Islam

  WORLD RELIGIONS

ISLAM FOURTH EDITION

 WORLD RELIGIONS Aicn Aic n Tditionl Tditionl Religion B’i Fit Bddim Ctolicim & Otodox Citinity  Concinim Doim Hindim Ilm  Jdim Ntive Ameicn Religion Potetntim Sinto Sikim Zootinim

  WORLD RELIGIONS

ISLAM FOURTH EDITION

by Matthew S. Gordon Series Editors: Joanne O’Brien and Martin Palmer

Ilam, F Edii

Copyright © 2009, 2006, 2001, 1991 by Inobase Publishing All rights reserved. No part o this book may be reproduced or utilized in any orm or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any inormation storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing rom the publisher. For inormation contact: Chelsea House An imprint o Inobase Publishing 132 West 31st Street New York NY 10001 Lia f Cge CaalgigiPlicai Daa Gordon, Matthew. Islam / by Matthew Gordon. -- 4th ed. p. cm. — (World religions) Includes bibliographical reerences and index. ISBN 978-1-60413-109-3 1. Islam—Juvenile literature. I. Title. II. Series BL161.3.G669 2009 297—dc22

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CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 7 CHAPTER 8

CONTENTS Preface Introduction: The Modern Islamic World Muhammad and the Founding of Islam The Spread of Islam Quran, Hadith, and the Law The Variety of Religious Life in Islam Muslim R itual Life The Patterns of Islamic Life Islam and the Modern World Fac t File and Bibliography Fur ther Reading and Web Sites Glossary Index About the Author and Series Editors Pic ture Credits

6 8 16 34 52 66 84 98 116 138 1 39 1 40 142 144 14 4

Preface Almot om te tt o civiliztion, civili ztion, moe tn 10,000 ye go, eligion  ped mn itoy. Tody moe tn l te   wold’ popltion pctice  mo eligion o indigeno piitl tdition. In mny 21t-centy ocietie, inclding te United Stte, eligion till pe people’ live nd ply  key ole in politic nd clte. And in ocietie togot te wold inceing etnic nd cltl diveity  led to  viety o eligion   being pcticed ide by ide. Ti mke it vitl tt we ndetnd  mc  we cn bot te wold’ eligion. Te Wold Religion eie, o wic ti book i  pt, et ot to cieve ti im. It i witten nd deigned to ppel to bot tdent nd genel ede. Te  book oe cle, cceible oveview o  te mo eligio tdition nd intittion o o time. Ec volme in te eie decibe de cibe wee  pticl eligion i pcticed, it oigin nd itoy, it centl belie nd impotnt itl, nd it contibtion to wold civiliztion. Celly coen potogp complement te text, nd ideb,  mp, ct ct le, gloglo y, bibliogpy, nd index e inclded to elp ede gin  moe complete ndetnding o te bect t nd. Tee book will elp cliy wt eligion i ll bot nd evel bot te imilitie nd dieence in te get piitl tdition pcticed ond te  wold tody tod y.. 6

ISLAM

Ce Mlim Pplai

90% and over 50%–89% 10%–49% 0%–9%

© Inobase Publishing Preface



CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION:

THE MODERN ISLAMIC WORLD

I

lm, one o te mot wideped eligion in te wold, i econd only to Citinity in nmbe o ollowe. Te people wo believe in te pinciple o Ilm nd pctice it itl e clled Mlim, nd tey mke p  lge egment o te  wold  wol d popltion. O te ogly 6.5 billion people in te wold, ond 1.4 billion e Mlim. On te continent o Aic nd Ai A i nd in te e known  te Middle Et, Ilm I lm i te dominnt eligion in mny mny contie, inclding Agnitn, Algei, Egypt, In, Iq, Liby, Mlyi, Moocco, Sdi Abi, nd Syi. Tee e lo Mlim in te tte o te ome Soviet Union, in Cin, nd in Eope   well  on te continent o Not nd Sot Ameic. Te o contie wit te lget Mlim commnitie e Indonei, Pkitn, Indi, nd Bnglde—ll in Ai. Like te Jewi nd Citin commnitie, te Ilmic commnity compie  lge nmbe o gop, mong wic belie

The mosque in Mecca with the black stone o the Kaaba at the center. As the birthplace o the prophet Muhammad, Mecca is one o the three holy cities or Muslims, Medina and Jerusalem being the other two. It was in Mecca, in the early seventh century, that Muhammad began to receive his divine revelation. 8

ISLAM

Introduction: The Modern Islamic World

9

die. Tee e, oweve, two ovecing diviion witin te it: Mot Mlim belong to te Snni ect nd e known  Snni Mlim; ll ote Mlim belong to te Sii ect nd e known  te Si. Te wod “Siite” i  vition o ti tem nd i commonly ed in te Weten medi. Te lget gop o Si e known  te Twelve Si. Tey om  moity in In nd e epeented by lge commnitie in Iq, Kwit, Lebnon, nd Indi. Sevel mlle bnce o Sii Ilm om commnitie in Yemen, Yemen, Indi, nd ote contie contie   well.

two MIsConCEPtIons About IsLAM Depite it ge ollowing ollowing ond te wold—nd gowing gowing MM lim commnitie in te United Stte—Ilm i oeign to mot Ameicn, wo e moe mili wit Citinity o Jdim. Bece mot Ameicn know little o noting bot Ilm, tey ve mny miconception bot Mlim belie nd itl. One common miconception i tt ll Mlim e Ab. It i te tt te Abin Peninl w te bitplce o Ilm, tt in te ely ye o Ilm te moity o Mlim wee Ab, nd tt te oly text o Ilm (te Qn) i witten w itten in te Abic lngge. Howeve only  centy o o te te onding o Ilm te eligion d ped to pt o oten Eope nd et to Centl Ai, Indi, nd  beyond. A it ped Ilm ttcted gowing nmbe o convet mong te people o tee e. Gdlly te Ab   becme bt one in  viety o people tt pcticed te Mlim eligion. A  elt mot Mlim tody e not Ab. Tey do not pek Abic nd te get moity live otide o te Middle Et 10

ISLAM

Introduction: The Modern Islamic World

11

nd Not Aic—te two e wee te Ab popltion o  te wold i concentted. Some Ab e Citin. PERCEPTions of MusliMs

Anote miconception i tt Mlim e  nd violent, nd epecilly tt tey e otile towd Wetene. Repot o te bombing o te U.S. embie in Keny nd Tnzni in 1998; o te leveling o New Yok’ Twin Towe on Septembe 11, 2001; o te blt in Indonei’ Bli in 2002 nd 2005; o  te detction o  Ctolic cc nd cool,  Pebytein cc, nd  Slvtion Amy Hll in Sngl Hill, Pkitn, in 2005; te tocing o tond o tomobile in te citie o  Fnce in te me ye; nd te nending killing o tond o colition oldie nd ten o tond o ntive oldie nd civilin in Iq ve lled newppe pge pge nd televiion ceen togot te pt decde. Tee ct o Mlim extemit ve oten been ocited wit Ilm in  wy tt implie tt ll Mlim e violent—even tt te tecing o Ilm dvocte violence. In ct te get moity o Mlim e pecel,  tei eligion tece tem to be. HisToRiCAl lEgACy 

It i not t te ecent cttope tt ve led to ti potit o te violent Mlim. Te Weten imge o te otile Mlim   long itoy, beginning wit te invion o Spin in 711 nd te ped o te Moo into oten Fnce, wee tey   wee epelled by Fnki le Cle Mtel in 732. Spin itel   w nlly ecpted only in 1492, wen te my o King Ki ng Fedinnd o Agon nd Qeen Ibel o Ctile Cti le etook Gnd. Te Cde, beginning in 1095 nd lting ntil 1291, pitted Mlim nd Citin in bttle tt let bitte ttitde towd one note. Te invion o Ati nd Coti by te Ottomn Tk in te lte 17t centy lo engendeed bd memoie o  te Tki Mlim  bbic nd ncivilized. A ew col nd tvele om Eope nd lte te United Stte elized tt tee wee gly teeotype nd tied t ied in vin to pint  moe 12

ISLAM

poitive picte o Ilm nd te Mlim. Howeve Howev e te imge o te bbic Mlim  vived o centie nd  ped togot te Weten wold. Steeotype e le geneliztion elting om  lck o ndetnding. Mny ve dged Ilm nd Mlim  witot mking n eot to conide ti eligio tdition on it own tem nd  witot boteing to become cqinted  wit it tecing nd te wy in wic Mlim ctlly pctice tei it. Te ppoe o ti book i to povide  bette ndetnding o Ilm o tt te ede cn begin to go beyond teeotype.

subMIssIon to ALLAh

T

he word Islam is Arabic and means “submission to Allah.” According to Islamic belief Allah (the Arabic word for God) has sent a series of revelations to human beings over the course of time.   These include the revelations received by Moses and Jesus. The Islamic tradition holds Moses and Jesus, as well as other prophets revered revered by the Jewish and Christian faiths, in great esteem. However Muslims believe that these revelations, which came to humanity before the revelation of  Islam, were corrupted—that human ideas and words were mixed with the divine message and that in their ignorance men and women neglected to follow God’s teachings.

IsLAM: An ovErvIEw Like Jdim nd Citinity, Ilm i  monoteitic eligion—bed on te  belie in one God. Mlim e  e te Abic wod o o God, All, to ee to te ceto o te wold nd o ll lie witin it. Fo Mlim All i te lod o te nivee. god’s REvElATion To MuHAMMAd

Mlim believe tt God ent i mege to mnity in ode to gide toe wo wee itl to im nd to wn te evildoe o i nge. Te mn wom God coe to eceive ti new mege w Mmmd ibn Abd All,  40-ye-old mecnt o  te Abic town o Mecc. Sent to Mmmd in te ely pt o te event centy, ti eveltion cme to be known  te Qn. To te peent dy te Qn emin o Mlim te litel Wod Wod o God. G od. Odeed by God to ped te divine eveltion, Mmmd lowly won ove ollowe in Mecc nd lte in te neby town o Medin. Ti w te t Ilmic commnity nd te eed om wic wold gow te moden Ilmic wold. Introduction: The Modern Islamic World

13

thE qurAn

M

uslims believe the Quran is the literal Word Word of God. As the Quran itself says:

 All, tere s o go but He, te Lvg, te Sel-subsstet. He s revele to you te Book wt te trut, cofirg tt wc ce beore t. He lso erler revele te Tor  te Gospel, s  source o guce or people,  (ow) He s set ow te Slvto.

A page rom a handwritten Quran.

14

ISLAM

Umma—CoMMuniTy 

Mlim ee to tei commnity  u, n Abic wod mening “commnity.” Fo Mlim, u   pecil connottion, oweve, bece it occ mny time in te Qn. Tee te tem i ed to men eligio commnity, inclding te eligio commnitie o Jew nd Citin nd Mlim. sHARiA—lAw And guidE

Te ondtion o te Ilmic u i te collection o eligio lw nd dtie known  te i. Te tem i oten tnlted  “oly lw,” bt it i bette togt o  te eligio pt Mlim e expected to ollow. Fo devot Mlim te i i  et o egltion woe diect oce i God; t to ollow te i i to ollow nd obey God’ will. Howeve te i ddee moe tn mtte o pye nd it in God, wic mny people tink o  tictly t ictly eligio concen. It lo del wit lie in ti wold—ow te commnity ognize it i nd ow membe o te commnity  live tei live. Accoding to te i tee i no el eption  between eligion nd ll ote pect o lie. Teeoe devot Mlim eek to e te i to gide tem in evey e o  tei dy-to-dy live.

Introduction: The Modern Islamic World

15

CHAPTER 2

MUHAMMAD AND THE FOUNDING OF ISLAM

M

mmd ibn Abd All w bon in te tding nd pilgimge city o Mecc,  mll bt btling commecil cente in te notweten pt p t o te Abin Peninl, ond te ye 570. He w w  membe o te Bn Him, one o  te town’ Ab cln. Hi Hi  te died bot te time o Mmmd’ bit; i mote died wen e w ix. Te opn w ten ced o by i gndte, gndte, nd pon te ltte’ det two ye lte, by i ncle Ab Tlib. At te time Ab Tlib w te ed o te Him cln.

ArAbIA PrIor to IsLAM Fo mot people wo lived tee Abi in te lte ixt centy   w  diclt plce in wic to gow p. Mot o te peninl conited o deet o id teppe e—n envionment tt demnded  get del om even te tonget individl. Only  long te oten cotl e, e , wee ige elevtion nd e  beeze ced  milde climte, nd long te  weten montino egion, w nte le . At the center o the sacred mosque o Mecca stands the holy Kaaba. In the pre-Islamic period the Kaaba contained a number o idols worshipped by the people o Mecca. Shortly beore his death the prophet Muhammad ordered that the idols be destroyed. From that point orward the Kaaba became the sacred sanctuary o Islam. 16

ISLAM

Muhammad and the Founding of Islam

1

Arab nomads in an area o  the Syrian desert. In the seventh century, during the prophet’s lietime, nomadism was a common way o lie in many parts o  the Middle East including the Arabian Peninsula. Over the past century nomadism has slowly dwindled, in part because many nomadic groups either choose or are orced to settle down and must seek other orms o  livelihood.

18

ISLAM

In te wide tetce o deet lie centeed on two kind o  commnitie. On  ew oe nd in mll commecil cente, c  Mecc, people ened  living om giclte nd tding. Te moity moity o te people wo lived on te peninl, oweve, wee nomd wo moved ec ye wit tei belonging nd niml om one gzing e to te next. In bot te edenty nd nomdic commnitie ociety w ognized ond cln. Tee in tn mde p lge tibe. TRibEs And TRibAl lEAdERs

Te tibe w te conetone o ociety in ely Abi. It po  vided it membe wit ppot, potection gint enemie, nd  ene o identity. Belonging to  powel tibe tt cold lwy lw y potect it membe w obvioly dvntgeo. Te tibl lede, known  yk, lly cme om te lge, weltie cln o ec tibe; tey mde mot o te deciion ecting te tibe. t ibe. Pooe, mlle cln d to bide by te deciion o te lge one nd oten o ten eented doing o.

Te nomdic tibe got milk nd e met om tei fock nd ed  well  te wool nd cmel i tey needed o cloting, blnket, nd tent. Bece mot tibe wee poo nd d ew poeion pt om tei niml, tey ometime ided ote o wteve tey cold cy wy. Te ppoe o te id, o  gzw, w eldom to kill one’ enemie. Rte it w to tel niml, good, nd wen poible, women om te oppoing tibe. Te niml nd good dded to te mege  welt o te tibe; te women wee eite kept o old  lve. Te id w lo  time o tibe to demontte tei tengt nd, o te individl membe o te tibe, tei coge. REvEngE And fEuds

Altog killing te membe o oppoing tibe w not lly te gol o  id, it w oten nvoidble. Abi, beoe te coming o Ilm, d no centl govenment; tibe took it pon temelve to venge te wong done to one o tei membe. A  elt vengence killing wee common mong nomdic tibe. On occion tee ct o evenge led to cotly ed   between tibe. Wile mny decied te mn cot o tee ed, tee w little nyone cold do to pevent tem. Leding  tibe w coneqently no ey tk. In n envionment wee tet om nte nd om ote tibe wee contnt, only te mot pcticl nd cogeo cold cceed in poition o ledeip. Toe wo diplyed diplyed c qlitie wee igly epected by ll. Only one ote voice in te commnity   w litened to  cloely  te yk’—tt yk’—tt o te poet. THE influEnCE of THE PoET

Fo te Ab o ti peiod tee w no ige om o expeion tn poety. Howeve Howeve te poet w moe tn  vled mem be o ociety wo ng o te oy nd dip o lie. Poet, epecilly toe wo owed get eloqence, wee believed to be poeed by inn—te piit tt inbited te ntl  wold. T it w togt tt poet d pentl powe  wit wic tey cold deet enemie nd oten poet wee clled Muhammad and the Founding of Islam

19

on to e tee powe. Te ely Ab lo eveed cetin god nd goddee. Altog tee divinitie vied ccoding to te tibe o e o te peninl, tee eem to ve been  common belie in t let one o tee god: All, te ceto o te nivee. All w pobbly conideed te peme god bt, nlike te ote deitie benet im, e w togt to ve little involvement involvement in te dily live o people.

thE town oF MECCA In Mecc nd te onding egion, known  te Hiz, te mot popl deitie wee tee goddee id to be te dgte o All. Idol wee dedicted to tem nd oten te onding e   w conideed ced, witin wic no niml cold be killed nd in wic tibemen in toble— toble—o o wteve eon—cold clim ege. THE kAAbA—A sACREd sHRinE

At te time o Mmmd’ bit Mecc w n impotnt eligio cente o te tibe o weten nd centl Abi. It ncty dedicted to te tee pincipl goddee w locted in n e known  te Kb, wic eld idol epeenting tee nd ote god nd goddee. Te e d been bilt ond  myteio blck tone, pep  meteoite, tt w veneted  by te tibe o te e. Ec ye locl tibemen viited Mecc to ee te Kb. Te pilgimge, known  te , inclded  ceemonil poceion ond te ced ine. influEnCE And ConTRol in MECCA

Mecc w teeoe not only  commecil bt lo  eligio cente.. Pilgim cente Pilgi m cme to woip t te Kb nd, bece it w 20

ISLAM

 ced ine ond wic violence w poibited, mny lo cme to by nd ell tei good. Toe wo beneted te mot om ti ctivity wee te mecnt milie o Mecc. By te time o Mmmd’ Mmmd’ bit te lede o tee te e milie d come to dominte Meccn ociety bece tey contolled te fow o good in nd ot o te town. Tey wee binepeople wo ecognized tt mc o te commece witin te town depended pon te pilgim. To ene tt te pilgimge n mootly tee milie took contol o te ncty o te Kb. A  elt tey vitlly contolled lie in Mecc nd te onding e. Fo tee lge cln it w  time o popeity nd politicl tengt. Altog tee gop cetinly beneted om Mecc’ popeity, mny ote people o te e did not. Wit te gowing commece d come new et o vle nd concen. Wee once te tibe nd te elt o te commnity wee given pioity, now mteilim nd  new concen wit individl welt nd powe ndemined tditionl vle. Inceingly te lge cln dominted te mlle, pooe one, denying tem  e in te town’ gowing welt. A vle cnged nd te gp  between ic nd poo widened, eentment mong te le otnte begn to inteniy. inteni y.

