LA EVOLUCIÓN — UNA TEORÍA EN CRISIS 1 El libro de 1986 de Michael Denton, Evolution: A Theory in Crisis (La evolución: Una teoría en crisis), es una crítica secular del darwinismo ortodoxo. Es reflexiva, lógica, empírica y está bien escrita. Denton es respetuoso y equilibrado, mostrando un raro conocimiento de y simpatía hacia Charles Darwin. Distingue entre microevolución ymacroevolución . Lo primero tiene lugar dentro de los genotipos. Los pinzones de los Galápagos estudiados por Darwin ilustran la microevolución, lo mismo que el solapamiento circunpolar entre especies de gaviotas, y las muchas variedades de moscas de la fruta en las islas Hawaii. Sin embargo, la crianza selectiva de pichones, gallinas, pavos, ganado, caballos, perros, gatos y muchos otros animales domésticos dan resultados similares en menos tiempo. La macroevolución, el segundo concepto, es lo que debiera haber ocurrido si la evolución hubiera debido llegar a la primera célula, o saltar a través de los genotipos, digamos que desde un reptil a un ave. Mientras que la microevolución es evidente en la distribución geográfica de muchas especies vivientes2 vivientes 2 y en la crianza selectiva, ello sustenta sólo la teoría especial de Darwin, la de la variación dentro de genotipos. Pero la teoría general , cambio a través de los tipos (o macroevolución) exige el cambio hacia arriba en lugar de un movimiento lateral. Para la macroevolución, el problema es cómo pudieron surgir formas de vida viables totalmente desarrolladas totalmente por accidente. Denton cita a Monod, que dijo: «El solo azar está en el origen de cada innovación, de toda creación en la biosfera. El puro azar, absolutamente libre pero ciego» .3 Se
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supone que el azar dio origen al primer organismo —quizá una bacteria, un alga o un protozoo. Posteriormente, según propone la teoría, el cambio desembocó en complejos invertebrados y plantas, seguidos por los peces, anfibios, reptiles, aves, y, por último, los mamíferos. Según Denton, la prueba de una secuencia así exige al menos uno de dos tipos de evidencia: o bien una cadena ininterrumpida de fósiles de transición o de intermedios supervivientes, o reconstrucciones plausibles de tales series junto con sus respectivos nichos ecológicos. La dificultad reside en mostrar cómo cada eslabón de la cadena podría ser viable el tiempo suficiente para que pudiera establecerse el siguiente. Sólo mediante el establecimiento de series completas de transición puede hacerse plausible la hipotetizada continuidad de la jerarquía —desde luego, la prueba empírica es una exigencia mucho más difícil de suplir. Aquí de lo que se trata es de la mera plausibilidad. Si tales transiciones jamás tuvieron lugar, se deberían hallar formas intermedias en los fósiles y en organismos vivientes. Las clases existentes deberían solaparse. Los límites claramente marcados deberían ser más la excepción que la regla. Aunque Darwin esperaba que llegarían a aparecer transiciones fósiles, no fue así. Sólo se evidenciaban casos triviales de microevolución, difícilmente rivalizando con la crianza selectiva. Y no se hizo posible ninguna medición precisa de la distancia entre clases existentes hasta transcurridos más de cien años. O echemos un vistazo al Celacanto. En base de la evidencia fósil, los evolucionistas creían que se trataba de un
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del Cabo, Africa del Sur. Eran peces. Las reconstrucciones habían sido erróneas. Lo que demuestra que los fósiles constituyen una pobre base para inferencias detalladas acerca de enlaces propuestos entre las clases. Sin embargo, Denton observa que los avances en microbiología posibilitan acceder a un nuevo tipo de evidencia. Es ahora posible comparar directamente los bloques básicos de construcción —las proteínas— de los seres vivos. Denton observa que las proteínas determinan «toda la biología de un organismo, todas sus características anatómicas, sus funciones fisiológicas y metabólicas....» .4 Es difícil creer que la estructura proteínica y la evolución pudieran carecer de relación. Denton escribe: escri be: La secuencia aminoácida de una proteína de dos organismos diferentes puede ser fácilmente comparada alineando las dos secuencias y contando la cantidad de posiciones en que difieren las cadenas. cadenas .5 Y estas diferencias pueden ser cuantificadas de una manera exacta y proveen un enfoque enteramente novedoso para la medición de las diferencias entre especies. ... Al proseguir el trabajo en este campo, se hizo claro que cada proteína particular tenía una secuencia ligeramente diferente en especies diferentes y que especies estrechamente relacionadas tenían secuencias estrechamente relacionadas. Cuando se compararon las secuencias de hemoglobina de mamíferos diferentes, como el hombre y el perro, la divergencia secuencial era de alrededor del veinte por ciento, mientras que al compararse la
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Estas comparaciones posibilitan la comprobación de hipótesis sugeridas por la ortodoxia neodarwinista. Por ejemplo, supongamos que las bacterias hayan estado presentes por mucho más tiempo que las especies multicelulares, p.e., los mamíferos. Supongamos además que las bacterias estén más estrechamente relacionadas con las plantas que con los peces, anfibios, y mamíferos, en este orden. Si es así, deberíamos ver evidencia de estos hechos en las secuencias de aminoácidos de las proteínas comunes. Por ejemplo, todos los grupos mencionados emplean citocromo C, una proteína empleada en producción de energía. Las diferencias en esta proteína deberían concordar con una secuencia evolutiva. Sin embargo, la comparación del citocromo C bacteriano las proteínas correspondientes en el caballo, pichón, atún, gusano de seda, trigo y levadura muestra que estas últimas son todas equidistantes del de la bacteria. La diferencia entre la bacteria y la levadura no es menor que entre la bacteria y el mamífero, o entre cualesquiera de las otras clases. Tampoco cambia la cosa si escogemos otras clases o proteínas diferentes. Las clases tradicionales de organismos son identificables a través de la jerarquía tipológica, y las distancias relativas entre las mismas resultan similares, con independencia de las hipotéticas secuencias evolutivas. Por ejemplo, Denton observa que los anfibios no se encuentran entre los peces y los vertebrados terrestres. En contra de la teoría ortodoxa, los anfibios están a la misma distancia de los peces que los reptiles y los mamíferos. mamíferos .7 En todas las comparaciones, las hipótesis del evolucionismo general resultan falsas. Escribe Denton:
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que es imposible disponerlas en ninguna clase de serie evolutiva..8 evolutiva El resultado de esto es que todo el concepto de evolución se derrumba 9 [debido a que] la pauta de diversidad al nivel molecular se conforma a un sistema jerárquico sumamente ordenado. Cada clase es, al nivel molecular, singular, aislada y carente de relación mediante intermedios. intermedios .10 Además, los ajustes accidentales de diseño que exige el evolucionismo general son desastres lógicos. Las mutaciones aleatorias debidas a la radiación, a errores de copia o a otras fuentes propuestas, raramente resultan en ajustes viables de diseño, y nunca en diseños perfectos más avanzados. La evidencia en favor de una evolución general está totalmente ausente, y las predicciones en base de la teoría resultan falsas. Darwin confesó que Lo distintivo de las formas específicas y el hecho de que no estén amalgamadas entre sí mediante innumerables formas de transición es una dificultad muy evidente. evidente .11 Con todo, insiste él en un cambio gradual debido a la selección natural que, a decir de él, no puede producir modificaciones grandes o repentinas; sólo puede actuar mediante pasos cortos y lentos. lentos .12 Más de un siglo después, el registro fósil sigue sin ajustarse a la ortodoxia darwinista. Irónicamente, fue al admitir este «secreto profesional de la paleontología» 13 que el profesor
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preparó la escena para la teoría saltacional de Gould —idea ésta que Darwin había rechazado r echazado de modo expreso. La idea de Gould es semejante a las fantasías de Fred Hoyle14 Hoyle 14 y de Francis Crick15 Crick15 acerca de civilizaciones extraterrestres. Mientras que Gould, junto con su colega Niles Eldredge, propone milagrosos saltos repentinos en el progreso evolutivo, evolutivo,16 Hoyle y Crick proponen la panspermia—semillas de vida procedentes de alguna civilización extraterrestre. Todas estas teorías sirven sólo para echar atrás el problema. Denton las rechaza, y concluye que un diseño perfecto implica una suprema inteligencia. Pero, a diferencia de Gould, Eldredge, Hoyle y Crick, no alcanza su propia propuesta a partir de una imaginación desbocada, sino por una implacable aplicación de la lógica. Observa él que el problema del designio y su solución encuentran una analogía casi perfecta en la dificultad de generar textos en un idioma determinado. Mientras que la cantidad de textos posibles es grande, la cantidad de cadenas de letras carentes de sentido es mucho mayor en órdenes de infinitud. Es tirar muy por lo bajo decir que la probabilidad de generar por azar incluso un texto gramatical de sólo unos pocos cientos de palabras es despreciablemente pequeña. Cualquier cadena de lenguaje con sentido implica inteligencia. De la misma manera, las secuencias viables del material de la vida están en una proporción infinitesimal frente a todas las posibles secuencias. La pregunta es cómo podría surgir por accidente una secuencia viable. Denton considera las probabilidades. Cita a Hoyle y Wickramasinghe, que estiman
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orgánica».17 Refiriéndose luego a la «elegancia e ingenio de orgánica». una cualidad absolutamente trascendente, que de tal manera milita contra la idea de azar ....» él pregunta: «¿Es verdaderamente creíble que unos procesos de azar hubieran podido construir una realidad, cuyo más mínimo elemento de la misma —una proteína o gene funcional —es compleja hasta más allá ... de cualquier cosa producida por la inteligencia del hombre?»18 hombre?» 18 Al final, sugiere Denton, los defensores de la ortodoxia evolucionista son como la Reina Roja de Alicia a través del Espejo . Cuando Alicia protestó que de nada servía creer en cosas imposibles, la Reina le dijo: «Veo que no tienes mucha práctica.... Cuando yo tenía tu edad, lo hacia media hora al día. ¡Vaya! A veces he creído hasta seis cosas imposibles antes del desayuno!»19 desayuno!» 19
¿Es el darwinismo una religión? Guillermo Agudelo Murguía
Introducción Se discute la semejanza del ―darwinismo‖ con las
religiones (NOTA 1) considerada, la religión, como una
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La ciencia está en crisis de racionalidad, tanto la física como la biología presentan síntomas similares, con la diferencia de que la física reconoce leyes naturales que condicionan el comportamiento comportamient o de la materia inerte. Sin embargo, en la física, los fundadores y seguidores de la interpretación o escuela de Copenhague postularon su filosofía de la física no sólo como una interpretación posible sino como la única viable. Intentos de enfoques básicamente diferentes, incluso de científicos prominentes como Einstein, Schrödinger, Landé, y Bohm fueron ignorados y aun ridiculizados. Niels Bohr propugnó por la escuela de Copenhague incansablemente. Publicó extensivamente, dictó cátedra ampliamente y diseminó el espíritu de esta escuela. Bohr era un hábil retórico de la revolución cuántica, no menos ingenioso que Galileo al tejer argumentos, ―interpretaciones naturales‖, con el objetivo de introducir conocimiento
controversial disfrazado como proposiciones intuitivamente llamativas. Tanto la escuela de Copenhague como su inevitable retórica se basan en dos pilares centrales del positivismo y en la doctrina de la necesidad de conceptos clásicos. No es sorprendente que por esta necesidad de conceptos c onceptos clásicos abunden enunciados contradictorios. La ―reconstrucción racional‖ es formulada por la ortodoxia con
el fin primario de presentar cualquier alternativa como
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cultura y el conocimiento. De acuerdo con E. Schrödinger, no todos lo conceptos están destinados a sobrevivir pues una ciencia teórica... en la que los iniciados continúen hablándose en voz baja, en términos que, en el mejor de los casos, sean entendidos por un pequeño grupo de iniciados, será cercenada del resto de la humanidad y a la larga estará condenada a atrofiarse y osificarse..(NOTA 2) osificarse Lo anterior encaja perfectamente con la biología que se fundamenta en la teoría o teorías de Charles Darwin, que han sido la base del darwinismo que paradójicamente se ha convertido en una religión.
El darwinismo como religión En este sitio el lector encontrará la historia del darwinismo(NOTA darwinismo (NOTA 3) y las consecuencias de haberlo perpetuado al convertir sus hipótesis en dogmas irrefutables. Este artículo trata de aclarar el porqué no consideramos científica la interpretación de la evolución darwinista. Consideramos que Darwin no es culpable del cisma que se está dando en la ciencia desde hace ya bastantes años. El darwinismo tuvo su importante función en un contexto histórico determinado que hace mucho ha sido superado. Pero sus apologistas y seguidores se han empeñado en un
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a ser derribado por la experiencia, cosa que sus seguidores no permiten. Una de las finalidades de la ciencia es la búsqueda de las leyes de la naturaleza, entonces ¿cómo es posible que una teoría que no acepta leyes, que se basa en el azar, en la que muchas de las soluciones a los fenómenos que trata son irrepetibles, sea considerada científica? Que el darwinismo se ha convertido en una religión es indiscutible, pues lo siguiente podría ser el evangelio sobre su ―Verdad‖: ―Revelación a Darwin, que para instruir a todos sus siervos
sobre cómo han sucedido las cosas ha dado a conocer por sus intermediarios, sus siervos (aquí podemos colocar cualquier nombre de los propugnadores del darwinismo ortodoxo), , los cuales dan testimonio de la palabra de Darwin y de todo lo que él ha visto. Bienaventurados los que leen y escuchan las palabras de esta teoría, Bienaventurados los que creen sus temas de charlatanería divulgados por revistas ―científicas‖, becad os por fundaciones, premiados y honrados en enciclopedias que garantizan la continuación histórica de la farsa. Bienaventurados porque ellos heredarán el reino del engaño y del dinero‖ El darwinismo es una religión cuyos dioses son s on ―El - Azar‖ Azar‖ que, así escr ito, ito, por sus raíces significaría ―Mi dios - el dado con el que se pierde‖, la competencia, el egoísmo con su premisa de
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plagas, los pájaros… y ha pasado a reemplazar a la Divina Providencia en las ciencias naturales.‖
Eric J. Chaisson, científico, autor de una plausible teoría sobre la evolución cósmica, cósmica,(NOTA 4) declara que ―sólo recientemente la selección natural ha llegado a ser vista por algunos como la que controla la evolución en forma absoluta. El poder de este concepto quintaesencial darwiniano está tan extendido en la biología y los campos relacionados, que muchos de los llamados ultra-darwinistas lo suscriben enteramente y sin límite, ciertamente con una clase de fervor similar al de los fundamentalistas a quienes ellos abominan. En la misma estrecha línea, los biólogos han adoptado una inflexible ideología basada en el supuesto que los genes regulan toda la vida (Dawkins 1996), la mayoría de los sicólogos evolucionistas (nacidos socio-biólogos) usan el concepto para revolucionar el estudio del comportamiento humano bajo estrictas líneas darwinistas (Wright 1994), y aún unos pocos filósofos se lo han ahora apropiado para explicar el significado de la vida y la l a conciencia (Dennet 1995). Ya Darwin en su tiempo se sintió obligado, en el prefacio de su última edición (1872) de su clásico, a dejar claro cl aro que los muchos y variados cambios de la vida no se debía a una sola causa, aunque esta estuviera siempre presente y fuera poderosa.‖
Los defensores del darwinismo han sido siempre grandes
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sorprendente, ya que las raíces de todo nuestro pensamiento evolucionista se remont an a Darwin. (E. Mayr, ―Una larga controversia: Darwin y el darwinismo‖, 1992, pág. 9.)
El origen de las especies, de Charles Darwin (1859), ( 1859), produjo una revolución de enorme envergadura -aun más que las revoluciones copernicana y newtoniana en los siglos XVI y XVII-, que llegó a trascender los límites de la biología y a provocar el derrumbamiento de algunas de nuestras creencias más firmes. A partir de ese momento, la idea de la la evolución se introdujo en todos los campos del saber, convirtiéndose en un componente básico de la cultura occidental. Todo lo anterior es cierto, Darwin llegó l legó para afianzar una cultura del engaño cuya génesis se remonta a los albores del ser humano. (Ver ― Cultura del engaño ‖). Es verdaderamente lamentable que se haya impuesto a la humanidad una filosofía anglosajona, que supuestamente era una ciencia, y a
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¿Q? - por lo que mi objetivo es presentar aquí algunos de los argumentos en contra del darwinismo y discutir la manera de rebatirlos. Estas declaraciones con fuertes tintes sofistas, son muy parecidas a las que los fundamentalistas hacen de sus libros sagrados. Una de las aseveraciones más desconcertantes en el artículo dice: ¿Q? - Huxley y Lyell nunca creyeron en la selección natural ni suscribieron el gradualismo. Sin embargo, en su libro How Nature Works , el autor Per Bak(NOTA Bak (NOTA 6) comenta que fue en la época de Darwin cuando Charles Lyell formuló su teoría del gradualismo. La visión de Lyell era que todo podía explicarse en términos de los procesos que se observan alrededor nuestro trabajando a la misma relación fija todo el tiempo. Por ejemplo, las
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vemos nada de estos pequeños cambios en progreso hasta que la mano del tiempo las haya marcado con el transcurrir transcur rir de las épocas.‘ Esto es el gradualismo en una pequeña proposición.‖
¿Q? - No hay acuerdo entre diferentes autores acerca de cuál fue el método científico de Darwin…A partir de la l a síntesis
evolutiva de la década de 1930, "darwinismo" pasó a significar cambio bajo la influencia de la selección natural, es decir evolución variacional…Si bien en su s u Autobiografía
admitió haber trabajado sobre sólidos principios baconianos y sin teoría alguna haber colectado datos, es evidente que muchas de sus ideas surgieron con anterioridad, y que recolectó datos para comprobar sus especulaciones. Típica declaración de quien pretende defender lo indefendible: El autor, el profeta, el científico o quien se trata de defender dijo tal cosa, pero no es eso lo que trató de decir,
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al gradualismo para justificar la emergencia de nuevas formas de vida, es clasificado casi como ―hereje‖.
¿Q? - Gould combinaba magistralmente erudición y amenidad. Pero, ¿cuáles han sido sus contribuciones a la supuesta "corrección" al darwinismo? Básicamente, dos: que la teoría de los "equilibrios discontinuos" (punctuated equilibrium, en inglés) de Eldredge y Gould erosionó la ortodoxia darwinista, y que el "adaptacionismo" ha sido refutado o al menos relegado a un papel menor en la biología evolutiva (Dennett, 1995). En 1972, Eldredge y Gould propusieron la teoría de los "equilibrios discontinuos" como alternativa al gradualismo darwiniano. Mientras que los darwinistas ortodoxos tienden a considerar que la evolución es gradual, ellos propusieron que en realidad opera "a saltos": luego de largos periodos en que las especies permanecen sin cambio (equilibrio) se producen
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Más bien los darwinistas defienden fervorosamente al darwinismo, y no aceptan interpretaciones de la ciencia que no sean encajadas a fortiori en los postulados de la teoría sintética y si no tienen argumentos sólidos para defenderse, acusan de religiosos o anticientíficos a los argumentos en contra. Para ver hasta dónde llegan en este afán los darwinistas, que no son solamente los biólogos sino todo aquel que se precie de ser ―un verdadero científico‖,
trascribimos una frase que aparece en la definición de ―universo‖ en el diccionario de filosofía de Mario Bunge::(NOTA 7) ―Las hipótesis según las cuales el universo Bunge
tuvo un principio y tendrá un final no son s on científicas sino teológicas.‖ ¡Con esto decimos adiós a Einstein y a todas las
ciencias emergentes! Cada ser humano es libre y tiene el derecho de creer lo que mejor le convenga, el problema con el darwinismo es que sus dogmas están involucrados en el ámbito científico.
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¿Q? - Pero, ¿qué es en realidad lo l o que Johnson critica del darwinismo? Básicamente, que la complejidad biológica se atribuya a la acumulación de mutaciones y a la selección natural, lo cual nunca ha sido demostrado empíricamente; es más bien una deducción de la filosofía naturalista. De este modo, los evolucionistas adhieren al naturalismo como una creencia metafísica. Esto, que para muchos suena a herejía, sin embargo ha sido aceptado sin inconvenientes por el filósofo Michael Ruse, quien ha sostenido que "el lado científico tiene ciertos presupuestos metafísicos incorporados en la actividad científica, lo cual, […] creo que con toda
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resurge una y otra vez: el del darwinismo versus la religión. En cuanto a los teólogos del siglo XIX, no necesariamente se convirtieron en sus adversarios. La reacción de muchos religiosos fue positiva (Ruse, 2001). Por ejemplo, los reverendos Baden Powell y Charles Kingsley alabaron ―El origen de las especies‖. Incluso el botá nico Asa Gray, uno de
los más firmes seguidores de Darwin en el nuevo mundo, era un cristiano devoto. Recientemente, Michael Ruse (2001) ha publicado el libro ―¿Puede un darwinista ser cristiano?‖ A lo largo del mismo, el
autor discute ampliamente las dimensiones científicas,
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disidentes religiosos, haya sido prudente en la difusión de sus opiniones en este terreno, ya que ello podría haberle causado dificultades con la Iglesia oficial. También se podría conjeturar que quería distanciarse de los deístas para no aparecer como enemigo del Estado al que servía.‖ (NOTA 9) Richard Dawkins, en el artículo The Great Convergence‖(NOTA 10) se pregunta ―¿Están la ciencia y la religión convergiendo?‖ Y termina su alegato diciendo ―¿Convergencia? Sólo cuando conviene. En un juicio
honesto, la declaración sin pruebas (como muchas de las que hacen los darwinistas) sobre la convergencia entre ciencia y
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estadounidenses estadounidense s que pueden llamarse ―ignorantes‖ por lo que
todos los que no lo son deben, forzosamente, ser darwinistas. El darwinismo tendrá siempre problemas no sólo con los creacionistas sino con los resultados de las investigaciones científicas que en forma exponencial se están produciendo, como se muestra en el siguiente ejemplo. En el diario El País , Javier Sampedro publicó el 18 de marzo del 2006 un artí culo con el título ‗Se busca un nuevo Darwin‘, donde informa que:
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realidad la ciencia y la mayoría de las l as religiones son completamente completament e incompatibles. El Dr. Ruy Pérez Tamayo(NOTA Tamayo (NOTA 11) dice en su artículo ―Ciencia y Religión‖‖(NOTA 12): Religión 12): ―Para escribir sobre el tema de las relaciones entre la ciencia y la religión, lo l o primero que debe hacer el autor es exhibir sus credenciales con toda honestidad: en este caso se trata de un científico profesional con más de sesenta años de actividad en el campo de la investigación biomédica en la UNAM y que nunca ha sido religioso, o sea es ateo desde su nacimiento. A estas dos credenciales el autor agrega otra, para justificar un poco lo
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llamada 'evolución deísta', no contradice las explicaciones científicas de la evolución." Esta creencia la expresó Teilhard de Chardin hace más de 70
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Por otra parte el autor evade hablar de las ciencias c iencias emergentes como Complejidad, Complejidad, Caos y Dinámica no lineal, la nueva termodinámica de Ilya Prigogine o la nueva ciencia de Stephen Wolfram quien en su libro A New Kind of
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hace mediante simples programas como autómatas celulares y redes causales en las que finalmente la realidad fundamentall es la interconexión entre nodos. fundamenta
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Mauricio Abdalla, en su ensayo ―El principio de cooperación‖
nos dice sabiamente que el cambio requiere de una nueva racionalidad, una interacción justa con la naturaleza al igual que entre los seres humanos. Pero ¿cómo tener la esperanza
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argentino Ernesto Sábato: Sábato:La historia de la humanidad es una larga serie de estupideces y maldades, pero es nuestro deber luchar contra la estupidez y la maldad.
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