After the demise of the Prophet (P.B.U.H), a number of tribes revolted both politically and religiously.
2 3
The Arabs except Makkah, Taif, and some other tribes, took the death of the Prophet (P.B.U.H) as a golden opportunity to throw off the yoke of allegiance to Madinah. Now it was the greatest challenge for Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A) to destroy the apostasy in Arabia and bring people back into the lap of ISLAM.
CAUSES OF APOSTASY: i) Disunity Apostasy cropped up because Arabia was never wholly united under the fold of Islam. ii) Tribal System 1 Arabs were loyal to their tribal chiefs and customs. 2 They never learnt to live up under a central political authority. 3 Thus, after the demise of Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H), they wanted to remain attached with their tribal system. iii) Desire to revive old order 1 With appearance of Islam, many chieftains lost their power. 2 They resorted to apostasy in order to revive old order. iv) Arabian Nomadism; Bedouins 1 The Bedouins were born rebels, wild,anarchic and ungovernable in spirit, disloyal in allegiance. 2 Islam forbade them from these evils and tried to discipline them with injunctions of new faith. 3 However, Islam could not sunk deep into their hearts in a short time. 4 Thus, they turned to apostasy. V) Attraction of new religion Teachings of Islam were too harsh for the Arabs who loved the license and indulgence of the paganism of pre-islamic times. They could not digest the restrictions on drinking, plundering, and bloodshed. vi) Lack of proper training 1 Most of the tribes who apostatized were the ones who could not be properly trained by the Prophet (P.B.U.H) and his devoted companions. 2 Therefore, these tribes could not be well Islamized. vii) Economic Cause The Arabs were never known to the payment of Zakat and Khiraj. However, these were mandatory to be paid which proved heavy on their pockets. Thus it compelled them to join hands with apostasy movement. viii) Lack of communication 1 It instigated the people of the far flung areas to defect the center. 2 Communication gap created many misunderstandings among tribes. ix) Tribal Bigotry 1 During jahliya period tribes were opponents of one another. 2 This was prohibited by Islam which tried to make all Arabs brother to one another. 3 However, it was not accepted by the tribes and they refused to forget the centuries old enmity. 4 In order to continue tribal bigotry they turned to apostasy. ACHEIVEMENTS OF HAZRAT ABU BAKR (R.A)
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Saviour of Islam Destruction of apostasy Destruction of false Prophethood. Enforcement of Zakat Victory in Syrian expedition Compilation of the Holy Quran The conquest in Byzantine and Persian Empires.
CHARACTER OF HAZRAT ABU BAKR (R.A) 1 2 3 4 5 6
True follower of Islam and Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H). Sagacious and Wise. Determined and Bold. Simple and Humble. Honest and Truthful. Consistent and Sincere.
STUDY AREA V: HAZRAT UMER FAROOQ (R.A) ELECTION AS A CALIPH: 1 Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A) discussed Hazrat Umer (R.A)’s nomination with Hazrat Abdur Rehman (R.A) bin Auf and Hazrat Talha (R.A). 2 They both accepted Hazrat Umer (R.A)’s abilities but expressed concerns about his strict behaviour. 3 Further Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A) discussed with Hazrat Uthman (R.A) and asked him to write his will for Hazrat Umer (R.A). 4 Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A)’s final words to the people regarding the nomination of Hazrat Umer (R.A); “I have not nominated any of my relatives but Hazrat Umer (R.A), whom I believe the best amongst you. Do you endorse my nomination?” 5 People did so. INTRODUCTION TO HAZRAT UMER (R.A) Valiant in battle, wise in counsel, elegant in speech, true to his friends, magnanimous to his foes, Hazrat Umer (R.A) was the paragon of Muslim nobility and the chivalry of Arab tradition. He was not only a good soldier but also great administrator. As a person he was humane in his conduct, forbearing and pious in manners and was endowed with so intellectual powers that his predecessors had consulted in matters of Islamic jurisprudence and other administrative affairs of the empire. As a great administrator, he paid special attention to the financial, administrative, and judicial institutions so that good management, tax system, and justice could be ensured throughout his empire. Hazrat Umer (R.A) owned, as we are told, one shirt and one mantle only both conspicuous for their patchwork, slept on a bed of palm leaves, and had no concern other than the maintenance of the purity of the faith, the upholding of justice, and the ascendancy and the security of Islam and the Muslims.
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NAME: UMER BIN KHATAB (R.A) TITLE: FAROOQUE TRIBE: BANU ADI PERIOD OF CALIPHATE: 13 A.H – 23 A.H ( 634 A.D – 644 )
EXPANSION OF MUSLIM EMPIRE DURING THE CALIPHATE OF HAZRAT ABU BAKR (R.A) AND HAZRAT UMER (R.A): CONQUESTS IN SASSINID EMPIRE (IRAN & IRAQ): 1 QUEEN AZARMIR DAKHT was the Sassanid/Persian empress when conflict started between Muslims and the Sassanids. 2 Initially the conflict started between the border Arab tribe, WAIL and the Iraqis. 3 Masna, tribal chief of wail tribe, requested Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A) for military assistance to invade Iraq. 4 Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A) dispatched army under the command of Hazrat Khalid bin Waleed. 5 When Khalid reached the border area, Masna accepted him as the commander-in-chief and organized Muslim army under Khalid’s command. 6 Then there came the ‘Battle of chains’. 1. BATTLE OF CHAINS. 7 It took place in 633 A.D 8 Hormuz was the Persian governor of Iraq. 9 Khalid wrote to Hormuz; “Accept Islam and you are safe or else pay tribute both you and your people. If you refuse, you shall have yourself to blame. You will have to fight a people who love death as you love life.” 10 Hormuz forwarded the letter to the Persian empress and himself came out to face Khalid. 11 At the end, Khalid stood victorious in the ‘Battle of chains’. 2. BATTLE OF WALAJA 12 It took place April; 633. 13 Persian army came under the command of Andarz gard. 14 It ended up with Khalid’s victory. 3. THE CONQUEST OF HIRA 15 The people of Hira signed treaty with Khalid and offered to pay one lac and ninety thousand darhams as jizya. 4. THE BATTLE OF FIRAZ 16 The place firaz was a crossroads for Iran, Iraq and Hira. 17 Thus Iranians, Romans and Hirites jointly launched a defense of strategic point of firaz against Khalid’s attack. 18 Finally, Khalid won. 19 After victory at firaz, Khalid left for Hajj and when returned, Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A) sent him to Syrian invasion.