A tile rom Istanbul painted with a drawing o the Kaaba. When Muslims visit the Kaaba, they try to come close enough to kiss the black stone which is shown in the center o this tile.

sPiRiTuAl QuEsTions

It w n ney wold into wic Mmmd w bon. Te it om commnl vle to  moe individlitic wy o lie ced mny to k diclt qetion bot te wold ond tem. Tee qetion wee le bot money  nd powe nd moe bot te mening o te wold nd individl detiny. Tditionl pctice nd belie no longe povided te nwe tee people wee eeking. Fo mny mny it w  time o piitl neine. Muhammad and the Founding of Islam

21

The lights rom a minaret shine out as night alls. In Muslim countries the call or Muslims to come to prayer is made ve times a day rom the top o the minaret.

Some my ve conveted to Citinity o to Jdim,   wic d ped to te Abin Peninl. Jewi tibe d lived in te town o Ytib— popeo gicltl cente not  om Mecc—o genetion nd wee  well-etblied well-et blied pt o te commnity. Altog no Citin tibe inbited Abi t te time, tee wee nmeo nmeo Citin Ab in e not o te peninl. Tee gop, wic compied vio Citin ect, wee led by te Byzntine Empie, te cpitl o wic w Contntinople (known (known tody  Itnbl, It nbl, te lget city cit y in Tkey). Tkey). Te mecnt o Mecc no dobt tded wit tee Citin C itin eglly.

MuhAMMAD’s EArLy LIFE In Mecc te powel mecnt cln emined in contol o  eligio lie nd pembly wee cel not to llow co te   bode new pctice nd belie c  Citinity o Jdim, bot o wic wee being pcticed in te e t ti time. Meccn wo did not tvel teeoe teeoe ogt new belie nd eli22

ISLAM

gio gidnce witin Mecc itel. Te opn Mmmd Mmmd w oon to lll ti need. ExPERiEnCing THE ouTsidE woRld

Little i known bot Mmmd’ Mmmd’ ely lie. li e. Hi ncle Ab Tlib Tlib povided im wit cloting nd  ome bt neve tgt im to ed o wite. Lte in i lie Mmmd depended on i ollowe to wite down te wod o te eveltion in ode to peeve tem. It I t i believed tt in i teen Mmmd woked woked   cmel dive, ccompnying i ncle nd ote mecnt on tei tvel into oten Syi nd on te peninl itel. In ti wy Mmmd gined gined expoe to plce otide o Mecc Mecc  nd gew mili wit tei dieent ctom. Fo te mot pt te Meccn tded wit ote Ab tibe t ibe nd te ettled AbicA bicpeking popltion o Syi. Bece tee inclded Citin commnitie Mmmd cme into contct wit ti monoteitic tdition. How mc e ctlly lened bot Citin C itin  belie emin ncetin. MARRiAgE inTo THE MERCHAnT ClAss

In te ye 595 Mmmd’ lie took  dmtic tn. Fo  time e d been woking o n olde mecnt— welty   womn nmed Kdi. He d own imel to be intelligent nd eponible, impeing i mpeing e o mc tt e popoed mige. He ccepted nd t becme  ccel membe o te Meccn mecnt cl. Ding te next 15 ye Mmmd enoyed  lie o popeity. A  mecnt e contined to tvel to ote e o te peninl nd te not, enconteing te ide nd pctice o Jewi nd Citin commnitie. Agin, it i d to tell  wt e lened bot tee belie. Unlike ote mecnt Mmmd ond ond only ping pi ng tiction wit te comot c  lie povided. He eem to ve   been we o te decline in tditionl vle witin Meccn ociety nd o te nppine elt by mny in te e. Hving known povety   yong boy, boy, Mmmd w enitive to te Muhammad and the Founding of Islam

23

gievnce o te le otnte. He begn to qetion te diection tt bot i lie nd tt o i commnity w tking.

thE CoMInG oF rEvELA rEvEL AtIon By te ge o 40 Mmmd d begn to pend time lone, meditting on te qetion tt tobled im. On occion e  wold pend nigt in  mll cve ne Mecc. It w common o men to go on etet, o ew togt i bevio odd. Ding one c nigt Mmmd expeienced wt e togt  wee tnge viion. A Mlim e tgt, te ngel Gbiel ppeed beoe im in mn om. Seizing old o Mmmd, te ngel odeed im to ecite  ot et o wod. Wen e did o te ngel eleed im. Ovewelmed by i viion nd te mege e eceived, t t Mmmd told only Kdi nd  ew cloe ollowe. Slowly Slo wly e begn to pec moe openly to te Meccn Mecc n commnity. A te biogpe o Mmmd tell thE MEssEnGEr oF GoD , Mmmd contined to eceive eveltion o te next 20 ye, nd ntil te fter a vision of the angel Gabriel end o i lie e ped tem on to i olfirst appeared while he was spendlowe. Ti i wy Mlim cll Mming the night in a small cave near Mecca, md te Meenge o God. Muhammad was convinced that either At t Mmmd’ mege w  he was losing his mind or spirits had posimple one: He decled tt tee w sessed him, and he fled from the cave. Partly down the hill he heard a voice only one god, All, nd tt tee w behind him say, “Oh, Muhammad, you are noting like im. Like te popet beoe the Messenger of God, and I am Gabriel.” im Mmmd lo peced o te Confused and terrified, Muhammad was powe o God nd te cetinty tt te convinced his sanity had left him. Only as dy o dgment w to come. the experiences continued—and with the At t Mmmd’ pecing w encouragement of his wife, Khadija, who ignoed by te lede o Mecc. Mecc . Tey d was sure the words came from God—did ed imil ide om Jew nd CiMuhammad come to believe that the tin, o tey med tt Mmmd words he was asked to recite were revelations from God and that God now expected   w only epeting toe ide. Beoe him to serve as his divine messenger. long, oweve, oweve, te Meccn begn to elel ize te mening o Mmmd’ tec-

 A 

24

ISLAM

ing. Fo intnce Mmmd clled on people to woip only  All nd to eect te clt o te goddee. He teed tt to  woip ny ote deity—wete godde, idol, o inn—w to  violte te bolte bolte onene o God. Go d. Tee tecing cllenged te entie ytem pon wic Meccn lede d etblied tei powe nd welt. Relizing tt i Mmmd cceeded in convincing people o te tt o i mege, tt tcte wold collpe, tey wee detemined to ee tt Mmmd Mmmd iled.

thE oPPosItIon to MuhAMMAD A te top Meccn milie tned gint Mmmd, ing tet nd inlt  well  pyicl violence, Mmmd elized tt e nd i ollowe mt leve Mecc. In te ye 619 tey moved to Ti,  neby town, o ege, bt te min tibe o Ti, te Bn Tqi, eed to let tem emin nd tey   wee obliged to mke tei wy bck to Mecc. Ti w only one in  eie o etbck o Mmmd in 619. Two o i mot loyl ppote d died elie tt ye: i beloved wie, Kdi, nd i ncle Ab Tlib. Wit te det o Ab Tlib, wo d potected te Mlim, Mmmd lot n impotnt iend. THE JouRnEy To HEAvEn

Howeve te ye 619 w mked not only by dne; it w lo te ye in   wic, ccoding to te Ilmic tdition, Mmmd expeienced one o te mot emkble event o i lie. Aleep one nigt ne te Kb, Mmmd  w wkened by te ngel Gbiel. Wit Gbiel  i gide Mmmd oneyed to Jelem nd ten, om  pominent ock, to even. Tee e i id to ve met wit te get popet Abm,   Je, Moe, nd ote. At te climx Muhammad and the Founding of Islam

25

thE IsLAMIC CALEnDAr

T

he Islamic Calendar is a lunar calendar as opposed to the solar calendar used in the West. It is based on the rotation of the moon, consists of 12 lunar months, and has about 11 fewer days than the solar calendar. The first month of the Islamic calendar is Muharram; the last is Dhu al-Hijja—the month when the pilgrimage to Mecca is carried out. It is believed that Umar, the second caliph, or successor, established this calendar.

o i oney Mmmd i believed to ve tood beoe God. Fo Mlim ti miclo oney i te evidence o  Mmmd’ poond poond piitl nte. An ouTsidER To REsToRE PEACE

Mmmd till ced te otility o te Meccn. It becme eentil tt e nd  plce otide Mecc tt wold welcome im nd i ollowe. Te oltion cme in te ye 620. Among te pilgim  wo viited Mecc tt ye w  gop o men om te noten town o Ytib (lo known  Medin). Te men d ed o Mmmd nd wee impeed wit i tecing. In tei t meeting wit im tey told im o te poblem cing tei town. Rivl tibe d tken p m in  bloody ed nd co tetened te town. Hving iled to nd  oltion, te men d come eeking n otide wo cold etoe pece. Ove te next two ye te men etned to Mecc wit ote om Medin, nd  gop o tem conveted to Ilm. Encoged by ti new ppot Mmmd ged i Meccn ollowe to mke tei wy to Medin, wee tey cold begin  new lie  Mlim. Gdlly tey let Mecc nd tveled not to wt wold   become tei ome o ogly te next decde. MuHAMMAd’s EsCAPE fRoM MECCA

Wen Mmmd eceived wod tt  gop o Meccn wee plnning to kill im, e nged to leve Mecc tt vey  nigt. In lte Septembe 622 Mmmd nd i cloet dvie, Ab Bk, mde tei wy to  cve c ve otide te town. Tee tey id om te in o tee dy. 26

ISLAM

The golden dome o the Dome o the Rock, a shrine in Jerusalem. For Muslims this marks the site where Muhammad ascended on a night journey to heaven to meet the great prophets and to stand beore God.

Accoding to legend te mot o te cve w coveed by te   web o  pide moment beoe te Meccn ode by. One o  te in glnced down om i oe, w te delicte web coveing te entnce, nd emked tt ely no one cold be inide te cve. Wit te wy cle Mmmd nd Ab Bk tveled to Medin, wee tey wee geeted oylly by te witing Mlim nd tei Medinn ppote.

MuhAMMAD: PoLItICs AnD ProPhEthooD Te commnity o Mlim tt welcomed welcomed Mmmd to Medin w mde p o bot Meccn nd Medinn. Mmmd knew tt e d to void owing voitim to eite gop. In one o i t deciion  lede le de o ti commnity, e demontted i politicl kill. Fced wit oe om bot gop to mke i ome wit tem, e wiely voided mking te deciion. He imply let i cmel om ee nd t te pot wee Muhammad and the Founding of Islam

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te niml cme to et, Mmmd etblied i ome. Ht  wee eected o Mmmd nd te two women e d m ied ince te det o Kdi in 619. Beide tee  lge pce w cleed nd  og tcte bilt. Ti w te t moqe, o plce o woip o ollowe ollowe o Ilm, bilt in Medin. Mmmd w now et to contine i divinely ppointed ppointed tk. tk . CHAllEngEs foR THE MusliM CoMMuniTy 

Mmmd’ eponibilitie Mmmd’ eponibilitie  in Medin wee dnting. dnting. Not only  did e contine eceiving eveltion om God nd tecing i ollowe, bt e w now lo te lede o te yong Mlim commnity.. He ced  ot o poblem: He d to nd  oltion commnity to te ed tt wee dividing te town, e d to nd wok nd elte o te Meccn wo d come to Medin wit im, e d to conte oppoition to te tecing o Ilm witin Medin, nd e till ti ll ced te cllenge o te Meccn mecnt cln tt wee detemined to ee im nd i commnity detoy de toyed. ed. In olving te poblem between te Medinn Mmmd convinced te eding cln tt tey old oin te commnity o Mlim. He woked ot  eie o geement tt oged tong link between te Meccn nd toe Medinn wo ccepted i tecing. He ced, oweve, monting ditt om one gop in Medin—te Jewi tibe. ConfliCT wiTH THE JEwisH TRibEs

Tee tibe mde p te Jewi popltion o Medin. At t tey d welcomed Mmmd bece o te pece e pomied to bing. Soon oweve tey begn to ve econd togt bot i ledeip nd i tecing. Initilly Mmmd conideed incopoting cetin Jewi pctice into te itl o Ilm, nd o  time Mlim nd Jew pyed togete in te diection o Jelem. Ten in te ye 624 Mmmd eceived inpition om God to intct i ollowe to py  in te diection o Mecc. Ti ced  bek wit te Jewi tibe. Fom tt point owd eltion between te Jew o  Medin nd te Mlim commnity woened nd ended nlly  28

ISLAM

in violence. Two o te Jewi tibe wee diven om Medin  wile te mle membe o te tid tibe eed exection t te nd o te Mlim. fARMing And RAiding

Mmmd tned i ttention to te poblem o poviding o toe o i ollowe wo d come wit im om Mecc. Medin w n gicltl town, bt te Meccn Mlim lcked expeience in ming. Inted o ving tem len to m Mmmd decided to ve tem engge in  moe mili ctivity—iding. Aming i mle ollowe Mmmd ent tem gint te tde cvn tt coed te peninl. A eie o id wee cied ot ccelly nd in ti wy te Mlim commnity w ble to povide o o it need. need .

thE CLAsh oF ArMs Te Meccn wee otged. Tey depended on te cvn tde o tei liveliood nd viewed tee ttck  n ttempt  by Mmmd to ndemine tei powe. Tei oppotnity to epond to te Mlim cme in te ye 624. A lge cvn  w epoted to be on it wy to Mecc om te not. Expecting te Mlim to lnc  id, te Meccn ent  tong oce to ecot te cvn into te e. Mmmd d indeed ent  gop o Mlim ide gint te cvn. At  plce nmed Bd te two mll oce cled. Altog te Mlim wee otnmbeed 3 to 1 tey ogt  bvely nd nlly oted te Meccn gte. Ti victoy w een by te Mlim  poo o divine gidnce nd evidence tt tey wee indeed coen by God o  pecil ppoe. dEfEAT And A TEsT of fAiTH

Te ollowing ye te Meccn ledeip et ot to venge te lo t Bd. Ognizing  ge oce, tey et ot gint Mmmd Mmm d nd i people. Te two mie mie  met ne te montin o Ud nd ti time te Mlim met wit deet, loing  bot ded nd wonded to te Meccn. Ti cme   blow to Muhammad and the Founding of Islam

29

A night scene at the Prophet’s Mosque in Medina. In the year 622 Prophet Muhammad let Mecca to escape the hostility o the Meccans and made his way to Medina. This event is known as the Hijra. In Medina the prophet established the rst Muslim community.

30

ISLAM

te Mlim, ome o wom qetioned wete God w elly   beind Mmmd nd i commnity. Te debte w ettled  wen  eveltion cme to Mmmd in wic te deet w epeented   tet o te te believe. Toe wo eld mly  to tei belie wold nd ewd om God. ConfliCTs wiTH MECCAns And THE JEwisH TRibEs

Depite tei victoy te Meccn etned to Mecc, giving te Mlim  cnce to egop. Te ollowing ye te Mlim ced pep tei getet cllenge om Mecc. In n eot to c te Mlim commnity te Meccn ognized  ge oce nd mced on Medin. Following te dvice o one o i ollowe Mmmd d  long tenc dg in ont o Medin. Te tenc pevented te Meccn om iding p to te town. Ate  time te Meccn oce gew etle, etle , mny o te nomd in te my let, nd te cmpign w clled o. Altog little

gting d tken plce te Mlim viewed te event   victoy—nd te poo tt God w on tei ide. Following ti bttle Mmmd Mmmd tned gint te lt o te  Jewi tibe. Te tibe d negotited wit te Meccn nd o  w cced by te Mlim o tecey. Ate endeing to Mmmd’ oce te men o te tibe wee pt to te wod, nd te women nd cilden wee old into lvey. Ti bogt to n end ll oppoition to Mmmd witin Medin. Mmmd now emed i eot to deet i won enemie—te lede o Mecc. In te ope o ettling mtte witot te blooded Mmmd nnonced tt e nd  gop o Mlim wold go to Mecc to peom te tditionl ceemonie t te Kb. Wen tey eced Mecc, oweve, tey   wee met by n med oce. Mmmd inited i intention wee pecel bt te Meccn oce wold not bdge. Ate eted negotition te Mlim geed to leve nd not etn ntil te ollowing ye, wen tey wold ente te city  to peom te ceemonie. Wile mny  Mlim wee dippointed wit te deciion not to ttck Mecc, Mmmd told tem tt te geement epeented ecognition om te Meccn o Mmmd’ ledeip nd o te tengt o  te Mlim commnity—nd t it w  victoy o tem nd o Ilm.

The mihrab in the Sultan Hassan mosque in Cairo, Egypt. The mihrab, a small niche located in all mosques, indicates the proper direction o prayer. Muslims must pray in the direction o  Mecca, the site o the holy Kaaba.

viCToRy ovER oPPosing TRibEs And THE suRREndER of MECCA

Hving et ide te ie o te Meccn o te moment Mmmd ogt to bde toe tibe o te egion tt d Muhammad and the Founding of Islam

31

ppoted i enemie. He mced on te town o Kyb,  wic i oce took te  polonged iege. Ten te Mlim moved mov ed tedily gint ote tibe ti be tt d llied wit tei enemie. One by one tey deeted tee tibe nd mde tem we llegince to Ilm. Wit tee victoie Mmmd’ old ove te peninl w ece. Te ollowing ollowing ye te Meccn Mecc n opened tei town to te MM lim, wo pecelly cied c ied ot te ceemonie nde te ledeip o Mmmd. Te next ye, oweve, oweve, tenion eemeged nd Mmmd decided to e oce gint te Meccn. Wit i my Mmmd mced on Mecc edy o bttle. A e ppoced te city, oweve, e w met by te ed o te Meccn, Ab Syn, wo d decided tt Mecc cold no longe eit te Mlim. Ab Syn endeed te town nd te ced ncty  kAAbA, thE CEntrAL sAnCtuAry  to Mmmd.

E

ntering the town of Mecca after its surrender Muhammad proceeded directly to the Kaaba, a sanctuary dedicated to the three principal goddesses that held idols representing these and other gods and goddesses. Placing his hand upon the black stone (a mysterious stone, perhaps a meteorite, which the Kaaba had been built around) Muhammad shouted in a clear voice, “Allahu Akbar”  (God is most great). With this Muhammad was affi a ffirming the most mo st basic ba sic of Islamic beliefs—the supreme oneness of God. He then ordered that the idols of the Kaaba be destroyed. This brought an end to the cult of the goddesses and the use of the Kaaba as a shrine of this cult. The Kaaba, from that moment on, was claimed by the Muslims as the central sanctuary of the Islamic religion, a status it retains to the present day.

32

ISLAM

vICtory AnD thE FInAL PILGrIMAGE Te ye w 630 nd Mmmd tyed o only  ot time in Mecc—long enog to etbli Mlim contol ove te town nd to win te ppot o te Meccn popltion. Fo te next two ye Mmmd expnded i infence togot te Abin Peninl. He ent envoy to ditnt tibe, clling on tem to convet to Ilm. Mny o te tibe did o wit little potet, wee ote  wee convinced only wit te e o oce. Beoe long Mmmd contolled mot o te peninl. THE lAsT gREAT sERMon

In te ye 632 Mmmd gin et ot o Mecc to peom te nnl pilgimge to te Kb. In pevio ye

Mmmd d pemitted bot Mlim nd non-Mlim to cy ot te pilgimge. Ti ye, oweve, e led tt now  only Mlim cold woip t te Kb. Fom tt time owd te itl nd te ced ncty wee to be dedicted olely to te woip o All. On te 10t dy o te pilgimge, te te eqied itl, Mmmd poke to te Mlim in i lt get emon. He poke to tem o tei obligtion  membe o te commnity o Mlim nd e ged tem to tet ec ote well nd t mintin te nity o Ilm. THE fAREwEll PilgRiMAgE

thE FInAL rEvELAtIon

M

uhammad ended his last sermon with this reminder: “I have left amongst you that which, if you hold fast to it, shall preserve you from all error, a clear indication, the Book of God, and the word of His Prophet. O, people, hear my words and understand.” He then recited to them the final revelation, one it is believed he had received from God only a short time earlier:

Toy te ubelevers u belevers ve espre o   your relgo; tereore er te ot, but  er you Me. Toy I ve  ve perecte your relgo  or you,  I ve coplete My blessg upo you,  I ve pprove Isl or   your relgo.

Wit te pilgimge complete, Mmmd let o Medin. Known  te Fe  well Pilgimge, ti w to be te lt time Mmmd wold ee Mecc nd te Kb. Not long te i etn to  —Qn 5.3 Medin Mmmd Mmmd ell ill, nd lte on te 12t dy o Rbi I, te tid mont o te Ilmic clend, e died. Te Ilmic commnity now ced  tobling qetion: Wo  w to led te commnity now tt Mmmd w gone? In  binging te Qn to mnkind, e d llled i tk  te meenge o God. Howeve e d lo onded  commnity tt d come to depend pon i ledeip nd tecing. Ate Mmmd’ det it w p to te commnity to nd  cceo.

Muhammad and the Founding of Islam

33

CHAPTER 3

THE SPREAD OF ISLAM

M

mmd d not let intction on ow to cooe  cceo. Te Mlim d to eolve ti poblem   bet tey cold. On te evening o Mmmd’ det  gop o Mlim debted te ie. Finlly tey elected Ab Bk  tei new  lede. He d been one o te t Meccn to convet to Ilm nd d conitently own i loylty to Mmmd. Mmmd. Te decideci ion w ppoved by te commnity nd Ab Bk w given te title o clip, o cceo, wic ment tt e took ove Mmmd’ ole  te politicl lede o te Ilmic commnity. Te tte tt e nd toe wo led te im wold n  wold be clled te clipte.

thE FIrst thrEE CALIPhs CALI Phs AnD thE EArLy ConquEsts Unde te ledeip o Ab Bk n impotnt tep w tken  by te Ilmic commnity: te nl conqet o te Abin Peninl. Ding Mmmd’ lietime mot o te Ab tibe in A close-up o the Dome o the Rock in Jerusalem. Muslims believe that it was rom this site that Muhammad journeyed to heaven. The building was erected in the late seventh century by an Umayyad caliph. In the 16th century the exterior walls were redecorated by the Ottomans, then rulers o a large Islamic empire with its capital in Istanbul. 34

ISLAM

 The Spread of Islam

35

Abi d geed to ccept te tecing o Ilm. Following i det, oweve, mny boke wy. Ab Bk ent oce to bing tee tibe bck nde te le o Ilm. Witin  ot time te entie peninl ell nde Mlim contol. Te deciion to end oce beyond te limit o te Abin Peninl d been mde elie by Mmmd. Since e died  beoe cying ot tee pln, it w p to Ab Bk nd i cceo to do o. byzAnTinEs And sAssAniAns

Te Middle Et w ten contolled by two ivl empie. In te e o wt i tody clled Syi, Egypt, Eg ypt, nd Tkey Tkey,, te Byzntine Empie eld wy. Fte to te et, in Iq nd In, w te empie o te Snin. Fo decde confict between te two empie d IsLAM unDEr CALIPh uMAr  wekened tem bot politiclly nd ecokilled in both politics and military nomiclly. Neite empie w peped strategy, Umar is considered one of  to meet te nexpected tet om te the greatest figures of early Islamic hisAbin Peninl to te ot. tory because under his leadership the Altog Ab Bk ognized te t Islamic empire flourished and spread. He ttck gint Syi nd Iq, e died sent his armies deep into Syria, where otly te te gting begn in 634. Te they defeated the forces of the Byzanpoition o clip ten ped to Um ibn tine Empire (395–1453). They captured l-Kttb. Um, Um, wo wold le ove te the cities of Damascus and Jerusalem and then moved against Egypt, where Mlim o bot  decde, poved to be once again Byzantine forces were n excellent coice. Unde i ledeip defeated and sent into full retreat north. Mlim n ccel cce l cmpign gint Meanwhile Muslim armies battled the te Byzntine nd Snin empie.

S

Persian Sassanid dynasty (ca. 224–651) throughout Iraq and Iran. In several battles the Muslims inflicted heavy losses on the Persian troops. Although Umar would not live to see the final collapse of the Sassanid Empire, by the end of his life all of  Iraq and a large area of Iran had fallen into Muslim hands.

36

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uTHMAn, THE THiRd CAliPH

Wit Um’ det in 644  new clip   w coen o te gowing empie. He  w Utmn ibn An,  mecnt om te Umyyd mily. Ti mily d been oppoed to Mmmd wen e begn i pecing in Mecc nd te i move

to Medin. Altog te mily nlly  conveted to Ilm tee wee till bd eeling between te Umyyd nd ote gop witin te Ilmic commnity. Ding Utmn’ clipte tee eeling deepened ntil mny Mlim begn to oppoe Utmn. Unde Utmn Mlim oce contined to conqe new e: Fom Egypt tey ped wet into Not Aic, nd in In tey contined to deet te Snin. Soon, oweve, te Mlim  wee oced to tn tei ttention to te inceing tenion between Utmn nd  vio gop witin te commnity commnity..

CALIPhs In thE FIrst PErIoD oF IsLAMIC hIstory  Death of the prophet Muhammad: Muhammad: 632 First caliph: Abu Bakr: 632–634 Second caliph: Umar ibn al-Khattab: 634–644  Third caliph: Uthman ibn Affan: 644–656 Fourth caliph: Ali ibn Abi Talib: 656–661 After the death of Ali ibn Abi Talib in 661 Muawiyah took the title of fifth caliph and moved the capital of the empire from Medina to Damascus.

MusLIM AGAInst MusLIM Tenion nlly exploded in te ye 656  wit te intion o Utmn. Altog  new clip w qickly coen Utmn’ mde ent ock wve togot te commnity nd led to civil w. Fo te t time Mlim  wee med gint ec ote. Te mn coen to cceed Utmn w Ali ibn Abi Tlib, Tlib, te on-in-lw on-in -lw nd coin o Mmmd nd one o i eliet convet. Tog igly epected o i cloe eltionip wit Mmmd nd o i evice to Ilm, Ali oon ond imel in eio toble. MusliM ConfliCT: Ali And MuAwiyAH

Utmn’ mily, te Umyyd, w now led by Mwiy, wo   w ten te Mlim goveno o Syi. He w citicl o Ali o not ving done enog to pni Utmn’ kille. Wen Ali tied to mke Mwiy tep down  goveno, Mwiy eed; Ali elt obliged to end n my gint im. At t Ali’ toop did well gint te Syin oce bt Mwiy w ble to convince Ali to open negotition. Ali geed nd te gting  w topped. It w  deciion deci ion tt Ali w oon to eget.  The Spread of Islam

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Te coe o Ali’ my w mde p o i cloet ollowe. Wen Ali opened tlk wit Mwiy nd te Syin oce  gop o tee ollowe boke wit im, ying tt e did not ve te igt to lt te gting. Fiecely devot Mlim, tey  ged tt only God d te powe to mke c  deciion. In tei view te only peon wit te igt to le te commnity w te cceo to Mmmd, wo w now Ali; ny nyone one  wo cllenged te le w tnding gint te commnity  nd, woe, gint te will o God. Tey ged tt bece Ali d not deended te commnity by deeting Mwiy e d gone gint God nd teeoe w no longe woty o being le. dEATH dEA TH of Ali—THE fouRTH CAliPH C AliPH

Ti gop o diident, known  te Kiite, now took p m gint te commnity. Ali,  le, d little coice bt to end toop gint i ome ollowe. In evel cle e  w ble to bde te Kiite. He w not ble to c te movement completely, oweve, nd in 662  Kiite tbbed Ali to det. Civil tie d ceted deep diviion witin te Ilmic commnity nd it w not cle wo wold le. Into ti vcm tepped Mwiy, wo w till goveno o Syi nd ed o   powel my. Climing te title o clip c lip o imel, Mwiy moved te cpitl o te empie om Medin to Dmc. Altog mny oppoed ti deciion no ote gop cold cllenge Mwiy.

thE uMAyyADs AnD thE shIA Te move to Dmc bogt n end to te t peiod o  Ilmic itoy. Wt d once been  mll commnity o  Mlim centeed ond Mmmd d become  powel empie in contol o  lge pt o te Middle Et nd Not Aic. A new dynty, te Umyyd, w now in contol o te clipte nd it ced ll te poblem tt come wit tying to n  ge empie. 38

ISLAM

oPPonEnTs of THE uMAyyAds

Among tee poblem w te oppoition o te Kiite. Altog tey d been deeted by Ali te Kiite Ki ite contined to ttct ollowe wit tei dicl mege tt te Umyyd d eized powe gint te will o God. Bnding tee l le  illegitimte, tey clled o Mlim to ie p gint te dynty. In epone te Umyyd Umyyd ent  eie e ie o oce gint te Kiite bt wit mixed elt. Altog tey deeted deeted te dicl in bttle, tey cold not q te ped nd infence o Kiite ide. Te Umyyd Umyyd lo ced oppoition om te ollowe o Ali ibn Abi Tlib nd i mily. mily. A n ely convet to Ilm Ali Al i d ttcted n intenely loyl gop o ollowe known  te Sit Ali, o te Followe o Ali. Tee Sii,  tey cme to  be known, ogt wit Ali gint Mwiy nd te Umyyd. Altog Ali’ intion ook tem deeply tey  emined loyl to bot i nme nd i mily.

The courtyard o the Umayyad mosque in Damascus, originally the cathedral o the city. Besides being a place o prayer the mosque was also a ocus or the community, with areas or study, debate, administration, and a place o reuge or the sick and the homeless.

sHiA And THE fAMily of MuHAMMAd

Te Si believed tt wen Mmmd died e d intended o Ali to cceed im  lede o te commnity. Tey  ged tt Mmmd d given  emon in wic e id tt te e w gone te Mlim old ollow Ali. Fo ti eon, wen Ab Bk, Um, nd Utmn wee coen  te next clip, te Si poteted, ying tt only Ali nd i mily d te igt to led te commnity te Mmmd. