History of USA Notes by Ayesha Younas

NOTES

History of USA Revised Syllabus-First 10 topics Ayesha Younas 11/19/2015

This document is compiled from numerous articles and research papers. Some of the references are mentioned. I hope you make the best use of this hard work. Wish you all Best of Luck!

Compiled by Ayesha Younas

Syllabus 1)

Introduction: From ancient times to 1492

2)

Introduction: Advent of the Europeans to British supremacy (1492-1606)

3)

USA as a British Colony (1606-1783).

4)

USA as an Independent Country Country (1783 - 1819)

5)

Expansion of USA: From 13 to 50 States (1820 - 1949)

6)

Constitution of the USA: Salient Features

7)

Civil War between the North and the East (1850 - 1869)

8)

Industrialization Industrialization and its emergence as one of the world powers (1870 -1916)

9)

USA’s role in the Two World Wars (1914 – 1918 & 1939 - 1945)

10) Post 1945 world scenario and emergence of USA and USSR as the Two World Powers.

11) American Role in patronizing UNO and International Organizations 1945 – 2012 12) American Role in Cold War and its emergence as the Sole Super Power (1945 -1990). 13) International Concerns of USA: An Overview. 14) The War on Terror: The Role of Pakistan and USA (2001 - 20 12) 15) Global perceptions of the USA. 16) Progressive Era: Reforms of Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson, 17) The Great Depression and the New Deal 18) Civil Rights Movement 19) United States’ role in International Conflicts 20) US Presidential Election 21) The US Congress: Role and Functions 22) Separation of Powers: Check and Balances



Syllabus 1)

Introduction: From ancient times to 1492

2)

Introduction: Advent of the Europeans to British supremacy (1492-1606)

3)

USA as a British Colony (1606-1783).

4)

USA as an Independent Country Country (1783 - 1819)

5)

Expansion of USA: From 13 to 50 States (1820 - 1949)

6)

Constitution of the USA: Salient Features

7)

Civil War between the North and the East (1850 - 1869)

8)

Industrialization Industrialization and its emergence as one of the world powers (1870 -1916)

9)

USA’s role in the Two World Wars (1914 – 1918 & 1939 - 1945)

10) Post 1945 world scenario and emergence of USA and USSR as the Two World Powers.

11) American Role in patronizing UNO and International Organizations 1945 – 2012 12) American Role in Cold War and its emergence as the Sole Super Power (1945 -1990). 13) International Concerns of USA: An Overview. 14) The War on Terror: The Role of Pakistan and USA (2001 - 20 12) 15) Global perceptions of the USA. 16) Progressive Era: Reforms of Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson, 17) The Great Depression and the New Deal 18) Civil Rights Movement 19) United States’ role in International Conflicts 20) US Presidential Election 21) The US Congress: Role and Functions 22) Separation of Powers: Check and Balances



Topic 1: Introduction:-From ancient times to 1492

1)

Historical Background i.

225 million years ago, Earth was one supercontinent (Pangaea) and ocean.

ii.

About 10 million years ago, th e North America that we know today was formed (geographical shape).

iii. At the height of the Ice Age, between 34,000 and 30,000 B.C., much of the world's water was contained in vast continental ice sheets. iv. As a result, the Bering Sea was hundreds of meters below its current level, and a land bridge, known as Beringia, emerged between Asia and North America. v.

At its peak, Beringia is thought to have been some 1,500 kilometers wide.

vi. A moist and treeless tundra, it was co vered with grasses and plant life, attracting the la rge animals that early humans hunted for their survival. vii. The first people to reach North America almost c ertainly did so without knowing they had crossed into a new continent. viii. They would have been following game, as their ancestors had for thousands of y ears, along the Siberian coast and then across the land bridge ix. Once in Alaska, it would take tak e these first North Americans thousands of year s more to work their way through the openings in great glaciers south to what is now the United States. x.

Artifacts such as finely crafted spear points and items found near Clovis, New Mexico, indicate that life was well established in much of the Western Hemisphere by some time prior to 10,000 B.C.

2)

“New World Beginnings”; The Early Settlements

i.

Claims suggesting that the earliest voyages of exploration to North America were made by Irish monks (St. Brendan), Welshmen (Prince Madoc) and others, but no credible evidence.

ii.

The first discoverers of North America were nomadic Asians who wandered over here by way of an exposed land bridge from Russia to Ala ska during the Ice Age.

iii. 10th century America America discovered by Norsemen, Norsemen, Scandinavians and Iceland Iceland colonized the west coast of Greenland, and then in about 1001 moved on to Baffin Island, southern Labrador, and finally the northern tip of Newfoundland iv. In 1000 AD, Vikings abandoned it due to unfavorable conditions especially due to repeated attacks by hostile natives (known to the Vikings as Skrellings); There, at a site now known as L'Anse aux Meadows, they made an abortive effort to establish a colony which they called Vinland. v.

Europeans, though, slowly began to proliferate into non-European worlds starting around the 1400s. Most European trade continued to to center on the Mediterranean Mediterranean region, few resources available for sailing westward, and new over-land trade routes to the Far East were established.

vi. Variety of factors affecting Europeans created renewed incentives for exploration. 3)

Early Settlers in America i.

Great pre-European Indian cultures included the Pueblos, the Iroquois, the Mound Builders, the Mayans, the Incas, the Aztec, and the Sioux, among others. The Indians revered nature and land, and didn’t carelessly destroy it. Everything was put to use.

ii.

Hohokam, Adenans, Hopewellians, and Anasazi.

iii. By the first centuries A.D., the Hohokum were living in settlements near what is now Phoenix, Arizona, where they built ball courts and py ramid-like mounds reminiscent of those found in Mexico, as well as a canal and irrigation system.


Compiled by Ayesha Younas 4)

Early Indian Customs And Culture i.

Agriculture and Food i. people to reach North America were Asian hunters and nomads ii. Around that time the mammoth began to die out and the bison took its place as a principal source of food and hides for these early North Americans. iii. Gradually, foraging and the first attempts at agriculture appeared. Indians in what is now central Mexico led the way, cultivating corn, squash and beans, perhaps as early as 8,000 B.C iv. By 3,000 B.C., a primitive type of corn was being grown in the river valleys of New Mexico and Arizona v. Then the first signs of irrigation began to appear, and by 300 B.C., signs of early village life.

ii.

Culture i. Indian society in North America was closely tied to the land. ii. Most tribes (the Midwest) combined aspects of hunting, gathering and the cultivation of maize and other products for their food supplies; They built villages and grew crops iii. extraordinarily diverse; expanse of the land and the many different environments iv. Indian life was essentially clan-oriented and communal v. a good deal of trade among various groups

5)

Important People: i.

The Aztecs: Native Americans who that lived in what is now Mexico and routinely offered their gods human sacrifices, these people were violent, yet built amazing pyramids and built a great civilization without having a wheel.

ii.

The Mound Builders: Indians of the Ohio River Valley.

iii. The Mississippian settlement: At Cahokia, near present-day East St. Louis, Illinois, was home to about 40,000 people in at 1100 A.D. iv. Hiawatha: This was legendary leader who inspired the Iroquois, a powerful group of Native Americans in the northeaster woodlands of the U.S. v.

The Norse: These Vikings discovered America in about 1000 A.D., when they discovered modernday Newfoundland. They abandoned it later due to bad conditions.

vi. Marco Polo: Italian adventurer who supposedly sailed to the Far East (China) in 1295 and returned with stories and supplies of the Asian life there (silk, pearls, etc…)

6)

Conclusion

Topic 2: Introduction: Advent of the Europeans to British supremacy (1492-160 6)

1)

Introduction

2)

Timeline i.

1492: Christopher Columbus sails across the Atlantic Ocean and reaches an island in the Bahamas in the Carribean sea

ii.

1496: 2nd Voyage of Columbus

iii. 1498: 3rd Voyage; John Cobalt sailed the E astern shore near present day Worcester Country iv. 1502: Columbus’s 4th voyage v.

1506: Death of Columbus

vi. 1507: “America” is first used on Italian Amerigo Vespucci vii. 1513: Juan Ponce De Leon explores Florida coast


Compiled by Ayesha Younas viii. 1524: Giovanni de Verrazano explores the coast from Carolina North to Nova Scotia, enters new York Harbour ix. 1540: Francisco Vasquezde Coronado explores south west x.

1541: Hernando de Soto of Spain discovers Mississipi River

xi. 1565: St Augustine, Florida, the first town esta blished by Europeans in America is founded by Spanish and later burned by English in 1586 xii. 1585: First Englisg settlement established at RANOKE ISLAND, NORTH CAROLINA xiii. 1588: In Europe, the defeat of Spanish Armada by English results in Great Britain replacing Spain as dominant world power and leads to gradual decline of Spanish influence in the New World and widening of English imperial interests. xiv. 1600: Nations interest in Americe xv. 1606: King James I granted charter to Virginia company to establish colony 3)

Early America i.

First Americans crossed the land bridge from Asia

ii.

They Lived in (now) Alaska for 1000 years

iii. They moved south in today’s mainland U.S. iv. Lived by the Pacific Ocean in the Northwest, in mountains and deserts of South west and along Mississipi River v.

Early Groups called; Adenans, Hopewillians, Anasazi and Hohokam.

vi. After Marco Polo came back with stories of China and its riches, Europeans began to explore. First, they set up settlements in Africa, near the coast, where they used African slaves to work on plantations. vii. In 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India, opening a sea route to the Far East. viii. Complications and dangers of this eastern sea route inf luenced Christopher Columbus to sail west. In doing so, he inadvertently discovered the Americas, though he never knew it. ix. The Portuguese were first to settle in America, but the Spanish later became the dominant nation in the Americas. Spanish Conquistadores swept through Latin and South America, destroying the Aztecs and the Incas. Meanwhile, Magellan’s crew sailed around the world in

1519, becoming the first voyage to do so. As the chapter ended, Spain was very much in control of much of the Americas, though other countries were beginning to challenge the Spanish dominance. 4)

Important People i.

Cristopher Columbus i. Most Famous explorer ii. Was an Italian, but Queen Isabella of Spain paid for his trips iii. Landed in 1492 in Bahamas island near Carribean Sea iv. Believed that sailing West across Atlantic Ocean was shortest route to asia v. Ignorant of the Fact that western Hemisphere lay between Europe and Asia and assuming circumference a third less than actual vi. Convinced that Japan would appear on horizon just 3000 miles to west

ii.

Native Americans; red Indians, Mayas, Aztecs, and Incas

iii. John Cabot i. Explorer sailing for England, landed in Eastern Canada in 1497 ii. Arrival established a British claim to land in North America 5)

Spanish Dominance in 1500’s

i.

Spain explored and claimed more land in America than any other country


Compiled by Ayesha Younas ii.

In 1513, Juan Ponce de Leon landed in Florida

iii. A Florentine who sailed for the French, Verrazano made landfall in North Carolina in 1524, then sailed north along the Atlantic coast past what is now New York harbor. iv. Hernando De Soto landed in Florida and explored the way to Mississipi river in 1541 v.

Spain conquered Mexico in 1522.

vi. Established by Spain in mid 1500’s at St Augustine in Florida; Within 40 years, Spanish adventurers had carved out a huge empire in Central and South America. 6)

England’s Imperial Stirrings

i.

7)

8)

9)

North America i. North America in 1600 was largely unclaimed, though the Spanish had much control in Central and South America. ii. Spain had only set up Santa Fe, while France had founded Quebec and Britain had founded Jamestown. iii. In the 1500s, Britain didn’t really colonize because of internal conflicts. 1. King Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church in the 1530s and launched the English Protestant Reformation. 2. After Elizabeth I became queen, Britain became basically Protestant, and a rivalry with Catholic Spain intensified. 3. In Ireland, the Catholics sought Spa in’s help in revolting against England, but the English crushed the uprising with brutal atrocity, and developed an attitude of sneering contempt for natives. Elizabeth Energizes England i. Colonization i. After Britain basically defeated Spain (i.e. Spanish Armada defeat), British swarmed to America and took over lead in colonization and power. 1. Sparked new literature, like Shakespeare ii. After Drake circumnavigated the globe, Liz I knighted him on his ship. iii. However, English tries at colonization in the New World failed often and embarrassingly. iv. Britain and Spain finally signed a peace treaty in 1604. England on the Eve of the Empire i. Reasons for Emigration i. In the 1500s, Britain’s population was mushrooming. ii. Farmers were enclosing land for farming. iii. Puritanism took a strong root in the woolen districts of western and eastern England. iv. Younger sons of rich folk (who couldn’t inherit money) tried their luck with fortunes elsewhere, like America. v. By the 1600s, the joint-stock company was perfected, being a forerunner to tod ay’s corporations. England Plants the Jamestown Seedling; First European Settlement i.

Jamestown i. In 1606, the Virginia Company received a charter from King James I to make a settlement in the New World. ii. However, story of colonization started from settlement farther North along the Atlantic Coast in Virginia, Massachusetts, NY and 10 other areas due to the growing tide of immigrants from Europe.

10) Conclusion



Topic 3: USA as a British Colony (1606-1783)

1) 2)

3)

4)

5)

6)

Introduction England Plants the Jamestown Seedling a. Jamestown i. In 1606, the Virginia Company received a charter from King James I to make a settlement in the New World. b. The charter of the Virginia Company guaranteed settlers the same rights as Englishmen in Britain. 1. On May 24, 1607, about a 100 English settlers disembarked from their ship and founded Jamestown. a. Forty colonists perished during the voyage. b. In mosquito- ridden Virginia, disease was rampant. It didn’t help that a supply ship shipwrecked in the Bahamas in 1609 either. 2. Luckily, in 1608, a Captain John Smith took over control and whipped the colonists into discipline. a. He had been kidnapped by local Indians and forced into a mock execution by the chief Powhatan and had been “saved” by Pocahantas. b. The act was meant to show that Powhatan wanted peaceful relations with the colonists. 3. Still, the colonists were reduced to eating cats, dogs, rats, even other people. 4. Finally, in 1610, a relief party headed by Lord De La Warr arrived to alleviate the suffering. 5. By 1625, out of an original overall total of 8000 would-be settlers, only 1200 had survived. Cultural Clash in the Chesapeake B. The Indian’s Begin to Lose Power 1. At first, Powhatan possibly considered the new colonists potential allies and tried to be friendly with them, but as time passed and colonists raided Indian food supplies, relations deteriorated and eventually, war occurred. 2. The First Anglo-Powhatan War ended in 1614 with a peace settlement sealed by the marriage of Pocahontas to colonist John Rolfe. 3. Eight years later, in 1622, the Indians struck again with a series of attacks that left 347 settlers, including John Rolfe, dead. 4. The Second Anglo-Powhatan War began in 1644, ended in 1646, and effectively banished the Chesapeake Indians from their ancestral lands. 5. After the settlers began to grow their own food, the Indians were useless, and were therefore banished. Virginia: Child of Tobacco C. Tobacco Info 1. Tobacco created a greed for land, since it heavily depleted soil and ruined the land. 2. King James I detested tobacco. 3. Representative self-government was born in Virginia, when in 1619, settlers created the House of Burgesses. 4. Slavery in the Americas was also born in 1619. Maryland: Catholic Heaven D. Religious Diversity 1. Founded in 1634 by Lord Baltimore, Maryland was the second plantation colony and the fourth overall colony to be formed. 2. It was a place for persecuted Catholics to find refuge. 3. However, Maryland prospered with tobacco. 4. It had a lot of indentured servants. Black slavery became popular The West Indies: Way Station to Mainland America E. Their Use


Compiled by Ayesha Younas 1.

As the British were colonizing Virginia, they were also settling in the West Indies (Spain’s declining power opened the door). 2. By mid-1600s, England had secured claim to several West Indies islands, including Jamaica in 1655. 7) Colonizing the Carolinas F. Restoration Period 1. In England, King Charles I had been beheaded. Oliver Cromwell had ruled for ten years before tired Englishmen restored Charles II to the throne. 2. The bloody period had interrupted colonization. 3. Carolina was named after Charles II, and was formally created in 1670. 4. Carolina flourished by developing close economic ties with the West Indies. 5. Many original Carolina settlers had come from Barbados. 6. Despite violence with Spanish and Indians, Carolina proved to be too strong to be wiped out. 8) The Emergence of North Carolina G. Conflict 1. Many newcomers to Carolina were “squatters,” people who owned no land. 2. North Carolinians developed a strong resistant to authority, due to geographic isolation from neighbors. 3. In 1712, North and South Carolina were officially separated. 9) Late-Coming Georgia: The Buffer Colony H. Georgia’s Purpose 1. Georgia was intended to be a buffer between the British colonies and the hostile Spanish settlements in Florida and the enemy French in Louisiana. 2. Founded in 1733 by a high-minded group of philanthropists, it was the last colony founded. 3. Named after King George II of England, Georgia was also meant to be a haven for wretched souls in debt. 4. James Oglethorpe, the ablest of the founders and a dynamic soldier-statesman, repelled Spanish attacks. 5. All Christians except Catholics enjoyed religious toleration, and many missionaries came to try to convert the Indians. a. John Wesley was one of them, and he later returned to England and founded Methodism. 6. Georgia grew very slowly. 10) The Plantion Colonies I. Comparisons and Contrasts 1. Slavery was found in all the plantation colonies. 2. Growth of cities was often stunted by forests. 3. Establishment of schools and churches was difficult. 4. In the South, the crops were tobacco a nd rice. 5. All the plantation colonies permitted some religious toleration. 6. Confrontations with Native Americans was often. 11) France Finds a Foothold in Canada a. Like England and Holland, France was a latecomer in the colony race. i. It was convulsed in the 1500s by foreign wars and domestic strife. ii. In 1598, the Edict of Nantes was issued, allowing limited toleration to the French Huguenots. b. When King Louis XIV became king, he took an interest in overseas colonies. c. In 1608, France established Quebec, overlooking the St. Lawrence River. d. Samuel de Champlain, an intrepid soldier and explorer, became known as the “Father of New France.” He entered into friendly relations with the neighboring Huron Indians and helped them defeated the Iroquois.


Compiled by Ayesha Younas e.

Unlike English colonists, French colonists didn’t immigrate to North America by hordes. The peasants were too poor, and the Huguenots weren’t allowed to leave. 12) New France Fans Out a. New France’s (Canada) one valuable resource was the beaver. b. French Catholic missionaries zealously tried to convert Indians. c. To thwart English settlers from pushing into the Ohio Valley, Antoine Cadillac founded Detroit (“city of straits”) in 1701. d. Louisiana was founded, in 1682, by Robert de La Salle, to thwart Spanish expansion into the area near the Gulf of Mexico. e. The fertile Illinois country, where the French established forts and trading posts at Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Vincennes, became the garden of France’s North American empire. 13) The Clash of Empires a. King William’s War and Queen Anne’s War ( two different fights) i. The English colonists fought the French coureurs de bois and their Indian allies. ii. Neither side considered America important enough to waste real troops on. iii. The peace deal in Utrecht in 1713 gave Acadia (renamed Nova Scotia), Newfoundland, and Hudson Bay to England, pinching the French settlements by the St. Lawrence. It also gave Britain limited trading rights with Spanish America. b. The War of Jenkin’s Ear i. An English Captain named Jenkin’s had his ear cut off by a Spanish commander, who had sneered at him to go home crying (essentially). ii. This war was confined to the Caribbean Sea and Georgia. iii. This war soon merged with the War of Austrian Succession and came to be called King George’s War in America. iv. France allied itself with Spain, but England’s troops captured the reputed impregnable fortress of Cap Breton Island. v. However, peace terms of this war gave Louisbourg, which the New Englanders had captured, back to France, outraging the colonists, which feared it. c. George Washington Inaugurates War with France i. The Ohio Valley became a battleground among the Spanish, British, and French. ii. It was lush and very good land. iii. In 1754, the governor of Virginia sent 21 year-old George Washington to the Ohio country as a lieutenant colonel in command of about 150 Virginia minutemen. iv. He was permitted to march his men away with the full honors of war. 14) Global War and Colonial Disunity a. The fourth of these wars between empires started in America, unlike the first three. b. The French and Indian War (aka Seven Years’ War) began with Washington’s battle with the French. c. It was England and Prussia vs. France, Spain, Austria, and Russia. d. In previous wars, the Americans were not unified, but now they were. e. In 1754, an intercolonial congress was held in Albany, New York. f. Franklin helped unite the colonists in Albany, but the Albany plan failed because it compromised too much. g. The 1759 Battle of Quebec ranks as one of the most significant engagements in British and American history, and when Montreal fell in 1760, that was the last time French flags would fly on American soil. h. In the peace treaty at Paris in 1763, Britain got all of Canada, but the French were allowed to retain several small but valuable sugar islands in the West Indies and two never-to-be-fortified islets in the Gulf of St. Lawrence for fishing stations. i. France’s final blow came when they gave Louisiana to Spain to compensate for Spain’s losses in the war. j. Great Britain took its place as the leading naval power in the world, and a great power in North America.


Compiled by Ayesha Younas 15) Restless Colonials a. The colonists, having experienced war firsthand and come out victors, were very confident. However, the myth of British invincibility had been shattered. b. Ominously, friction developed between the British officers and the colonial “boors.” c. During the French and Indian War, though, Americans from different parts of the colonies found, surprisingly to them, that they had a lot in common (language, ideals), and barriers of disunity began to melt. 16) Americans: A People of Destiny a. Now that the French had been beaten, the colonists could now roam freely, and were less dependent upon Great Britain. b. The French consoled themselves with the thought that if they could lose such a great empire, maybe the British would one day lose theirs too. c. Spain was eliminated from Florida, and the Indians could no longer play the European powers against each other, since it was only Great Britain in control now. d. Now, land-hungry Americans could now settle west of the Appalachians, but in 1763, Parliament issued its Proclamation of 1763, prohibiting any settlement in the area beyond the Appalachians. e. In 1765, an estimated on thousand wagons rolled through the town of Salisbury, North Carolina, on their way “up west” in defiance of the Proclamation. f. The British, proud and haughty, were in no way to accept this blatant disobedience by the lowly Americans, and the stage was set for the Revolutionary War. g. In 1700, there were about 250,000 European and African settlers in North America’s thirteen English colonies. By 1775, on the eve of revolution, there were nearly 2.5 million. These colonists did not have much in common, but they were able to band together and fight for their independence. 17) Causes of Colonization a. Improvement in Technology b. Renaissance in Europe c. Religious Conflicts in Europe d. Expanding trade e. Search for New Routes f. Pressure of population g. Trade and Agriculture h. Desire for wealth i. Imperial Rac; Imperialistic Designs and Aims j. Royal Proclamation; Treaty of Westphalia was signed in 1648, between Spain and Dutch republic by which each state would have the right to determine the religion of his own state and also colonial claims were adjusted. 18) Conclusion Topic 4: USA as an Independent Country (1783 - 1819) 1)

Introduction I.

As a result of the Treaty of Paris of 1783, the new nation controlled all of North America from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River between Canada and Florida. Canada, to the north, remained British territory. Great Britain returned Florida to Spain, and Spain continued to control the area west of the Mississippi River.

II.

The original 13 colonies made up the first 13 states of the United States. Eventually, the American land west of the Appalachian Mountains was divided into territories.

III.

At the end of the American Revolution, the new nation was still a loose confederation of states. But in 1787, American leaders got together and wrote the Constitution of the United States. The Constitution became the country's basic law and welded it t ogether into a solid political unit. The


Compiled by Ayesha Younas men who wrote it included some of the most famous and important figures in American history. Among them were George Washington and James Madison of Virginia, Alexander Hamilton of New York, and Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania. The authors of the Constitution, along with other early leaders such as Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, won lasting fame as the Founding Fathers of the United States. IV.

At the start of its history, the United States faced severe financial problems. But before long, the skill of its leaders and the spirit and hard work of its people put the country on a sound economic footing. Early America also faced threats from powerful European nations. ut masterful diplomacy by Washington and other leaders guided the country through its early years in peace. The peace ended with the War of 1812, in which the United States and Great Britain fought again. After the war, America focused its a ttention on its development, and entered a period of bustling economic growth.

2)

Establishing a government : The American people began setting up a new system of government as soon

as they declared their independence. Each of the new states ha d its own constitution before the American Revolution ended. The state constitutions gave the people certain liberties, usually including freedom of speech, religion, and the press. In 1781, the states set up a federal government under la ws called the Articles of Confederation. 3)

Background to the Constitution. I.

The Articles of Confederation gave the federal government the power to declare war and manage foreign affairs. But the Articles did not allow the government to collect taxes, regulate trade, or otherwise direct the activities of the states.

II.

Under the Articles, each state worked independently for its own ends. Yet the new nation faced problems that demanded a strong federal government. The United States had piled up a huge national debt during the American Revolution. But since the federal government could not collect taxes, it was unable to pay the debt and put the country on a sound economic foo ting. The government even lacked the means for raising money to provide for national defence. The federal government had no power to regulate the nation's trade. In a ddition, some states issued their own paper money, causing sharp changes in the value of currency and economic chaos.

4)

Creating the Constitution. I.

In 1787, delegates from every state except Rhode Island met in Philadelphia to consider revisions to the Articles of Confederation. The delegates agreed to write an entirely new Constitution.

II.

The delegates debated long and hard over the contents of the Constitution. Some of them wanted a document that gave much power to the federal government. Others wanted to protect the rights of the states and ca lled for a weak central government. Delegates from large states claimed their states should have greater representation in Congress than the small states. But small-state delegates demanded equal representation in Congress.

III.

The delegates finally reached agreement on a new Constitution on Sept. 17, 1787. The do cument they produced has often been called a work of political genius. The authors worked out a system of government that satisfied the opposing views of the p eople of the 1780's. At the same time, they created a system of government flexible enough to continue in its basic form to the present day.

IV.

The Constitution provided for a two-house legislature--a House of R epresentatives and a Senate. Representation in the House was based on population in order to satisfy the large states. All states received equal representation in the Senate, which pleased the small states. The Constitution gave many powers to the federal government, including the rights to collect taxes and regulate trade. But the document also reserved certain powers for the states. The


Compiled by Ayesha Younas Constitution provided for three branches of government: the executive, headed by a president; the legislature, made up of the two houses of Congress; and the judiciary, or federal court system. The creators of the Constitution provided for a system of checks and balances among the three branches of government. Each branch received powers and duties that ensured that the other branches would not have too much power. 5)

Adopting the Constitution: Before the Constitution became law, it needed ratification (approval) by nine

states. Some Americans still opposed the Constitution, and fierce debate over ratification broke out. Finally, on June 21, 1788, New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify. 6)

The Bill of Rights: Much opposition to the new Constitution stemmed from the fa ct that it did not

specifically guarantee enough individual rights. In response, 10 amendments known as the Bill of Rights were added to the document. The Bill of Rights became law on Dec. 15, 1791. Among other things, it guaranteed freedom of speech, religion, the press, and the rights to trial by jury and peaceful assembly. 7)

Setting up the government: The Constitution provided that the president be elected by an Electoral

College, a group of people chosen by the states. In 1789, the Electoral College unani-mously chose Washington to serve as the first president. It reelected him unanimously in 179 2. The government went into operation in 1789, with its temporary capital in New York City. The capital was moved to Philadelphia in 1790, and to Washington, D.C., in 1800. 8)

Early problems and politics: Solving financial problems. I.

Americans were divided over how to deal with the financial problems that plagued the new government. One group, led by Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, wanted the federal government to take vigorous action. Another group, headed by Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, opposed government participation in economic affairs.

II.

Hamilton proposed that the federal government increase tariffs a nd tax certain products made in the United States. The government would use the tax money to pay both its debts and the debts of the states. Hamilton also proposed a government-supported national bank to control government finances.

III.

Jefferson and his followers, who included many Southerners, finally agreed to support some of Hamilton's financial proposals. In return, Hamilton agreed to support a shift of the national capital to the South. Congress approved Hamilton's financial plan and agreed to locate the capital in the South. As a result of thi s compromise, the capital moved to Washington, D.C., in 1800. Jefferson continued to oppose the national bank proposal. But in 1791, Congress chartered a national bank for 20 years.

9)

Early problems and politics: Foreign affairs. I.

The new government also faced problems in foreign af fairs. In 1793, France went to war against Britain and Spain. France had helped the Americans in the American Revolution, and it now expected U.S. assistance in its war. Americans disagreed over which side to support. Jefferson and his followers wanted the United States to back France, while Hamilton and his group favoured the British.

II.

President Washington insisted that the United States remain neutral in the European war. He rejected French demands for support, and also sent diplomats to Britain and Spain to clear up problems with those countries. Chief Justice John Jay, acting for Washington, negotiated the Jay Treaty with Britain in 1794. The treaty's many provisions included a trade agreement with Britain which--in effect--ended American trade with France. It also included a British promise to remove troops still stationed on U.S. territory. In 1795, Thomas Pinckney negotiated the Pinckney Treaty, or Treaty of San Lorenzo, wit h Spain. This treaty settled a dispute over the Florida border


Compiled by Ayesha Younas between the United States and Spain and also gave the United States free use of the Mississippi River. III.

In 1796, Washington--annoyed by the disputes within his Administration--refused to seek a third term as president. John Adams succeeded him in 1797. At about that time, French warships began attacking American merchant vessels. Adams, like Washington, hoped to use diplomacy to solve foreign problems. He sent diplomats to France to try to end the attacks. But three agents of the French government insulted the diplomats with dishonourable proposals, including a demand for a bribe. The identity of the agents was not revealed. They were simply ca lled X, Y, and Z, and the incident became known as the XYZ Affair.

IV.

The XYZ Affair created a furore in the United States. Hamilton and his followers demanded war against France. But Adams was determined to keep the peace. In 1799, he again sent diplomats to France. This time, the United States and France reached a peaceful settlement.

10) Establishing political parties: Washington and many other early American leaders opposed political parties. But in the 1790's, the disputes over government policies led to the establishment of two political parties in the United States. Hamilton and his followers, chiefly Northerners, formed the Federalist Party. The party favoured a strong federal government and generally backed Great Britain in international disputes. Jefferson and his followers, chiefly Southerners, established the Democratic-Republican Party. The party wanted a weak central government and generally sided with France in foreign disputes. 11) The Alien and Sedition Acts. I.

The XYZ Affair had a major impact on American internal policies and politics. After the affair, the Federalist Party denounced the Democratic-Republicans for their support of France. The Federalists had a majority in Congress. They set out to silence their critics, who included Democratic-Republicans and foreigners living in the United States. In 179 8, the Federalist Congress and President Adams--also a Federalist--approved the Alien and Sedition Acts. These laws made it a crime for anyone to criticize the president or Congress, and subjected foreigners to unequal treatment.

II.

A nationwide outcry against these attacks on freedom followed. The most offensive parts of the Acts soon expired or were repealed. However, the Alien and Sedition Acts gave the Federalists the reputation as a party of oppression.

12) Jeffersonian democracy I.

Public reaction to the Alien and Sedition Acts helped Thomas Jefferson win election as president in 1800 and again in 1804. Jefferson's political philosophy became known as Jeffersonian democracy. Jefferson envisioned the United States as a nation of small farmers. In Jefferson's ideal society, the people would lead simple, but productive, lives and be able to direct their own affairs. Therefore, the need for government would decline. Jefferson took steps to reduce government expenses and the national debt. But in spite of his beliefs and practices, Jefferson found that as president he could not avoid actions that expanded the role of government.

II.

The Louisiana Purchase, the first major action of Jefferson's presidency, almost doubled the size of the United States. In 1801, Jefferson learned that France had taken over from Spain a large area between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains called Louisiana. Spain was a weak nation, and did not pose a threat to the United States. But France--then ruled by Napoleon Bonaparte--was powerful and aggressive. Jefferson viewed French control of Louisiana as a danger to the United States.

III.

In 1803, Jefferson arranged the purchase of the area from France. The Louisiana Purchase added 2,144,476 square kilometres of territory to the United States.

13) Jefferson and foreign policy.


Compiled by Ayesha Younas I.

In 1803, Great Britain and France went to war again, and both nations began seizing American merchant ships. The British also impressed American seamen, seizing them and forcing them into British service.

II.

Jefferson again found it necessary to use government powers, this time to protect American shipping. At his request, Congress passed trade laws designed to stop the British and French interfering with American trade. But the warring nations continued to interfere.

14) The War of 1812 I.

James Madison succeeded Jefferson as president in 1809. France soon promised to end its interference with American shipping, but Britain did not. Also, people believed the British were encouraging Indians to attack American pioneers moving westward. For these reasons, many Americans demanded war against Britain. They were led by members of Congress from the West and South called War Hawks. Other Americans, especially New Englanders, opposed the War Hawks' demand. But on June 18, 1812, at Madison's request, Congress declared war on Britain and the War of 1812 had begun.

II.

Neither side gained much advantage early in the war. But on Aug. 24, 1814, British troops captured Washington, D.C., and burned the Capitol and o ther government buildings. This British action made Americans realize their nation's survival wa s at stake. Large numbers of American volunteers rushed into service, and helped stop the British offensive. The Treaty of Ghent of Dec. 24, 1814, officially ended the War of 1812 . Neither side won the war and little was gained from the struggle.

15) Growing nationalism : A strong spirit of nationalism swept through the United States following the War of 1812. The war itself gave rise to increased feelings of self-confidence and unity. The peace that followed enabled the nation to concentrate on its own affair s. The bitterness that had marked political disputes eased with the breakup of the Federalist Party. Meanwhile, the nation expanded westward, new states entered the union, and the economy prospered. Historians sometimes call the period from about 1815 to the early 1820's The Era of Good Feeling because of its relative peace, unity, and optimism. 16) Nationalism and the economy. I.

After the War of 1812, nationalist politicians proposed economic measures that came to be called the American System. They said the government should raise tariff s to protect American manufacturers and farmers from foreign competition. Industry would then grow and employ more people. More employment would lead to greater consumption of farm products, and so farmers would prosper and buy more manufactured goods. In a ddition, tariff revenues would enable the government to make needed internal improvements.

II.

The government soon put ideas of the American System into practice. In 1816, Con gress enacted a high tariff, and it chartered the second Bank of the United States, to give the government more control over the economy. The government also increased its funding of internal projects, the most important of which was the National Road. Begun in 1811, the road stretched from Cumberland, Maryland, to Vandalia, Illinois, when completed. It became an important route for the shipment of goods and the movement of settlers westward.

17) A national culture. Many early Americans had tried to model their culture on European civilization. Architects, painters, and writers tended to imitate European models. But in the late 1700's and early 1800's, art and culture more and more reflected American experiences. Architects designed simple, but beautiful, houses that blended into their surroundings. Craftworkers built sturdy furniture that was suited to frontier life, yet so simply elegant as to be considered works of art. The nation's literature flourished when it began reflecting American experiences. Political writings such as the works of Thomas Paine had


Compiled by Ayesha Younas high literary merit. The works of Washington Irving, one of the leading early authors, helped gain respect for American literature. 18) Decline of the Federalists. In 1814 and 1815, New England Federalists held a secret political meeting in Hartford, Connecticut. Their opponents charged that they had discussed the secession (withdrawal) of the New England States from the Union. The Federalists never recovered from the charge, and the party broke up in about 1816. James Monroe, the Democratic-Republican presidential candidate in the election of 1820, was unopposed. 19) New territory. The United States gained two new pieces of territory between 1815 and 1820. In 1818, a treaty with Britain gave the country the Red River Basin, north of the Louisiana Territory. Spain ceded Florida to the United States in 1819. 20) "A fire bell in the night." The Era of Good Feeling did not mean an end to all the country's disputes. The issue of slavery was causing deep divisions a mong the people. Many Northerners were demanding an end to slavery, while Southerners were defending it more and more. Jefferson, then retired, accurately viewed the growing dispute as a warning of a pproaching disaster, "like a fire bell in the night." Topic 5: Expansion of USA: From 13 to 50 States (1820 - 1949)

1)

2)

3)

Introduction i. Between 1821 and 1859, the following States became part of the Union: Missouri (1821), Arkansas (1836), Michigan (1837), Texas (1845), Florida (1845), Iowa (1846), Wisconsin (1848), California (1850), Minnesota (1858) and Oregon (1859). Kansas (1861), Nevada (1864), Nebraska (1867), Colorado (1876), Dakota Territory was split in two (1889),; Montana Territory (1889), Washington (1889), Idaho (1890), Wyoming (1890), Utah(1896), Oklahoma (1907), New Mexico (1912), Arizona (1912), Alaska (1959) Fate of Indian Territories i. In the 1820s, the USA government began moving what it called the "Five C ivilized Tribes" of South East America (Cherokee, Creek, Seminole, Choctaw, and Chickasaw) to lands west of the Mississippi River. ii. The 1830 Indian Removal Act gave the President authority to designate specific lands for the Indians (native Americans). iii. The 1834 Indian Intercourse Act called the lands Indian Territory and specified where they were: all of present-day Oklahoma North and East of the Red River, as well as Kansas and Nebraska. iv. But, in 1854 the territory was cut down when Kansas and Nebraska territories were created. White settlers continued to invade the West and half the remaining Indian Territory (West Oklahoma) was opened to whites in 1889. v. In 1907 Oklahoma became a state of the USA, and Indian Territory was no more. Timeline i. August 10, 1821; The southeastern corner of Missouri Territory was admitted to the US as the 24th state, Missouri. The remainder became unorganized. Missouri did not include its northwestern triangle at this point, that being added later in the Platte Purchase ii. October 4, 1824; The 1824 Constitution of Mexico was enacted, creating the United Mexican States and replacing the Mexican Empire, which had collapsed on March 19, 1823. iii. November 15, 1824; Arkansas Territory was shrunk, the western portion becoming unorganized iv. June 30, 1834: A large portion of unorganized land was added to Michigan Territory, corresponding to present-day Iowa, western Minnesota, and eastern North Dakota and South Dakota. v. June 15, 1836: Arkansas Territory was admitted to the US as the 25th state, Arkansas. It continued to claim Miller County, with increasing irrelevance. vi. March 2, 1836: The Treaties of Velasco signified the end of the Texas Revolution on May 14, 1836, creating the Republic of Texas.


Compiled by Ayesha Younas vii.

July 4, 1836: Wisconsin Territory was split off from Michigan Territory, consisting of present-day Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, and eastern North and South Dakota. viii. January 26, 1837: Michigan Territory was admitted to the US as the 26th state, Michigan ix. March 3, 1845: Florida Territory was admitted to the US as the 27th state, Florida. x. December 29, 1845: The Republic of Texas was admitted to the US as the 28th state, Texas. xi. December 28, 1846: The southeast portion of Iowa Territory was admitted to the US as the 29th state, Iowa. The remainder became unorganized. xii. May 29, 1848: The southeastern portion of Wisconsin Territory was admitted to the US a s the 30th state, Wisconsin. The remainder became unorganized. xiii. March 2, 1853: Washington Territory was split from Oregon Territory, consisting of present -day Washington, northern Idaho, and the western tip of Montana, leaving Oregon Territory with all of Oregon, southern Idaho and a portion of Wyoming. xiv. May 11, 1858: The eastern portion of Minnesota Territory was admitted to the US as the 32nd state, Minnesota. xv. February 14, 1859: The western portion of Oregon Territory was admitted to the US as the 33rd state, Oregon. xvi. January 29, 1861: The eastern portion of Kansas Territory was admitted as the 34th state, Kansas. xvii. March 4, 1861: The Confederate States of America (CSA) was formed. The Southern states seceded at different dates and joined the CSA a t different dates; Its claim to be a separate country was later denied by its surrender at th e end of the Civil War. xviii. March 4, 1863: Idaho Territory was created from portions of Washington, Dakota, and Nebraska Territories, consisting of present-day Idaho, Montana, and most of Wyoming. xix. October 31, 1864: Nevada Territory was admitted to the US as the 36th state, Nevada xx. March 1, 1867; Nebraska Territory was admitted to the US as the 37th state, Nebraska. xxi. August 1, 1876: Colorado Territory was admitted to the US as the 38th state, Colorado. xxii. November 2, 1889; Dakota Territory was split in two, and it was admitted to the US as the 39th state, North Dakota, and 40th state, South Dakota. xxiii. November 8, 1889; Montana Territory was admitted to the US as the 41st state, Montana. xxiv. November 11, 1889; Washington Territory was admitted to the US as the 42nd state, Washington. xxv. July 3, 1890; Idaho Territory was admitted to the US as the 43rd state, Idaho. xxvi. July 10, 1890; Wyoming Territory was admitted to the US as the 44th state, Wyoming. xxvii. January 4, 1896: Utah Territory was admitted to the US as the 45th state, Utah. xxviii. November 16, 1907: Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory were combined and admitted to the US as the 46th state, Oklahoma. xxix. January 6, 1912: New Mexico Territory was admitted to the US as the 47th state, New Mexico. xxx. February 14, 1912: Arizona Territory was admitted to the US as the 48th state, Arizona. xxxi. 1948: Air Force Island, Prince Charles Island, and Foley Island are discovered and added to Northwest Territories. xxxii. January 3, 1959: Alaska Territory was admitted to the US as the 49th state, Alaska. 4) Conclusion

Topic 6: Constitution of the USA: Salient Features

1)

Introduction “A Constitution consists of those fundamental rules which determine & distribute functions & i. powers among the various organs of the Government’’ ii. Adopted at Philadelphia convention held in 1787; Came into force in 1789; Originally 7 articles, but 26 amendments so far


Compiled by Ayesha Younas iii.

2)

Classic example of rigidity; Theory of separation of powers combined with remarkable system of checks and balance Lord Bryce remarked; “yet after all deductions, it rank s above every other written constitution iv. for the intrinsic excellence of its scheme, its adaptation to the circumstances of the people, its simplicity and precision of language, its judicious mixture of definiteness in principles with elasticity in details .” Salient Features Bill of Rights: Constitution guarantees fundamental rights of person, property and liberty, i. Incorporated in the first ten amendments. Rights of citizens are enforceable by the recourse of judiciary, these rights cannot be modified or suspended except by a constitutional amendment. Part and Parcel of constitution; i. Freedom of Speech ii. Freedom of Worship iii. Habeas Corpus iv. No unreasonable search v. No unreasonable seizure Checks and Balances : One of the most powerful weapons in the US constitution which makes it ii. one of the most important written documents in world is the system of check and balance between the three tiers of state i.e. executive, legislative and judiciary. iii. Brief & Simple: The US Constitution hardly consists of 6000 and is less than 12 pages in length which makes it one of the shortest and simply written constitutions of the world. Written Constitution : The US constitution is in the written form and comprises of 7 articles and iv. 27 amendments had been made since the constitution was made in 1787. Dual Citizenship : The peoples living in America are authorized to have dual citizenship according v. to their constitution. The 1st citizenship of being an American a nd the 2nd is of the state which a citizen belongs to. Secular State : Since the constitution declares America as a secular state. Therefore no law can vi. be made which prohibits or dents any religion in the country. vii. Supremacy of the Constitution : The US Constitution is the supreme document as described in the article IV. The constitution is declared superior over the entire citizens, law making agencies and the government. No law can be pa ssed contrary to the constitution. Strong Federation : Article I, section 789 declares the federal form of government in America. viii. The stress is laid upon the strong center and relatively weaker states. Bill Of Rights: Bill of rights were the 1st ten amendments in the US constitution which defined the rights of the peoples living in America. ix. Rigid Constitution: US constitution is a rigid constitution because it requires a difficult procedure to amend it. Every amendment, which can be moved in two different ways, must be ratified by three-fourths of the states. consequently, stood the rigors of industrial of industrial revolution and democratic upsurge, the turmoil of civil a nd global wars and economic crises of thirties. Separation of Powers: The constitution is based on the doctrine of separation of powers. x. According to the constitution the national powers are divided into three departments i.e. executive, legislature and judiciary. Bicameralism: American parliament is known as Congress. It consists of two chambers. Upper xi. house is the Senate and lower house is the House of Representatives. xii. Independent Judiciary : The president of USA appoints the judges but he has no power to remove them. It is only the legislature according to Article 1 Section 6, which can impeach the judge of Supreme Court. Universal Suffrage : The Constitution has given right to vote to every citizen who is 18 years old xiii. without any distinction of male or female. Division of Powers: As the Federal Government



3)

requires a double set of Government. That of center and those of states there must be a division of powers between the two parts. All those powers which are not stated in the constitution are to be exercised by the states. xiv. Spoils System: This system was introduced by President Andrew Jackson. According to this system the new president appoints all important official of the government sacking the previous administration. This system is known as the ―Spoilt System‖ because the jobs are distributed among the party men regardless of their merit, experience and talent. Presidential form of government : The Constitution establishes a presidential form of xv. government. The constitution vests all executive powers to the president .The president is the head of the state as well as the government. xvi. Republicanism: There would be Republicanism in the political structure of the US. Laws made by the legislature shall be supreme as it represents the will of the people. The people who made those laws are elected by the people themselves. Sovereignty of the People: The preamble of the US Constitution emphasizes the theory of popular sovereignty i.e. the ultimate authority has been vested in the people of the USA. Popular Sovereignty: “We the people of U.S.”, ultimate sovereignty is thus a ttributed to people xvii. Dual Citizenship: An American is the citizen of U.S and also of the State, where he is domiciled xviii. Amendments in American Constitution 1st Ten Bill of Rights i. ii. 11th Immunity of states from suits from out-of-state citizens and foreigners not living within the state borders. Lays the foundation for sovereign immunity iii. 12th Revises presidential election procedures iv. 13th Abolishes slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime 14th Defines citizenship, contains the Privileges or Immunities Clause, the Due Process Clause, the Equal Protection Clause, and deals with post-Civil War i ssues v. 15th Prohibits the denial of suffrage ba sed on race, color, or previous condition of servitude vi. 16th Allows the federal government to collect income tax vii. 17th Establishes the direct election of United States Senators by popular vote viii. 18th Establishes Prohibition of alcohol (Repealed by Twenty-first Amendment) ix. 19th Establishes women's suffrage x. 20th Fixes the dates of term commencements for Congress (January 3) and the P resident (January 20); known as the "lame duck amendment" xi. 21st Repeals the Eighteenth A mendment xii. 22nd Limits the president to two terms, or a maximum of 10 years (i.e., if a Vice President serves not more than one half of a President's term, he or she can be elected to a further two terms) xiii. 23rd Provides for representation of Washington, D.C. in the Electoral College xiv. 24th Prohibits the revocation of voting rights due to the non-payment of poll taxes xv. 25th Codifies the Tyler Precedent; defines the process of presidential succession xvi. 26th Establishes the official voting age to be 18 years old. xvii. 27th Prevents laws affecting Congressional salary from taking effect until the beginning of the next session of Congress.

Topic 7: Civil War between the North and the East (1850 - 1869)

I.

Civil War i.

In 1860, Abraham Lincoln was elected president of the United States. He defeated Stephen Douglas because of the greater northern population. Southerners were angered by the growing abolitionist movement, and when Lincoln was elected, they feared that their way of life was in


Compiled by Ayesha Younas jeopardy. South Carolina seceded on December 20, 1860. Within the next two weeks, six other southern states had left the union (Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas). Little did people know that a very bloody four year war was to come. II.

PEOPLE i.

North(Union), South(Confederacy)

ii.

Abraham Lincoln, Jefferson Davis , Robert E Lee , Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson

iii. U.S. Grant: William T Sherman III.

Causes Leading to Civil war i.

Election of Lincoln

ii.

Discrimination of race

iii. Slavery iv. The abolitionist (people who wanted to stop slavery) movement v.

Difference in economy

vi. Western expansion IV.

Consequences of the Civil War i.

Physical Devastation: The American Civil War lasted four years. Measured in physical devastation and human lives, it was the costliest war the American people have experienced the war k illed over 620,000 men and at least that many more had been wounded in a nation of about 35 million.

ii.

Spread of Disease and Sickness: North lost a total of about 364,000 soldiers (nearly one of every four soldiers). Also more than 37,000 black soldiers lost their lives fighting for freedom during the American Civil War. The conditions of the war were so bad more men died of disease and sickness than on the battlefield.

iii. Hunger and Homelessness: After the war, over 4 million sla ves were freed. They didn't know what the future had in store for them. With freedom came hunger and homelessness. Some slaves stayed on the plantations, but others went north. Either way, thousands of former slaves were without homes, clothes, food, jobs, and didn't have any education. The Freedman's Bureau helped both blacks and whites after the war by providing them with food and medical care. V.

Effects of the Civil War i.

The Civil War was one of the most tragic wars in American history. More Americans died then in all other wars combined. Brother fought against brother and the n ation was torn apart. In the end, we must look at the important consequences of the conflict. There may be others, but this is a good list to work off.

ii.

The nation was reunited and the southern states were not allowed to secede.

iii. The South was placed under military rule and divided into military districts. Southern states then had to apply for readmission to the Union. iv. The Federal government proved itself supreme over the states. v.

Slavery was effectively ended. While slavery was not officially outlawed until the passage of the 13th amendment, the slaves were set free upon the end of the war.

vi. Reconstruction, the plan to rebuild America after the war, b egan. vii. Industrialism began as a result of the increase in wartime production and the development of new technologies. Course of War I.

Introduction Bull Run Ends the “Ninety -Day War”



II.

III.

IV.

When President Abraham Lincoln called for 75,000 militiamen on April 15, 1861, he and just about everyone else in the North expected a swift war lasting about 90 days, with a quick suppression of the South to prove the North’s superiority and end this foolishness. 2. On July 21, 1861, ill-trained Yankee recruits swaggered out toward Bull Run to engage a smaller Confederate unit. i. The atmosphere was like that of a sporting event, as Congressmen gathered in picnics. ii. However, after initial success by the Union, Confederate reinforcements arrived and, coupled with Stonewall Jackson ’s line holding, sent the Union soldiers into disarray. 3. The Battle of Bull Run showed both sides that this would not be a short, easy war. “Tardy George” McClellan and the Peninsula Campaign 1. Later in 1861, command of the Army of the Potomac (name of the Union army) was given to 34 year old General George B. McClellan, an excellent drillmaster and organizer of troops but also a perfectionist who constantly believed that he was outnumbered, never took risks, and held the army without moving for months before finally ordered by Lincoln to advance. 2. Finally, he decided upon a water-borne approach to Richmond, called the Peninsula Campaign , taking about a month to capture Yorktown before coming to the Richmond. i. At this moment, President Lincoln took McClellan’s expected reinforcements and sent them chasing Stonewall Jackson, and after “Jeb” Stuart’s Confederate cavalry rode completely around McClellan’s army, Southern General Robert E. Lee launched a devastating counterattack —the Seven Days’ Battles—on June 26 to July 2 of 1862. ii. The victory at Bull Run ensured that the South, if it lost, would lose slavery as well, and it was after this battle that Lincoln began to draft an emancipation proclamation. 3. The Union strategy now turned to total war: i. Suffocate the South through an oceanic blockade. ii. Free the slaves to undermine the South’s very economic foundations. iii. Cut the Confederacy in half by seizing control of the Mississippi River. iv. Chop the Confederacy to pieces by marching through Georgia and the Carolinas. v. Capture its capital, Richmond, Virginia. vi. Try everywhere to engage the enemy’s main strength and grind it to submission. The War at Sea 1. The Union blockade started leakily at first, but it clamped down later. 2. Britain, who would or dinarily protest such interference in the seas that she “owned,” recognized the blockade as binding, since Britain herself often used blockades in her wars. 3. Blockade-running, or the process of smuggling materials through the blockade, was a risky but profitable business, but the Union navy a lso seized British freighters on the high seas, citing “ultimate destination” [to the South] as their reasons; the British relented, since they might have to do the same thing in later wars (as they did in World War I). 4. The biggest Confederate threat to the Union came in the form of an old U.S. warship reconditioned and plated with iron railroad rails: the Virginia (formerly called the Merrimack ), which threatened to break the Union blockade, but fortunately, the Monitor arrived just in time to fight the Merrimack to a standstill, and the Confederate ship was destroyed later by the South to save it from the North. The Pivotal Point: Antietam 1. In the Second Battle of Bull Run , Robert E. Lee crushed the arrogant General John Pope.] 2. After this battle, Lee hoped to thrust into the North and win, hopefully persuading the Border States to join the South and foreign countries to intervene on behalf of the South. i. At this time, Lincoln reinstated General McClellan. 3. McClellan’s men found a copy of Lee’s plans and were able to stop the Southerners at Antietam on September 17, 1862 in one of the bloodiest days of the Civil War. i. Jefferson Davis was never so close to victory as he was that day, since European powers were very close to helping the South, but after the Union army displayed unexpected power at Antietam, that help faded.



V.

VI.

VII.

VIII.

IX.

ii. Antietam was also the Union display of power that Lincoln needed to announce his Emancipation Proclamation , which didn’t actually free the sl aves, but gave the general idea; it was announced on January 1, 1863. iii. Now, the war wasn’t just to save the Union, it was to save the slaves a well. A Proclamation without Emancipation 1. The Emancipation Proclamation freed the slaves in not -yet-conquered Southern territories, but slaves in the Border States and the conquered territories were not liberated; Lincoln freed the slaves where he couldn’t and wouldn’t free the slaves where he could. 2. The proclamation was very controversial, as many soldiers refused to fight for abolition and deserted. 3. However, since many slaves, upon hearing the proclamation, left their plantations, the Emancipation Proclamation did succeed in one of it s purposes: the undermine the labor of the South. 4. Angry Southerners cried that Lincoln was stirring up trouble and trying to have a slave insurrection. Blacks Battle Bondage 1. At first, Blacks weren’t enlisted in the army, but as men ran low, these men were eventually allowed in; by war’s end, Black’s accounted for about 10% of the Union ar my. 2. Until 1864, Southerners refused to recognize Black soldiers as prisoners of war, and often executed them as runaways and rebels, and in one case at Fort Pillow, Tennessee, Blacks who had surrendered were massacred. i. Afterwards, vengeful Black units swor e to take no prisoners, crying, “Remember Fort Pillow!” 3. Many Blacks, whether through fear, loyalty, lack of leadership, or strict policing, didn’t cast off their chains when they heard the Emancipation Proclamation, but many others walked off of their jobs when Union armies conquered territory that included the plantations that they worked on. Lee’s Last Lunge at Gettysburg 1. After Antietam, A. E. Burnside (known for sideburns) took over the Union army, but he lost badly after launching a rash frontal attack at Fredericksburg, Virginia, on Dec. 13, 1862. 2. “Fighting Joe” Hooker (known for his girls, aka prostitutes) was badly beaten at Chancellorsville, Virginia, when Lee divided his outnumbered army into two and sent “Stonewall” Jackson to attack the Union flan k, but later in that battle, Jackson’s own men mistakenly shot him during dusk, and he died. 3. Lee now prepared to invade the North for the second and final time, at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, but he was met by new General George G. Meade , who by accident took a stand atop a low ridge flanking a shallow valley and the Union and Confederate armies fought a bloody and brutal battle in which the North “won.” i. In the Battle of Gettysburg (July 1-3, 1863), General George Pickett led a hopeless, bloody, and pitiful charge up a hill that ended in the pig-slaughter of Confederates. ii. A few months later, Lincoln delivered his Gettysburg Address . The War in the West 1. Lincoln finally found a good general in Ulysses S. Grant , a mediocre West Point graduate who drank a lot and also fought under the ideal of “immediate and unconditional surrender.” 2. Grant won at Fort Henry and Fort Donelson , but then lost a hard battle at Shiloh (April 6-7, 1862), just over the Tennessee border. 3. In the spring of 1862, a flotilla commanded by David G. Farragut joined with a Northern army to seize New Orleans. 4. At Vicksburg, Mississippi, U.S. Grant besieged the city and captured it on July 4, 1863, thus securing the important Mississippi River. 5. The Union victory at the Battle of Vicksburg came the day after the Union victory at Gettysburg, and afterwards, the Confederate hope for foreign intervention was lost. Sherman Scorches Georgia



X.

XI.

XII.

XIII. XIV.

After Grant cleared out Tennessee, General William Tecumseh Sherman was given command to march through Georgia, and he delivered, capturing and burning down Atlanta before completing his famous “ march to the sea ” at Savannah. i. His men cut a trail of destruction one- mile wide, waging “ total war ” by cutting up railroad tracks, burning fields, and destroying everything. The Politics of War 1. The Congressional Committee on the Conduct of the War was created in 1861 was dominated by “radical” Republicans and gave Lincoln much trouble. 2. The Northern Democrats split after the death of Stephen Douglas , as “ War Democrats” supported Lincoln while “ Peace Democrats” did not. i. Copperheads were those who totally against the war, and denounced the president (the “Illinois Ape”) and his “nigger war.” ii. The most famous of the copperheads was Clement L. Valandigham , who harshly denounced the war but was imprisoned, then banished to the South, then came back to Ohio illegally but was not further punished, and a lso inspired the story “The Man without a Country.” The Election of 1864 1. In 1864, the Republicans joined the War Democrats to form the Union P arty and renominated Abe Lincoln despite a bit of opposition, while the Copperheads and Peace Democrats ran George McClellan. i. The Union Party chose Democrat Andrew Johnson to ensure that the War Democrats would vote for Lincoln, and the campaign wa s once again full of mudslinging, etc… ii. Near Election Day, the victories at New Orleans and Atlanta occurred, and the Northern soldiers were pushed to vote, and Lincoln killed his opponent in the Electoral College, 212-21. iii. The popular vote was closer: 2,206,938-1,803,787. Grant Outlasts Lee 1. Grant was a man who could send thousands of men out to die just so that the Confederates would lose, because he knew that he could afford to lose many men while Lee could not. i. In a series of wilderness encounters, Grant fought Lee, with Grant losing about 50,000 men. ii. At Cold Harbor, Union soldiers with papers pinned on their backs showing their names and addresses rushed the fort, and over 7000 died in a few minutes. iii. The public was outraged and shocked ov er this kind of gore and death, and demanded the relief of General Grant, but Ulysses stayed. 2. Finally, Grant and his men captured Richmond, burning it, and cornered Lee at Appomattox Courthouse at Virginia in April of 1865, where Lee formally surrendered; the war was over. The Martyrdom of Lincoln The Aftermath of the Nightmare. 1. The Civil War cost 600,000 men, $15 billion, and wasted the cream of the American crop. 2. However it gave America a supreme test of its existence, and the U.S. survived, proving its strength and further increasing its growing power and reputation; plus, slavery was also destroyed, which was great. 3. It paved the way for the United States’ fulfillment of its destiny as the dominant republic of the Western Hemisphere —and later, the world.

Topic 8: Industrialization and its emergence as one of the world powers (1870 -1916) 1)

Introduction I.

The industrial growth had major effects on American life. The new business activity centered on cities. As a result, people moved to cities in record numbers, and the cities grew by leaps and


Compiled by Ayesha Younas bounds. The sharp contrast between the rich and the poor and other features of American life stirred widespread discontent. The discontent triggered new reform movements. II.

The industrial growth centred chiefly on the North. The war-torn South lagged behind the rest of the country economically. In the West, frontier life was ending.

III.

America's role in foreign affairs also changed during the late 1800's and early 1900's. The country built up its military strength and became a world power.

2)

The rise of big business

I.

The value of goods produced by American industry increased almost tenfold between 1870 and 1916. Many interrelated developments contributed to this growth.

II.

Improved production methods. The use of machines in manufacturing spread throughout

American industry after the Civil War. With machines, workers could produce goods many times faster than they could by hand. The new large manufacturing firms hired hundreds, or even thousands, of workers. Each worker was assigned a specific job in the production process. This system of organizing labourers, called the division of labour, also sped up production. III.

Development of new products. Inventors created, and business leaders produced and sold, a

variety of new products. The products included the typewriter (1867), barbed wire (1874), the telephone (1876), the phonograph (early form of record player) (1877), the electric light (1879), and the petrol-engine car (1885). IV.

Natural resources . America's rich and varied natural resources played a key role in the rise of big

business. The nation's abundant water supply helped power the industrial machines. Forests provided timber for construction and wooden products. Miners took large quantities of coal and iron ore from the ground. V.

A growing population. More than 25 million immigrants entered the United States between 1870

and 1916. Immigration plus natural growth caused the U.S. population to more than double during the same period, rising from about 40 million to about 100 million. VI.

Distribution and communication. In the late 1800's, the American railway system became a

nationwide transportation network. The total distance of all railway lines in operation in the United States soared from about 14,500 kilometres in 1850 to almost 320,000 kilometres in 1900. A high point in railway development came in 1869, when workers laid tracks that joined the Central Pacific and Union Pacific railways near Ogden, Utah. This event marked the completion of the world's first transcontinental railway system. The system linked the United States by rail from coast to coast. VII.

The new railways spurred economic growth. Mining companies used them to ship raw materials to factories over long distances quickly. Manufacturers distributed their finished products by rail to points throughout the country. The railways became highly profitable businesses for their owners.

VIII.

Advances in communication provided a boost for the economy. Railways replaced such maildelivery systems as the stagecoach. In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone. These developments, along with the telegraph, provided the quick communication that is vital to the smooth operation of big business.

IX.

Investment and banking. The business boom triggered a sharp increase in investments in the

stocks and bonds of corporations. As businesses prospered, people eager to share in the profits invested heavily. Their investments provided capital that companies needed to expand their operations. X.

New banks sprang up throughout the country. Banks helped finance the nation's economic growth by making loans to businesses. Some bankers of the era assumed key positions in the American economy because of their ability to provide huge sums of capital.

3)

The South and the West


Compiled by Ayesha Younas I.

The war-torn South. After the Civil War, Americans in the South faced the task of rebuilding their

war-torn society. The South lagged behind the rest of the nation economically. Some industry developed in the region, but the South remained an agricultural area throughout the period of industrialization. II.

Many Southern farmers--both black and white--owned the land they worked. But in general, the land of these small, independent farmers was poor. The best land was given over to tenant farming--a system in which labourers farm the land and pay rent in money or crops to the owner. The tenant farming system had neither the virtues of the plantation system of pre-Civil War days nor of the independent owner system. The tenant farmers lacked the incentive to improve land that was not their own, and the owners did not have full control over production. For these and other reasons, agriculture remained more backward in the South than elsewhere.

III.

The end of the Western frontier. The long process of settling the United States from coast to coast

drew to a close after the Civil War. In 1862, Congress passed the Homestead Act, which offered public land to people free or at very low cost. Thousands of Americans and immigrants started farms in the West under the provisions of the act. IV.

After 1870, settlement became so widespread in the West that it was no longer possible to draw a continuous frontier line. The United States Census of 1890 officially recognized the fact that America's frontier had ended.

V.

The settlement of the West brought an end to the American Indian way of life. Farmers occupied and fenced in much of the land. White people moving westward slaughtered buffalo herds on which Indians depended for survival. Some Indians retaliated against the whites by attacking wagon trains and homes. But, as in earlier days, the federal government sent soldiers to crush the Indian uprisings. In the end, the Indians were no match for the soldiers and their superior weapons. Over the years, the federal government pushed more and more Indians onto reservations.

4)

Life during the industrial era

I.

The industrial boom had major effects on the lives of the American people. The availability of jobs in industries drew people from farms to cities in record numbers. In 1870, only about 25 per cent of the American people lived in urban areas. By 1916, the figure had reached almost 50 per cent.

II.

The lives of people in the cities contrasted sharply. A small percentage of them had enormous wealth and enjoyed lives of luxury. Below them economically, the larger middle class lived comfortably. But at the bottom of the economic ladder, a huge mass of city people lived in extreme poverty.

III.

The wealthy. The business boom opened up many opportunities for financial gain. The economic

activity it generated enabled many people to establish successful businesses, expand existing ones, and profit from investments. Some business leaders and investors were able to amass huge fortunes. The number of millionaires in the United States grew from perhaps about 20 in 1850 to more than 3,000 in 1900. IV.

The middle class. Other city people prospered enough to live lives of comfort, if not wealth. They

included owners of small businesses, and such workers as factory and office managers. They became part of America's growing middle class. V.

The underprivileged. The laborers who toiled in factories, mills, and mines did not share in the

benefits of the economic growth. They usually worked at least 60 hours a week for an average pay of about 20 cents an hour, and had no fringe benefits. VI.

As the nation's population grew, so did the competition for jobs. The supply of workers outstripped the demand. The oversupply of workers led to high unemployment. In addition, depressions slowed the economy to a near standstill in 1873, 1884, 1893, and 1907.


Compiled by Ayesha Younas VII.

The everyday life of the city poor was dismal and drab. The poor lived crowded together in slums. Much of their housing consisted of cheap apartment buildings called tenements. The crowded slum neighbourhoods bred crime. Overwork, poor sanitation, and inadequate diet left slum dwellers vulnerable to disease. Many poor children received little or no education, because they had to work to contribute to their families' welfare.

VIII.

The farmers. American farmers also suffered hardships after the Civil War. Advances in agricultural

equipment and techniques had enabled most of the farmers to increase their production. However, middlemen between the farmers and the consumers took a large share of the money earned from farm products. The middlemen included owners of railways, mills, and gins. IX.

The Gilded Age . American author Mark Twain called the era of industrialization "The Gilded

Age." Twain used this term to describe the culture of the newly rich of the period. Lacking tradition, the wealthy developed a showy culture supposedly based on the culture of upper-class Europeans. The enormous mansions of the newly rich Americans imitated European palaces. The wealthy filled the mansions with European works of art, antiques, rare books, and gaudy decorations. X.

Most Americans, however, had a far different idea of culture. They enjoyed fairs that exhibited industrial machines, the latest inventions, and other items related to America's material progress. The American people were eager spectators at circuses, vaudeville shows, and sporting events. Baseball became so popular after 1900 that it was called the national pastime. Also after 1900, a new kind of entertainment, the cinema, began attracting public interest.

XI.

Government and the people. After the Civil War, the Democratic and Republican parties developed

strong political machines. Members of these organizations kept in contact with the people, and did them favours in return for votes. But in general, political leaders strongly favoured business interests. XII.

Government of the era was also marked by widespread corruption. Ulysses S. Grant became president in 1869. Members of Grant's administration used their government positions for their own financial gain. Corruption also flourished in state and local government.

5)

Reform

I.

A strong spirit of reform swept through the United States during the late 1800's and early 1900's. Many Americans called for changes in the country's economic, political, a nd social systems. They wanted to reduce poverty, improve the living conditions of the poor, and regulate big business. They worked to end corruption in government, make government more responsive to the people, and accomplish other goals. By 1917, the reformers had brought about many changes. Some reformers called themselves progressives. As a result, the period of American history from about 1890 to about 1917 is often called the Progressive Era.

II.

Early reform efforts included movements to organize labourers and farmers. In 1886, skilled labourers formed the American Federation of Labor (AFL)--now the American Federation of LaborCongress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO). Led by Samuel Gompers, this union bargained with employers and gained better wages and working conditions for its members. Farmers founded the National Grange in 1867 and Farmers' Alliances during the 1870's and 1880's. These groups helped force railways to lower their charges for hauling farm products and assisted the farmers in other ways.

III.

The drive for woman suffrage became strong after the Civil War. In 1869, Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton founded the National Woman Suffrage Association. The Territory of Wyoming gave women the right to vote the same year. Soon, a few states allowed women to vote, but only in local elections.


Compiled by Ayesha Younas IV.

The Progressive Era. The outcry for reform increased sharply after 1890. Members of the clergy,

social workers, and others studied life in the slums and reported on the awful living conditions there. Educators criticized the nation's school system. Increasingly, unskilled workers resorted to strikes in an attempt to gain concessions from their employers. Often, violence broke out between strikers and strikebreakers hired by the employers. Socialists and others who opposed the U.S. economic system of capitalism supported the strikers and gained a large following. V.

As public support for reform grew, so did the political influence of the reformers. In 1891, farmers and some labourers formed the People's, or Populist, Party. The Populists called for government action to help farmers and labourers. They gained a large following, and convinced many Democrats and Republicans to support reforms.

VI.

Reformers won control of many city and some state governments. They also elected many people to Congress who favoured their views. In addition, the first three presidents elected after 1900-Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and Woodrow Wilson--supported certain reform laws.

VII.

Local and state legislation . Reformers in local and state government passed many laws to help the

poor. Such laws provided for tenement house inspection, playgrounds, and other improvements of life in the slums. Some reform governments expanded public education and forced employers to protect workers against fires and dangerous machinery in factories. VIII.

Federal legislation. Theodore Roosevelt, who became president in 1901, was a liberal Republican who called for a "square deal" for all Americans. Roosevelt became the first president to help labourers in a strike against employers. In 1902, the United Mine Workers struck for better wages and working conditions. Roosevelt asked the miners and the mine owners to settle their differences through arbitration, but the mine owners refused. Angered, the president threatened to have the army take over the mines. The owners gave in, and reached a compromise with the miners.

IX.

Republican William Howard Taft succeeded Roosevelt in 1909. Although a conservative, Taft helped further the cause of reform. In 1912, conservative Republicans backed Taft for their party's presidential nomination, and liberal Republicans supported Roosevelt. Taft won the nomination. The liberals then formed the Progressive, or "Bull Moose," Party and nominated Roosevelt for president. The Republican split enabled reform Democrat Woodrow Wilson to win the presidency.

X.

The reform movement flourished under Wilson. The many reform measures passed during Wilson's presidency included the Underwood Tariff Act of 1913, which lowered a high tariff that protected American business from foreign competition.

6)

Foreign affairs

I.

During the 1870's and 1880's, the United States paid relatively little attention to foreign affairs. In comparison to such European nations as France, Germany, and Great Britain, the United States was weak militarily and had little influence in international politics. During the 1890's and early 1900's, however, the United States developed into a world power and took a leading role in international affairs.

II.

The Spanish-American War of 1898 marked a turning point in United States foreign policy. Spain ruled Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and other overseas possessions during the 1890's. In the mid-1890's, Cubans revolted against their Spanish rulers. Many Americans demanded that the United States aid the rebels. On Feb. 15, 1898, the United States battleship Maine blew up off the coast of Havana, Cuba. No one was certain what caused the explosion, but many Americans blamed the Spaniards. On April 25, 1898, Congress declared war on Spain. The United States quickly defeated Spain, and the Treaty of Paris of Dec. 10, 1898, officially ended the war. Under the treaty,


Compiled by Ayesha Younas the United States received Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines from Spain. Also in 1898, the United States annexed Hawaii. III.

A world power. After he became president in 1901, Roosevelt expressed his foreign policy strategy

with the slogan, "Speak Softly and Carry a Big Stick." Roosevelt meant that the country must back up its diplomatic efforts with military strength. In 1903, the president used a threat of force to gain the right to dig the Panama Canal. America took over the finances of the Dominican Republic in 1905 to keep that country stable and free from European intervention. These and other actions showed that the United States had emerged as a world power. IV.

War clouds in Europe. In 1914, long-standing problems among European nations led to the outbreak of World War I. Before long, events would drag the United States into war and test its new role as a world power.

7)

Conclusion

Topic 9: USA’s role in the Two World Wars (i. 1914 – 1918, ii. 1939 - 1945)

1)

Introduction: A new place in the world (1917-1929) I.

The United States stayed out of World War I until 1917. But then, German acts of aggression convinced most Americans of the need to join the war against Germany. For the first time in its history, the United States mobilized for a full-scale war on foreign territory.

II.

The decade following World War I brought sweeping changes. The economy entered a period of spectacular--though uneven--growth. The booming economy and fast-paced life of the decade gave it the nickname of the Roaring Twenties. But the good times ended abruptly. In 1929, a stock market crash triggered the worst and longest depression in America's history.

2)

World War I and the peace

I.

The United States in the war. After World War I began in 1914, the United States repeatedly

declared its neutrality. But increasingly, German acts of aggression brought America closer to joining the Allies. On May 7, 1915, a German submarine sank the British passenger ship Lusitania. The attack killed 1,198 people, including 128 Americans. Woodrow Wilson won reelection to the presidency in November 1916, using the slogan, "He Kept Us Out of War." But three months later, German submarines began sinking American merchant ships. This and other acts of aggression led the United States to declare war on Germany on April 6, 1917. II.

The American people rallied around their government's decision to go to war. Almost 2 million men volunteered for service, and about 3 million were conscripted. On the home front, the spirit of patriotism grew to a fever pitch. Americans willingly let the government take almost complete control of the economy for the good of the war effort.

III.

World War I ended in an Allied victory with the signing of an armistice on Nov. 11, 1918.

IV.

The peace conference and treaty . In 1919, the Allies held the Paris Peace Conference to draw up

the terms of the peace with Germany. Wilson viewed the c onference as an opportunity to establish lasting peace among nations. But the other leading Allies were chiefly interested in gaining territory and war payments from Germany. They adopted the Treaty of Versailles, which ignored almost all of Wilson's proposals. V.

The Treaty of Versailles did make provision for one of Wilson's proposals--an association of nations (later called the League of Nations) that would work to maintain peace. But the U.S. Senate failed


Compiled by Ayesha Younas to ratify (approve) the Treaty of Versailles. Thus, the Senate rejected U.S. participation in the League of Nations. 3)

Life during the Roaring Twenties

I.

In many ways, the 1920's marked the point at which the United States began developing into the modern society it is today.

II.

The role of American women changed dramatically during the 1920's. The 19th Amendment to the Constitution, which became law on Aug. 26, 1920, gave women the right to vote in all elections. In addition, many new opportunities for education and careers opened up to women during the decade.

III.

Social change and problems. Developments of the 1920's broadened the experiences of millions of

Americans. The mass movement to cities meant more people could enjoy such activities as films, plays, and sporting events. Radio broadcasting began on a large scale. The car gave people a new way to get around. Cinemas became part of almost every city and town. The new role of women also changed society. Many women who found careers outside the home began thinking of themselves more as the equal of men, and less as housewives and mothers. IV.

The modern trends of the 1920's brought about problems as well as benefits. Many Americans had trouble adjusting to the impersonal, fast-paced life of cities. This disorientation led to a rise in juvenile delinquency, crime, and other antisocial behaviour.

V.

The 18th Amendment to the Constitution, called the prohibition amendment, caused unforeseen problems. It outlawed the sale of alcoholic beverages throughout the United States as of Jan. 16, 1920. Many otherwise law-abiding citizens considered prohibition a violation of their rights. They ignored the law and bought alcohol provided by underworld gangs.

VI.

Looking backward . Not all Americans saw the changes brought about during the Roaring Twenties

as being desirable. Many people yearned for a return to old American traditions, a trend that was reflected in many areas of life. In politics, it led to the return of a conservative federal government. In his successful presidential campaign of 1920, Warren G. Harding used the slogan "A Return to Normalcy." To many people, returning to "normalcy" meant ending the strong role of the federal government that marked the early 1900's. It also meant isolation, a turning away from the affairs of the outside world. VII.

In religion, the trend toward tradition led to an upsurge of revivalism (emotional religious preaching). Revival meetings were most common in rural areas, but also spread to cities.

VIII.

The Ku Klux Klan had died out in the 1870's, but a new Klan gained a large following during the 1920's. The new Klan had easy answers for Americans who were troubled by modern problems. It blamed the problems on "outsiders," including blacks, Jews, Roman Catholics, foreigners, and political radicals.

4)

The economy--boom and bust

I.

During the 1920's, the American economy soared to spectacular heights. Wartime government restrictions on business ended. Conservatives gained control of the federal government and adopted policies that aided big business.

II.

But in spite of its growth and apparent strength, the economy was on shaky ground. Only one segment of the economy--manufacturing--prospered. Business executives grew rich, but farmers and labourers became worse off. Finally, in 1929, wild speculation led to a stock market crash.

III.

Government and business . The American people grew tired of the federal government's

involvement in society that marked the Progressive Era and the war years. They elected to Congress conservatives who promised to reduce the role of government. Also, all three presidents


Compiled by Ayesha Younas elected during the 1920's--Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover--were Republicans who agreed with the policy. IV.

Technology enabled American manufacturers to develop new products, improve existing ones, and turn out goods much faster and more cheaply than ever before. Sales of such items as electric washing machines, refrigerators, and radios soared. But the manufacturing boom depended most heavily on the growth of the car industry. Before and during the 1920's, Henry Ford and others refined car manufacturing to a science. The cost of cars continued to drop and sales soared. In just 10 years between 1920 and 1930, the number of cars registered in the United States almost tripled, growing from about 8 million to 23 million.

V.

Agriculture and labour did not share in the prosperity. A reduced market for farm goods in war-

torn Europe and a slowdown in the U.S. population growth led to a decline in the demand for American farm products. Widespread poverty among farmers and labourers cut into the demand for manufactured goods, a contributing factor to the forthcoming depression. VI.

Investments, speculation, and the crash. The economic growth of the 1920's led more Americans

than ever to invest in the shares of corporations. The investments, in turn, provided companies with a flood of new capital for business expansion. As investors poured money into the stock market, the value of shares soared. The upsweep led to widespread speculation, which pushed the value of shares far beyond the level justified by earnings and dividends. VII.

Such unsound investment practices led to the stock market crash of 1929. In late October, a decline in share prices set in. Panic selling followed, lowering share prices drastically and dragging investors to financial ruin. The stock market crash combined with the other weaknesses in the nation's economy to bring on the Great Depression of the 1930's.

5)

Depression and a world in conflict (1930-1959) I.

The United States suffered through the Great Depression that followed the stock market crash of 1929 for more than 10 years. During the depression, millions of workers lost their jobs and large numbers of farmers were forced to abandon their farms. Poverty swept through the nation on a scale never before experienced.

II.

The Great Depression was not limited to the United States. It struck almost every other country in the world. In some countries, the hard times helped bring to power dictators who promised to restore the economy. The dictators included Adolf Hitler in Germany and a group of military leaders in Japan. Once in power, both Hitler and the Japanese rulers began conquering neighbouring lands. Their actions led to World War II, the most destructive conflict in world history. The United States fought in the war from 1941 to 1945, and played a k ey role in defeating Germany and Japan.

III.

Victory in World War II brought a spirit of great relief and joy to the United States. The postwar economy boomed. More people shared in the prosperity than ever before, creating a huge, well-todo middle class. Even so, Americans still fac ed problems. Chief among them were the new threat of nuclear war, the growing strength of Communism, and discontent among Americans who did not share in the prosperity.

6)

The Great Depression

I.

The road to ruin. The stock market crash sent shock waves through the American financial

community. Banks greatly curtailed their loans to businesses, and businesses then cut back on production. Millions of people lost their jobs because of the cutbacks. Spending then dwindled, and businesses suffered even more. Factories and shops shut down, causing even higher unemployment. Consumption of farm products declined, and farmers became worse off than ever. Thousands of banks failed and foreign trade decreased sharply. By the early 1930's, the nation's economy was paralysed.


Compiled by Ayesha Younas II.

The depression and the people. At the height of the depression in 1933, about 13 million

Americans were out of work, and many others had only part-time jobs. Farm income declined so sharply that more than 750,000 farmers lost their land. The Dust Bowl, the result of a terrible drought on the western Great Plains, also wiped out many farmers. Hundreds of thousands of people lost their life savings as a result of the bank failures. III.

Throughout the depression, many Americans went hungry. People stood in "bread lines" and went to "soup kitchens" to get food provided by charities. Often, two or more families lived crowded together in a small apartment. Some homeless people built shacks of tin and scraps of wood on waste ground.

IV.

Roosevelt, recovery, and reform. Early in the Great Depression, President Herbert Hoover

promised that prosperity was "just around the corner." But the depression deepened as the election of 1932 approached. The Republicans supported Hoover for reelection. The Democrats chose Franklin Delano Roosevelt. In his campaign, Roosevelt promised government action to end the Great Depression and reforms to avoid future depressions. The people responded, and Roosevelt won a landslide victory. V.

Roosevelt's programme was called the New Deal. Its many provisions included public works projects to provide jobs, relief for farmers, assistance to manufacturing firms, and the regulation of banks.

VI.

Roosevelt's efforts to end the depression made him one of the most popular U.S. presidents. The voters elected him to four terms. No other president won election more than twice. Roosevelt's New Deal was a turning point in American history. It marked the start of a strong government role in the nation's economic affairs that has continued and grown to the present day.

7)

The United States in World War II

I.

World War II began on Sept. 1, 1939, when German troops overran Poland. France, Great Britain, and other nations (called the Allies) went to war against Germany. At first, America stayed out of the war. But on Dec. 7, 1941, Japanese planes bombed the U.S. military base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The United States declared war on Japan on December 8, and three days later Germany and Italy--Germany's chief ally--declared war on the United States.

II.

The war effort. The American people backed the war effort with fierce dedication. About 15 million

American men served in the armed forces. About 338,000 women served in the armed forces. At home, factories were converted into defence plants where aeroplanes, ships, weapons, and other war supplies were made. The country had a shortage of civilian men, and so thousands of women worked in the defence plants. ven children took part in the war effort. Boys and girls collected used tin cans, old tyres, and other "junk" that could be recycled and used for war supplies. III.

Allied victory. On May 7, 1945, after a long, bitter struggle, the Allies forced the mighty German

war machine to surrender. Vice President Harry S. Truman had become president upon Roosevelt's death about a month earlier. The Allies demanded Japan's surrender, but the Japanese continued to fight on. Truman then made one of the major decisions in history. He ordered the use of the atomic bomb, a weapon many times more destructive than any previous weapon. An American aeroplane dropped the first atomic bomb used in warfare on Hiroshima, Japan, on Aug. 6, 1945. A second atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki on August 9. Japan formally surrendered on September 2, and the war was over. 8)

Conclusion

Topic 10: Post 1945 world scenario and emergence of USA and USSR as the Two World Powers.


Compiled by Ayesha Younas 1)

The Threat of Communism I.

The United States and the Soviet Union both fought on the side of the Allies during World War II. But after the war, the two countries became bitter enemies. The Soviet Union, as a Communist country, opposed democracy. It helped Communists take control of most of the countries of Eastern Europe and also aided Communists who seized control of China.

II.

The Soviet Union and China then set out to spread Communism to other lands. The United States, as the world's most powerful democratic country, took on the role of defending non Communist nations threatened by Communist take-over. The containment of Communism became the major goal of U.S. postwar foreign policy.

III.

The Cold War and foreign policy. The postwar struggle between the American-led nonCommunist nations and the Soviet Union and its Co mmunist allies became known as the Cold War. The conflict was so named because it did not lead to fighting, or a "hot" war, on a major scale.

IV.

Both the United States and the Soviet Union built up arsenals of nuclear weapons. The nuclear weapons made each nation capable of destroying the other. The threat of nuclear war made both sides cautious. As a result, Cold War strategy emphasized threats of force, propaganda, and aid to weak nations. The United Nations (UN), founded in 1945, provided a forum where the nations could try to settle their Cold War disputes.

V.

Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower, the first two presidents of the Cold War era, pledged American military support to any nation threatened by Communism. Also, the United States provided billions of dollars to non-Communist nations.

VI.

The Korean War resulted from the Cold War f riction. On June 25, 1950, troops from Communist North Korea, equipped by the Soviet Union, invaded South Korea. The UN called on member nations to help restore peace. Truman sent American troops to aid South Korea, and the UN sent a fighting force made up of troops from many nations. The war lasted for three years, ending in a truce on July 27, 1953.

VII.

Communism and internal friction. The spread of Communism caused deep divisions within the

United States. Conservatives blamed the Roosevelt and Truman administrations for allowing the Communist postwar gains. They also claimed that Communists were infiltrating the American government. The charges led to widespread investigations of--and debate over--the extent of Communist influence in American government and society. Conservatives believed the investigations were needed to save the country from Communist control. Liberals charged the conservatives with conducting "witch hunts"; that is, trying to fix guilt on people without evidence. 2)

Postwar society I.

After World War II, the United States entered the greatest period of economic growth in its history. Periods of inflation (rapidly rising prices) and recession (mild business slumps) occurred. But overall, prosperity spread to more Americans than ever before, resulting in major changes in American life. However, millions of Americans--including a high percentage of the nation's blacks--continued to live in poverty. The existence of poverty amid prosperity brought on a period of active social protest that has continued to the present day.

II.

Prosperity returns. Military spending during World War II drew the United States out of the

Great Depression. Major industries, such as car manufacturing and housing construction, had all but stopped during the war. After the war, these industries resumed production on a much larger scale than ever. elatively new industries such as electronics, plastics, frozen foods, and jet aircraft became booming businesses.


History of USA Notes by Ayesha Younas

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