Note: Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A) passed away while the Sassanid invasion by Muslims reached at this point. From now on, the conquests will be recorded in the caliphate of Hazrat Umer (R.A). 5. THE BATTLE OF BRIDGE 20 Masna came to Madinah, once again for further help to invade Iraq and Iran. 21 He met Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A) on his death bed who advised Hazrat Umer (R.A), the second caliph, to give every possible help to Masna. 22 Hazrat Umer (R.A) sent reinforcement with Masna, and made Abu Ubaid commander despite the opposition of other companions. 23 Abu Ubaid reached Iraq and after some minor fights, there came the ‘battle of bridge.’ 24 Both armies were settled on the opposite banks of river Euphrates. 25 Ubaid despite opposition of Masna, crossed the river, and made a fatal mistake. 26 Persians had come with elephants and damaged Muslim army very badly. 27 Due to unbridged river on their back, Muslims could not even draw back. 28 3,000 (three thousands) out of 9,000 (nine thousands) Muslims could survive. 29 Abu Ubaid himself got martyred. 6. BATTLE OF BUYAB 30 This time Masna was to face the Persian commander, Mehran. 31 Once again Euphrates, hurdled between two armies. 32 This time Mehran was asked to cross the river. 33 Despite being wounded, Masna fought courageously and stood victorious. CONSEQUENCES OF DEFEAT AT BUYAB ON PERSIANS 34 Persians were shaken down to the ground. 35 They dethroned queen Azarmi Gard, and made Yazd Gard, their new emperor. 36 Yazd Gard appointed Rustam, their chief commander, to wipe out Muslims from sassinid Empire. 37 Thus comes the decisive ‘Battle of Qadisiya’. 38 Hazrat Umer (R.A) himself wanted to command against Rustam in the decisive battle of Qadisiya, but Majlis-e-Shura did not permit. 39 Finally, Sa’ad bin Abi Waqas, was appointed supreme commander of Muslim Army for this battle. 7. BATTLE OF QADISIYA 40 It took place on May 30; 637 A.D (Muharam 14th A.H) 41 Rustam came with 1,20,000 (One lac twenty thousand) soldiers. 42 Hazrat Sa’ad had an army of 30,000 (thirty thousand) Muslims. 43 The battle lasted three days and four nights. DAY – ONE: IRANIAN came with elephants and damaged Muslims a great deal. DAY- TWO: Muslims covered their camels in black cloth which frightened the Iranian horses and remained dominant. DAY – THREE: Muslims attacked courageously. Fight went on all night. Muslims virtually conquered.
DAY – FOUR: Rustam himself entered to fight but was killed. Sa’ad stood victorious. 8. FALL OF MADAIN, THE IRANIAN CAPITAL 44 After Qadisiya, Hazrat Sa’ad advanced towards Madain. 45 The city was parted into two halves by the river Tirgris. 46 After some resistance Sa’ad entered both halves by force. 47 Emperor fled away leaving the richest city of the Sassinid Empire for the Muslims. 9. BATTLE OF NAHWAND 48 Yazd Gard made final ditch effort to recover the Empire from Muslims and sent Mardan Shah with one lac fifty thousand (1,50,000) army. 49 Hazrat Umer (R.A) desired to lead army himself but once again Majlis-e-Shura did not permit. 50 Hazrat Nouman bin Makran, was appointed commander-in-chief of Muslim army. 51 Muslims ended up with victory. 52 After this battle, general expedition took place and the whole of Sassanid Empire fell to Muslims. MUSLIMS CONQUEST IN BYZANTINE EMPIRE (SYRIA, PALASTINE, JORDAN, EGYPT) 53 Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A) sent four divisions of army under four different commanders for Syrian invasion. i. ii. iii. iv. 54 55 56
YAZEED BIN ABU SUFYAN: 5,000 troops directed to Damascus. 2. SHURAHBIL IBNE HASNA: 5,000 troops directed to central Syria. AMR BIN A’AS: 5,000 troops directed to Ayla. ABU UBAIDA AL JARAH: Supreme commander of all Muslim army in Syria. Total troops sent to Syrian invasion were 20,000. Hazrat Khalid was also called from Iraqi front to join Muslim army in Syria. Khalid came with 9,000 troops from Iraq and here in Syria was selected as supreme commander by other Muslim commanders stationed there.
1. BATTLE OF AJNAHDAIN 57 It took place on July 30; 634 A.D 58 Muslim strength 40,000. 59 Christian strength 100,000 plus. 60 Muslim commander Khalid bin Waleed. 61 Christian commander Theodrus, emperor’s brother. 62 Khalid stood victorious and Theodrus fled away. 63 The news of the victory at Ajnahdain reached Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A) on his death bed.
Note: From now on, the conquests in Byzantine Empire will be recorded in the caliphate of Hazrat Umer (R.A). 64 After the defeat at Ajnahdain, the Byzantine emperor Heraclius fled away from Emesa (Hims) to Antich in northern Syria which became his second capital.
65 Now Khalid divided his army into three sections such as; a) Shurabil to Jordan b) Amr bin A’as to Palestine c) He himself with Abu Ubaida and Yazid marched towards Damascus. 2. SIEGE OF DAMASCUS 66 Khalid laid down the siege of Damascus in 635 A.D 67 Khalid called Shurabil and Amr bin A’as also at the siege of Damascus. 68 Finally the Syrians came to terms and signed the treaty with Hazrat Khalid. 69 The Syrians were supposed to pay tax one dinar and one Jarib (twenty mounds of wheat) per head annually. 3. BATTLE OF YARMOK 70 It took place on August 20; 636 A.D 71 It was the decisive battle in the Syrian land. 72 Byzantine commander Theodrus came with one lac plus troops. 73 Hazrat Khalid had thirty thousand Mujahideen. 74 Byzantine army despite greater in number was divided and parted in racial and geographical terms. 75 Secondly, they were strange to the adverse climate of the desert. 76 The Arabs were extremely united under the command of Hazrat Khalid. 77 They were also fighting on home ground as desert and its climate were never new to them. 78 Almost one lac of the Christian soldiers were put under the sword by Muslims. 79 After the ‘battle of Yarmok’ there was no formidable resistance for the Muslims in the Syrian land. “Syria is as calm as a camel.” Khalid wrote to the Caliph. 80 After this battle, Hazrat Umer (R.A) dismissed Khalid from the commandership of Muslim army and appointed Abu Ubaida Al Jarah as new supreme commander of Muslim army. 81 Abu Ubaida divided his army such as; i. Shurabil sent to Jordan. ii. Yazid sent to Lebanon. iii. Amr bin A’as to Palestine and Jerusalem. iv. Abu Ubaida himself captured Damascus.
4. CAPTURE OF JERUSALEM 82 Amr approached Jerusalem. 83 Byzantine commander Artubun came out for fight. 84 After facing the Muslim resistance, Artubun offered to surrender the city but demanded that the Muslim caliph should himself come to receive the keys of the city. 85 Hazrat Umer (R.A) reached Jerusalem on camel with his slave. 86 The treaty was signed between Hazrat Umer (R.A) and people of Jerusalem. 87 After this, Umer (R.A) was reluctant to launch any further invasion. 5. CONQUEST OF EGYPT
88 Amr bin A’as seeks permission from Hazrat Umer (R.A) to invade Egypt which he is given after some reluctance. 89 Amr left for Egypt with four thousand troops in Dec; 639 A.D. 6. SIEGE OF BABYLON 90 Amr laid down the siege in April; 640 A.D. 91 Cyrus, the Byzantine governor of Egypt, shut himself up in the fortress of Babylon. 92 Hazrat Zubair (R.A) arrived with the reinforcement of about ten thousand Muslims. 93 After this reinforcement Muslim army tightened the siege and the Cyrus was compelled to come to negations with Muslims. 94 After the treaty, Cyrus surrendered the city to Muslims. 7. FALL OF ALEXANDRIA 95 Now Amr laid down siege of Alexandria. 96 The city was heavily garrisoned by 50,000 Byzantine troops. 97 Muslim army was extremely short of siege weapons and most needed navy without which siege of such a big city was impossible. 98 Meanwhile, the Byzantine emperor Heraclius died. 99 His grandson, Constantine-II, ascended to the throne. 100 He was young and weak as an emperor. 101 Thus Cyrus ignored him and after a treaty surrendered Alexandria to Muslims. 102 After the fall of Alexandria, the whole of Egypt fell to Muslims. 8. FOUNDATION OF FUSTAT 103 After complete victory in Egypt, Amr, with the advise of Hazrat Umer (R.A) founded city of Fustat which became Muslim capital of Egypt. ADMINISTRATION/MANAGEMENT/REFORMS OF HAZRAT UMER (R.A) 1. MAJLIS-E-SHURA 104 Hazrat Umer (R.A) was a born democrat. 105 After becoming caliph he constituted Majlis-e-Shura which was prime decision making body of the Islamic Republic. 106 It was composed of the most important sahaba and think tanks of Islam. 107 Every important decision was referred to the Majlis. 108 If it could not draw consensus, it was referred to the public. 109 The will of the majority would prevail.
110 At the time of the battle of Qadisiyah and Nahwand, Hazrat Umer (R.A) decided to lead the army himself, but the Majlis did not permit. 2. ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE 111He divided the country into eleven provinces. 112Each was headed by governor called ‘Wali’. 113A collector, a treasurer, a Qazi, an army commander, a police officer,a head of accounts were also appointed in each province. 114Each province was further divided into districts. 115Each district had its own administrative officer, treasurer and a judge. 3. SELECTION, POWERS AND DUTIES OF ADMINISTRATOR 116Hazrat Umer (R.A) was very meticulous in selection of administrators. 117He would consult with Majlis-e-Shura, and selected the best suited person. 118Each officer before taking his charge was given a list of his powers and duties. 119Those conditions were also read to the people whom he had to govern. 120 All his belongings were listed before he left Madinah and were also checked on his return. 4. JUDICIAL SYSTEM 121 Hazrat Umer (R.A)’s justice was proverbial. 122 Nobody was above law before him. 123 The judicial department was called ‘Quza’. 124 Each district had its own court headed by a Qazi. 125 Only the richest and most pious people would be appointed as Qazi so that no corruption and influence should work. 5. POLICE AND PRISON HOUSES 126 foundation of Police department. 127 night watchman. 128 system of prison houses. 129 6. FINANCE DEPARTMENT 130 established the finance department. 131 conquered were administered by Dewan.
Hazrat Umer (R.A) laid down the He also started the system of He first time introduced the He amended the punishments. Hazrat Umer (R.A) formally The finances obtained from the
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Sources of finances were Jazya (Poll tax), and Khiraj (land tax).
7. BAIT UL MAAL 133 Hazrat Umer (R.A) established Baitul Maal in each province and one in central capital also. 134 The provincial baitul maal would pay for the expenditures and surplus was sent to central baitul maal in Madinah. 8. PUBLC WORKS DEPARTMENT 135 It was a separate department. Thousands of labourers were employed by this department. 136 One lac only in Egypt. 137 They were busy in construction of waiting houses, roads, bridges, inns, water canals etc. 9. EDUCATIONAL REFORMS 138 interested in educating the masses. 139 Teachers were paid salaries by the government. 140 achievements in education are; i) Initiating Islamic Hijrah Calendar. ii) Islamic coinage iii) Systematizing Arabic alphabets. 10. Military Reforms 141 pioneer of military administration. 142 soldiers registered. 143 the respective ranks. DIVISION OF ARMY 144 army into two parts. i) Regular Army; It continued fighting. ii) Reserved Army; It was summoned when needed. COMPOSITION OF ARMY i) Cavalry; they fought on horses and camels. ii) Infantry; they fought on foot.
Hazrat Umer (R.A) was keenly Mosques served as schools. Hazrat Umer (R.A)’s chief
Hazrat Umer (R.A) was the He got the names and ranks of Salaries were paid according to Hazrat Umer (R.A) divided his
MILITARY CODE Hazrat Umer (R.A) gave a code of conduct for regular army. The regular army was not supposed to remain away from homes more than four months.
CONSTRUCTION OF CANTONMENTS 1 Hazrat Umer (R.A) first time constructed cantonments, barracks, stables, pastures for the facilitation of army. 2 Four main cantonments were at Kufa, Basra, Ramala, Fustat. CHARACTER/ACHEIVEMENTS OF HAZRAT UMER (R.A) “Umer’s life requires but a few lines to sketch; simplicity and duty were the guiding principles of his life; impartiality and devotion, the leading features of his administration.” William Muir. “He was best suited to rule over the wild sons of the desert and other unruly elements which threatened to disrupt the national unity and cohesion.” Muhammad Arshad. “Umer has been ranked higher than such men as ceaser etc. The reason is that the conquests made by Arabs under Umer, taking into account both size and their duration, are substantially more important than those of either Caesar or Charlemagne.” Micheal H. Hart, in his book, THE HUNDRED. 1. Pious and dutiful 2. A born democrat 3. Humble and simple 4. Master administrator 5. Paragon of Justice 6. Unparalleled conqueror 7. Stern and strict ruler 8. Humanitarian 9. Hardworking and deligent 10. Bold, Brave and determined. CONCLUSION: HAZRAT UMER (R.A) retired to his home with the following soliloquy; “O Son of Khatab! Humble you were and Allah has elevated you; astray, and Allah has guided you; weak, and Allah has strengthened you. Then, He caused you to rule over the necks of your people. When one of them came seeking your aid, you did not strike him! What will you have to say to your Lord when you present yourself before Him?” Philip K. Hitti.
Causes of Muslim Conquests in Sassinid and Byzantine Empire i. ii. iii. iv.
Internal conditions of these empires (Hitti). Frontier Forts….Arabs considered the locals their own kin. Muslim gave religious freedom to all which was non-existent previously. Muslim charged tribute from the conquered which was much less than that charged by previous rulers.
v. Strong religious zeal in Arabs. vi. Economic necessity of Arabs. vii. Services of Muslim able generals.
Compilation of The Holy Qur’an 1. During the life of Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) 1 The Qur’an was in pieces. 2 Total time of revelation 23 years. (609-632 A.D). 3 Zayd bin Thabit was the earliest to preserve Qur’an under the orders of the Prophet (P.B.U.H) 4 He would write the Holy verses on palm leaves, leather, shoulder bones of goat and on parchments of papers. 5 The division and sequence of The Qur’an into chapters and surahs were arranged by the Prophet (P.B.U.H) himself. 6 But, no written copy was in existence during Holy Prophet’s (P.B.U.H) lifetime. 2. Compilation by Hazrat Abu Bakr 1 In battle of Yemama against Musailma, the liar, many hufaz were martyred. 2 Hazrat Umer realized the need of the preservation of the Holy Qur’an. 3 He suggested this to Abu Bakr. 4 Hazrat Abu Bakr appointed zaid bin Thabit to constitute a board of Hufaz for compilation. 5 He was asked to authenticate each verse by the reciters. 6 Finally, copy with Hazrat Abu Bakr, Umer, Hazrat Hafsa. 3. Compilation by Hazrat Uthman 1 With the expansion and spreadof Islam in the area of non-Arabic peoples, there was problem of tone and dialect in reciting the Holy verses. 2 He consulted the leading companions of the Prophet (P.B.U.H) and set up a committee consisting of Zayd bin Thabit, Abdullah bin Zubair, Sa’id bin A’s and Abdur Rehman bin Harith. 3 This committee took the copy of Hazrat Hafsa as authentic one. 4 After making the required number of copies they returned it back to Hazrat Hafsa. 5 Thus, Hazrat Uthman sent copies to all centers of Muslim World. 6 He ordered to collect all other copies of Qur’an with any distortions and dispose them off. 4. Contribution of Ummayads 1 Punctuation marks to help the non-native speakers. 2 Abdul Malik assigned this to Hajjaj. 3 He inserted punctuation marks and also sent authentic reciters to the conquered areas.
Ummayad Dynasty; An Introduction Beginning (60A.H – 660 A.D) End (130 A.H – 750 A.D) First Caliph – Ameer Muawya – (660 – 680 A.D) Marwaan-II 750 A.D Ummayad Capital: Damascus
List of Prominent Ummayad Caliphs: 1. Ameer Muawya 660-680 A.D 2. Yazid bin Muawya 680-683 3. Muawya bin Yazid (Only for three months; later on abdicated) 4. Marwan bin Hakim 685 5. Abdul Malik bin Marwan 685-705 (20 years) 6. Waleed bin Abdul Malik 705-715 7. Sulaiman bin Abdul Malik 715-717 8. Umar bin Abdul Aziz 717-720 9. Yazid-II 720-724 10. Hisham bin Abdul Malik 724-743
ABDUL MALIK BIN MARWAN (685-705 A.D) Introduction: 1 He was son of the fourth Umayyad Caliph Marwan bin Hakim. 2 His caliphate can be divided into two periods. Period – I: (685-693 A.D)
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This period lasted eight years. During this period both Abdul Malik and Abdullah bin Zubair (R.A) were caliphs simultaneously.
Period – II: (693-705 A.D) 1 This period lasted twelve years. 2 During this period Abdul Malik was the sole caliph of the Muslim World. 3 Abdul Malik can be called the real founder of Umayyad dynasty. 4 He took the charge of things when Umayyad dynasty seemed to be a guest for few days. 5 He not only turned down all the potential threats to the Umayyad caliphate but also strengthened and deep-rooted it so much that it could stand erect for ninety years. 6 Moreover, his caliphate was followed by the caliphate of his four sons who ruled the much of the total time of Umayyad rule. 7 Thus, he can also be called the father of Umayyad caliphs. CONQUESTS BY ABDUL MALIK: 1. Conquests in North Africa: For details of Conquests in North Africa by Abdul Malik, see the chapter ‘Muslims in North Africa’, in part-II. 2. Wars with the Byzantines: 1 Taking advantage of internal disorder and civil war in the Muslim Empire, Roman Emperor put up aggression against Abdul Malik. 2 He advanced with the army towards Muslim areas. 3 Abdul Malik was busy in solving the internal agitation. 4 Thus, he agreed to pay one thousand dinar per day to the Roman Emperor. 5 But, after getting freedom from the internal conflicts, Abdul Malik retaliated and defeated the Romans very badly. 6 He also occupied some of their border areas. 3. Islamization of Berbers: 1 Hassan bin Noman was appointed army commander and the governor of North Africa by Abdul Malik. 2 Besides his conquests in North Africa, he also made efforts to win the hearts of the Berbers with his positive and competent administration. 3 Berbers were deeply touched by the kind attitude and embraced Islam in great number. REFORMS OF ABDUL MALIK 1. Arabic as the Official Language: Muslim empire had spread far and wide by Abdul Malik’s caliphate. However, the conquered areas were yet to adopt Arabic as the official language. Thus, it was Abdul Malik who made Arabic official language and the only mandatory medium of governmental communication throughout the Muslim Empire.
This impacted hugely in terms of promulgating and establishing Islamic culture and civilization in the newly conquered areas. 2. 1 2 3 4
New Arabic Coinage: By the time of Abdul Malik, the Muslims did not have their own currency. They used Greek and Persian coins. Abdul Malik installed a ‘Mint’ to manufacture Muslim coinage. Thus, following coins were issued; Dinar: Gold Coin Dirham: Silver Coin Fals: Copper Coin This was a great contribution by Abdul Malik towards Muslim civilization.
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Postal System: He improved the postal department. Post was now carried on fast moving horses. Thus, it linked center of the Empire with Damascus, the capital.
4. Foundation of New Cities: 1 He populated some new cities in the Muslim Empire. 2 The cantonment of ‘Wasit’ is one of them. 5. 1 2 3 4
Development of Architecture: He was a great admirer of art and architecture. He paid special focus on the construction of Mosques. ‘Masjid-ul-Aqsa’ and the masterpiece ‘Dome of Rock’ were constructed in Jerusalem by Abdul Malik. Moreover, the Grand Mosque in Damascus speak volumes of his love for Mosque architecture.
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Literary Achievements: He himself was a matchless scholar of the day. He would always love to promote literature and learning in his Empire. He requested Saeed bin Mus’ab to write exegesis (TAFSEER) of Holy Qur’an.
WALID BIN ABDUL MALIK Introduction: 1 After the death of Abdul Malik bin Marwan, his son Walid bin Abdul Malik ascended to the throne. 2 His reign has been held in high colours. For evidence following historians are quoted;
“He is in our eyes, the greatest and in every respect the most powerful and illustrious ruler amongst all the commanders of the faithful. ” (WEIL) “We shall not find in the annals of the caliphate a more glorious reign than that of Al-Walid.” (William Muir) “The reign of Walid was famous for the expansion in the annals of Islam.” (E. Gibbon) 3 4 5 6
Alexander was a great conqueror, but his conquests could not turn into an Empire and lacked prudent administrative setup. However, Walid bin Abdul Malik, not only made glorious conquests and victories which shine like gems in the pages of Islamic history, but also consolidated the Muslim Empire. It was the second great period of Islamic expansion after Umar-I which made the Islamic Empire one of the largest Empires in the world history. His Empire extended from the confines of China to the Bay of Biscay and from the sea of Oral the frontiers of Sindh and Punjab.
EXPANSION OF MUSLIM EMPIRE DURING WALID’s CALIPHATE: 7 Walid made Muslim Empire a tri-continental Empire conquering Sindh in Asia, Spain in Europe, and regions of North Africa. CONQUEST OF SPAIN - 711 A.D 8 Tariq bin Zyad and Musa bin Nusayr were appointed by Walid to conquer Spain which they did in 711 A.D. (For further details see the chapter ‘CONQUESTS OF SPAIN’ in part-II). CONQUEST OF SINDH -712 A.D 9 After the controversy created between Muslims and Raja Dahir, Muhammad bin Qasim was sent to the expedition of Sindh. 10 He turned down the Hindu might in Sindh and conquered it in 712 A.D CONQUEST OF NORTH AFRICA 11 Walid in his reign, sent Musa bin Nusayr to the conquest of North Africa. 12 Musa with his repeated attack on the Berbers finished their retaliation and conquered most of the North African countries. (For further details, see the chapter ‘MUSLIMS IN NORTH AFRICA’, part-II)
CONQUEST IN CENTRAL ASIA 13 Qutayba bin Muslim was appointed for expedition to the Central Asia. 14 Qutayba started his expedition from Khurasan, which was already in Muslim custody. 15 From there, he advanced to Balkh, Bukhara, Samarkand and ended in Kashghar in China. ACHIEVEMENTS OF WALID i. Enlargement of Naval Fleet:
Walid enlarged and strengthened the Muslim Naval Fleet. He divided the Fleet into five parts and deployed them around all the sea borders of the Muslim Empire. ii. Social Welfare: 1 Walid effected the construction of roads, wells and waiting houses. 2 He also initiated works for agricultural development. 3 He took measures for the financial assistance of the disabled. 1 2 3
iii. Literary Developments: Unlike his father, he himself was an illiterate man. Yet, he had great love and admiration for the man of letters. He issued scholarships and fixed stipends for them and provided every help for the promotion of knowledge.
4 iv. Development of Art: 2 He promoted construction of Mosques in Damascus. 3 He further sanctioned the reconstruction of Egyptian and Jerusalem Mosques. 4 He also had the honour of renovating the tomb of Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H). 5 Most importantly, he made especial focus on the enlargement of Masjid-e-Nabvi. “From the borders of China and the Banks of the Indus, to the Atlantic, Walid’s word was the law.” (William Muir)
UMAR BIN ABDUL AZIZ (UMAR – II) 717-720 A.D Introduction: 1 After the death of Suleiman bin Abdul Malik, Umar bin Abdul Aziz became the caliph. 2 He stands out as a bright and noble exception among the godless, greedy and self-seeking rulers of the house of Umayyad. 3 The prime objective of Umar-II was to consolidate the Empire rather than to expand it and increase power and pelf.
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It was because his rule was inspired by the considerations of religion. His methods were based on justice, tolerance, moderation and public welfare. He was deeply impressed by the spirit of Islam, particularly of his namesake Umar (R.A), the second pious caliph. He copied all the methods which prevailed during the illustrious caliphate of Umar-I. Thus, his caliphate was the return of the system of Umar (R.A), and he is rightly called the 5th pious caliph.
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Character and Achievements of Umar bin Abdul Aziz 1. A Democratic Ruler: Like his ideal, Umar-I, he was also democratic by birth. As a governor of Madinah, he established Majlis-e-Shura on the pattern of Hazrat Umar (R.A). When he was made successor of Suleiman, he refused to accept his succession until it was ratified by the people in a democratic way. Thus, from his election to the last day of his rule, he was democratic through and through. 2.
Paragon of Justice: Exactly like Umar-I, he ensured the provision of justice. He was more concerned about the selection of a Qazi than a governor. His justice worked regardless of the family, status and influence of the offender.
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An egalitarian: By the time he became caliph, the ethnic differences between Arab and Non-Arabs had been deep-rooted in the Muslims Empire. Arab considered themselves superior to the non-Arab Muslims. Umar discouraged this social evil and promoted the concept of equality in the Islamic Empire.
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Reconciliatory and Peaceful: 2 Umar was reconciliatory and peaceful by nature. 3 He stopped the practice of cursing Hazrat Ali (R.A) and his descendents which was started by his predecessors Umayyad caliphs. 4 His peacefulness impressed even the most violent faction of society i.e Kharjaites who gave up insurgency during his rule. 5 He also adopted peaceful foreign policy for the Muslim Empire. 5. Liberal and Tolerant: 3 Umar was most liberal and tolerant in his religious policy. 4 He permitted the restoration of Saint John church at Damascus which was put-off by Walid -I. 5 He also tendered religious freedom to the Jews. 6 He put an end to Umayyad hostility to the family of the Prophet (P.B.U.H). 5 He gave back the garden of ‘fidak’ to the heirs of the Prophet (P.B.U.H) 6. Simple and Modest: 1 He adopted the lifestyle of Hazrat Umar-I (R.A).
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He drew a very meager salary for himself. He asked his wife to discard jewelry given to her by her relatives. He also returned all the lands and property which he received from his elders. Thus, he was far from the worldly desires and ill-gotten gains.
REFORMS OF UMAR BIN ABDUL AZIZ 1. Eradication of administrative evils: Nepotism and Favouritism 2. Accountability of officers. 3. Return of exploited property. 4. Revenue reforms. 5. Treatment with dhimis. 6. Propagation of Islam. 7. Rectification of Bait-ul-Maal 8. Ban on un-Islamic traditions. 9. Abolition of the abuses in the sermon of Friday prayers. 10. Social welfare.
THE ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE OF UMAYYADS Introduction: 1 The rule of Umayyad brought many changes in the prevailing administrative structure. 2 It witnessed drastic shift in both institutions and administration. 3 The salient features of their administration are given below; i. The caliph Islamic caliphate changed into hereditary kingship. Method of electing a caliph was replaced by unratified nomination. Ruling over the Muslims became the privilege of a single family.
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ii. The Shura: Shura was abolished by the Umayyads. There was no check and balance on the king. Only Umar bin Abdul Aziz made efforts to revive it but his efforts proved short-lived.
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iii. Bait-ul-Maal: Bait-ul-Maal became the royal treasury. Caliphs and the royal family members embezzled bait-ul-maal for their personal expenditures. To meet their lavish lifestyle, they imposed undue taxes and exploitations.
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iv. The Royal Court: Umayyads adopted Sassinid and Byzantine practices in their court. It painted a picture of pomp and show. These caliphs hired courtiers, musicians, singers, poets only to amuse themselves. Caliphs paid extortionate salaries and huge sums of money in gifts to these useless employees of the royal court. There was lack of communication between caliph and the masses.
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v. Central Government: The Umayyad central government was divided into five boards. These are as follows; Diwan-ul-Jand: o It was the board for military administration. o It also dealt with scholarships and pensions. Diwan-ul-Hiraj: It was a board for financial management. It maintained accounts and records. Diwan-ul-Khatam: o It maintained the record of correspondence and orders issued by the caliph. o It also issued circulars and pamphlets as decreed by the the caliph. Diwan-ul-Barid It was meant for postal services. Posts were built at every 12 kilometers.
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Diwan-ul-Ahdas: It administered police system. Its responsibility was to ensure law and order and security of the citizens.
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vi. Provinical Adminstration: Umayyad has divided their Empire into six provinces. Each province had following officials. A governor, Mahasil, Sahib-ul-khiraj, Sahib-ul-Ahdas, Sahib-ul-Barid and a Qazi. vii. Sources of Revenue:
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Umayyad has five major sources of revenue. Khums, Zakat, Jazya, Ushr and Khiraj. The revenues were collected at the provincial level and were shifted to Damascus.
CAUSES OF THE DOWNFALL OF UMAYYADS 1. Dynastic Decline: A natural phenomenon Ibn-e-Khaldun’s doctrine. Natural degeneration of dynasty can only be avoided through reforms which the Umayyad ignored. 2. Violation of Islamic Principles 1 Mu’away violated the principle of election of caliph. 2 The Umayyad lacked support and cooperation of the people. 3. Weak and incompetent Rulers 1 After Mu’awya, Abdul Malik, Walid-I and Umar-II, all rulers were weak. 4. Biases against non-Arabs 2 Non-Arabs in general and Persians in particular were discriminated. 3 Umayyad were hostile to Persians. 5. Succession controversies 1 No fixed and definite rule for succession to throne. 2 This created trouble whenever a ruler dies or was killed. 6. 1 2 3
Indifference to the Administration Umayyads were indifferent to the administration of the country. Officers and officials practices corruption and nepotism. This weakened the Umayyad rule from within and it became notorious.
7. Tribal Policy 1 Mudarites and Himyarites were two major tribes in Umayyad rule. 2 Umayyad supported agitation of one tribe against other. 8. The tragedy of Karbala 1 All the people in general, especially Shia community, was continuously reminiscent of tragedy of Karbala. 2 The hostility of Umayyad towards the family of the Prophet (P.B.U.H) was dividing factor between Umayyad rulers and their subjects. 3 Umayyad’s cursing of Hazrat Ali (R.A) in sermons raised the anti-Umayyad feelings in people. 9. Luxury and Extravagance of the Umayyads 1 Umayyad were addicted to worldly pleasures. 2 They widely indulged in evil activities and social sins.
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The Islamic Jurists rightly call it un-Islamic rule.
10. The Abbasid Movement 1 Abbasid movement was a deadly blow to the Umayyad rule. 2 Shias, Mawalis and Kharjites had also joined together against Umayyad. “The rule of the Umayyad was regarded by contemporaries in no way as a continuation of the Prophet (P.B.U.H). This proved the greatest source of weakness to the Umayyad.” “The utterly unsympathetic policy of the Umayyad to their subjects endangered more than anything the rule of this dynasty.”
PROGRESS OF KNOWLEDGE DURING ABBASIDS 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 6 3
Early Period: Period of translation It was followed by creative work. Reasons/Driving forces behind acquisition of Knowledge: Islam’s emphasis on acquiring knowledge from cradle to grave. Translation of Greek, Persian and Indian works. Translation were done under direct influence of Mansur, Harun and Ma’mun. Hunayn bin Ishaq and his team of translators made most important medical writings of the Greek by direct translations from the Greek and Syrian versions. Development of Medicines It ws the first science to developm among Msulims.
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Hunayn bin Ishaq translated Greek medicine books. He translated and promulgated the works of Hippcrates and Gelen to the student and practitioners in the Muslim World. i. Al – Razi (865-925 A.D) His full name was Abu Bakr Muhammad Al-Razi ‘Al-Hawai’ was his most popular work. It was an encyclopedia of Medicines based on 20 volumes. ‘Al-Judari-wal-Hasbah’ was his another work in which he described Measles and Small Pox in detail.
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ii. Ibne-Sina (980-1037A.D) His full name was Abu Ali Ibn-e-Sina. His famous book was ‘Al-Qanun Al-Tib’ which deals with the study of Human Physiology and Medicine. iii. Ali Ibne Abbas He wrote ‘Kitab-al-Maliki’ which was also a Medical encyclopedia.
Development of Chemistry: i. Khalid bin Yazid bin Muawiya He was the first Chemist of Arabs. Chemistry flourished enormously during Abbasid rule. 1 2
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ii. Jabir bin Hayan (721-815 A.D) He was popularly known as father of Chemistry owing to his contribution. He discovered; Nitric Acid Sulphuric Acid Hydrochloric Acid White Lead His popular works include; Kitab-al-Tajmi Kitab-al-Rahmah
Development of Mathematics (780-847 A.D) i. Muhammad bin Musa Al-Khuwarzimi 1 His well known work on mathematics is ‘Hisab-al-Jabar wal Muqabla’. 2
ii. Al-Beruni He worked in advanced Trigonometry.
iii. Umar Al-Khayyam 3 He classified algebraic equations.
Development of Astronomy i. Al-Farzari He translated Indian work on astronomy – ‘Sidhanta’ ii. Al-Kindi 1 He improved astronomical instruments iii. 1 iv. 2
Al-Battani He studies stars and prepared astronomical tables. Mamun He established an Observatory at Shammassia.
Development of Geography 1 Development of Geography was a need of Muslims at that time.
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i. Ibne Wazih Al-Yaqubi He was known as Father of Muslim Geography. ii. Al-Beruni His famous work on geography was ‘Kitab Al-ard’ iii. Kauwarizmi His popular work was ‘Surat Al-Ard’ (The Shape of Earth).
Development of Geology i. Ibne Sina
He wrote a book on study of mountains. He gave scientific reasons for earthquake.
Development of History i. Al-Tarabi He was the greates Muslim historian His prominent book was ‘Akhbar-al-Rusul-wal-Mulk’ Development of Philosophy i. Al – Kindi He was first great Muslim philosopher. He combined the views of Plato and Aristotle. ii. Al-Farabi 1 He attempted to harmonize Greek philosophy with Islam. iii. Ibne Sina 2 He wrote two books on philosophy, namely; Kitab-al-Shifa Aynul-Hikmat
iv. Ikhwan-as-Safa 3 4
It was a galazy of Muslim philosopher. They answered all questions on philosophy and religion.
Development of Literature and Poetry 1 2
Arabian and Persian literature flourished vastly during Abbasid period. The most prominent among Persian literary giants were; i. Ferdusi ii. Abu Faraj iii. Jalaludin iv. Faridudin
Development of Theology 1
The famous four schools of thought, (Hanfi, Shafi, Maliki and Hanbali) also flourished during Abbasid rule.
Abu Jafar Al-Mansur (754-775 A.D) Introduction: 2 Abu Jafar is regarded as the real founder of Abbasid dynasty. 3 Various historians view him with a varied angle. 4 Muir describes him as a treacherous and cruel man, while Amir Ali calls him a despotic monarch. 5 P.K. Hitti, however, maintains that Abu Jafar was one of the greatest, though most unscrupulous of the Abbasid rulers. Reign of Al-Mansur 6 His policy of decentralized government and dividing the nexus of authority into Ministers, Katibs and other officials appointed by himself succeeded in consolidating his rule. 7 He emerged triumphant in crushing many of the upheavals against his rule. 8 He built a strong, prosperous and efficiently administered state.
Challenges faced by Al-Mansur 9 A-Mansur faced manifold revolts and rebelliousness concurrently. 10 It was his astute intelligence and foresightedness which brought him out victorious in all the uprisings. Revolt of Abdullah bin Ali 11 Abdullah bin Ali, the hero of Zab, governor of Damascus was uncle of Abu Abbass As-Saffah and Al-Mansur. 12 As-Saffah had promised to nominate him as his successor but Al-Mansur, As-Saffah’s brother acceded to the throne. 13 Abdullah bin Ali’s revolt met a crushing defeat by Abu Muslim on the orders of Al-Mansur near Nasibeen. Death of Abu Muslim 14 Abu Muslim was the person who had maneuvered to bring Abbassids into power as he enjoyed influence in Khurassan. 15 Al-Mansur became highly apprehensive of Abu Muslim and planned to dispose him off. 16 He invited him to the palace and got him killed. Revolt of Sunbadh 17 Sunbadh were the devotees of Abu Muslim. 18 They strived to avenge the death of their leader. 19 Many of them were fire worshippers. 20 Their rebel movement was easily suppressed by Al-Mansur. Hassan bin Majalid 21 He was a khawarij and rose against Al-Mansur near Mosul. 22 Imam Abu Hanifa arbitrated in this dual and the rebellion was phased out peacefully. Alide revolt of Muhammad and Ibrahim 761 A.D 23 Muhammad and Ibrahim were descendants of Imam Hassan. 24 Abbasids had come into power on the pretext of avenging the death of Alides. 25 Muhammad revolted in Medina after Hijaz and Yemen had recognized him as caliph. 26 Al-Mansur sent Isa, his nephew, who killed and gibbeted Muhammad in Medina. 27 Ibrahim led an uprising at Basra in the aftermath of killing of Muhammad. 28 He also met a similar fate and got his head decapitated and sent to Al-Mansur at the hands of Isa. Foundation of Baghdad (762-767 A.D) 29 Al-Mansur sailed to the river Tigris in search of a new capital. 30 He selected the site and called it Suq Baghdad “city of Justice” as his new capital. 31 Baghdad was constructed and developed under supervision of Khalid bin Barmak. Tabaristan and Daylam 32 The prince of Tabaristan denied Arab suzerainty which angered Al-Mansur.
33 He sent his son Mahdi, who defeated the prince and re-established Arab suzerainty. 34 He also annexed Daylam in the same mission. Byzantine Attacks 35 The Christians of Byzantine plundered and attacked Muslims time and again. 36 Al-Mansur defended Muslims at Malatia of Constantinople and built forts for the defense of Muslims. Conquest of Sindh 37 Sindh was re-conquered after turning down rebellion in 768 A.D - 151 A.H. Nomination of Mahdi 38 As-Saffah had nominated his son Isa as his successor after Al-Mansur. 39 Al-Mansur snubbed that nomination and entitled his son Mahdi to be his successor. 40 Isa succumbed to Mahdi’s nomination after early resistance. Al-Mansur’s Advice to Mahdi 41 Always associate with those from whom you can get good advice. 42 Never let state treasury go bankrupt. 43 Concentrate on your work. 44 Keep the people and army contended. Death of Al-Mansur 45 Al-Mansur died in 775 A.D, on his way to Makkah for pilgrimage.
HIJAB AL – MANSUR (976-1002 A.D) Introduction 46 Real name of Hijab Al-Mansur was Muhammad Ibn Amir. 47 He was renowned for his sagacious foreign policy, unmatched intelligence, military insight and unforeseen achievements in the military insurgencies. Ibn Abi Amir’s rise to Power 48 He was ambitious and highly hardworking since his inception into royal court as steward of Hakam-II’s son Hisham-II’s property and assets. 49 He earned marvelous reputation and won the hearts of all courtiers, above all of wife of Hakam-II, Regent Subh (Aurora). 50 He was elevated to the post of City Police Chief of Cordova and later on became the Chief Justice of Mauritia. 51 When the premature accession to throne of Hisham-II was in process, the top eunuchs and
courtiers were divided over making 12 years old Hisham as their ruler. 52 Ibn Abi Amir took advantage of the situation and incarcerated nascent Hisham-II by tricking Regent Subh and himself became the authoritarian. 53 His resolve to rule over Spain made his uncrowned ruler for long time. His efforts to win hearts of Theologians 54 He wrote the text of Holy Quran with his hands to portray himself as the bastion of Islam. 55 It was an attempt to obliterate and mitigate the hatred garnished by Faqihs of his time against him. 56 He ordered to burn the books on philosophies and sciences which were pointed out by Faqihs. 57 This helped him gain favours of some of hardliners theologians of his time. His Administrative and Military Achievements 58 He captured the fortress of Alhama in Leon in 981 A.D. 59 He led several expeditions to a number of Christian ruled territories which include Castile, Leon and Navarre. 60 He inflicted a crushing defeat over them and emerged victorious in over 57 armed missions. 61 Overwhelmed by his successive victories, he conferred upon himself a honorific title, “AlMansur Billah” (Victorious with the aid of Allah). 62 He reorganized his army of approximately 6,00,000 men and brought reforms in it. 63 His military force consisted of two divisions mainly; Murtaziqa and Muttawia; Regular and Volunteers respectively. 64 His most prized achievement is said to be the palace of Az-Zahira. Medinatul Az-Zahira 65 It was a magnificent city built by him on the banks of river Guadalquivis. 66 He constructed a huge palace for himself which remains to be a worth-seeing site. 67 He also built a bridge on this river. Revolt of his son Abdullah and count of Castile 68 His son Abdullah and Gorcia Fernadez, the count of Castile, orchestrated a clandestine scheme to revolt against Al-Mansur. 69 Al-Mansur, dealt dexterously to this designed treachery and count of Castile made peace with him while his son Abdullah was executed. Revolt of Berber, Ziri 70 Regent Subh (Aurora), mother of beleaguered Hisham-II wanted to set his son free as to enable him to accede to the throne. 71 She hired Berber’s chief Ziri and offered him heavy amount to cast away Al-Mansur. 72 Al-Mansur meanwhile hankered the incarcerated Hisham-II and made him sign a document giving away administration to the caliphate in favour of Al-Mansur. Sacking of Santiago de Compostela 73 Santiago was regarded as holiest of Christian places. 74 No other ruler before Al-Mansur had dared to invade it. 75 Al-Mansur razed the city and brought all churches to the ground.
Al-Mansur held responsible for fall of Cordova 76 He created a hiatus in the already porous succession system of the Umayyads. 77 The onus lied on him for immurement of caliph and increasing his own powers to perpetuate his stint in power. 78 The fall of Cordova mainly occurred owing to Al-Mansur’s indifference towards newly conquered states which remained mostly uncontrolled. 79 Although he expanded the boundaries of the state, yet he failed to consolidate them under one central authority. 80 His ignorance towards the policy of re-colonization won his bad name posthumously. 81 Lack of political will, myopic vision, self-aggrandizement and absence of strategic plans ultimately caused the fall of Cordova which is largely associated to Al-Mansur. 82 83 84 85 86 87 88
THE MU’TAZILAH MOVEMENT Introduction 89 It was a rigid puritanical movement asserting that the Quran was the uncreated word of God. 90 It erupted mainly to give boost to reason in the beliefs of a man. 91 This movement evolved a wing which accorded the human reason as an absolute value above divine revelation. 92 One of their objectives was to reconcile religion with reason and faith with philosophy. 93 The Mutazilah sect was largely effected by Greek philosophy. 94 Mutazilites had their say in religious controversy as long as the rulers particularly Al-Mamun patronized it. Origin of Mutazilah 1 Hassan al Basri used to hold discussions on the issue whether a grave sinner should be regarded as a believer or not.
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Those deliberations are said to have served as prolegomenon of this movement. The Kharjites hold the opinion that sinner was not a believer and thus would go in hell. The liberal Murjites opined that he was still a believer. Hasan al Basri himself held a neutral stand and declared a sinner to be in a intermediate position. Thus, Mutazilites followed him emerging in the 8th and 9th Century during Abbasids.
Mutazilah – Rationalism v/s Orthodoxy 95 Mutazilites stood for rationalism in religious affairs and practices. 96 Orthodoxy reinforced the conventional conformism in religious aspects. 97 This initiated a sparking controversy between the two dividing sects. 98 Five doctrines of Mutazilites 7 Doctrine of Unity (Tauheed) 8 Principle of Adl (Justice) 9 Doctrine of al-wa’d wa’l wa’id 10 Principle of Intermediate Position 11 Principle of Enjoying good and forbidding Evil. Conclusion 99 Mutazilites and their doctrine collapsed with the shift of rule as they failed to gain perpetual patronization of the court. 100 They however maintained that religious laws must be tested with touchstone of reason and then implemented. 101 Thus, the main cause of decline of Mutazilites was the transition in state policy and strict adherence of orthodox scholars upon conformism.
CRUSADES (1097-1250 A.D) Introduction 102 Islam and Christianity were at loggerheads for approximately three centuries. 103 It was series of inveterate invasions into one another’s territories which marked in the history as the prelude to the extended clash of civilizations of both the religions. 104 Christians and Muslims fought over not only religious issues, but major bone of contention was political dominancy and authority over region. Causes of Crusades 105 The immediate cause of the crusades was the sermon of the Pope Urban-II in 1095 A.D which invoked Christians to wage war against Muslims. 106 One of the pervading causes of the crusades is often conceived to be the conflict between practices of both Islam and Christianity which collectively form their culture and culminate in civilizations on a broader scale.
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Geopolitical Contiguousness of Islamic World was another major cause. Despite adjacent states and Muslims habitants in the proximity, Muslims remained politically divided in Egypt, Syria, Baghdad and other parts of the world. 108 Economic motives were also among the causes of crusades which were imbued with intense hostility towards Muslims. History of Crusades 109 History of Crusades can be categorically put in three phases. 110In first phase (1097-1144 A.D) Christians captured many territories. 111In 2nd phase (1144-1196 A.D) Muslims regained their lost territories. 112In 3rd phase Christians attempted to intrude Jerusalem and other territories but failed to do so. 113In the 1st ever crusade Godfrey of Bouillon captured Jerusalem in 1099 A.D. 114Muslims re-conquered Jerusalem (1144-1192) when Nur-ud-Din Zangi defeated crusaders of Antioch. 115Third crusade took place from (1189-1192 A.D) in which Frederick, the German Emperor, Philip Augustus, King of France, Richard – the lion hearted, King of England held peace pacts with Sultan Salah-ud-Din Ayubi (1174-1193 A.D) who had captured Jerusalem and ended crusades. Political Failure of Crusades 116The incumbents on both the sides of the war were annoyed and frustrated with the prolonged uncertain frequent breakouts of wars. 117The surplus manpower and material resources of Europeans were squandered. 118The Muslims had their victory invincibly. Impact of Crusades 119The rapid contact of two widely different civilizations effected one another significantly. 120 Owing to the rich tradition of Arabs and their enormous cultural heritage, it was obvious that European renaissance had their roots in much of the impacts traced back to the times of crusades. 121 Europeans imitated the art of war, chivalry, military organization and strategic arrangement of the army from Arabs.
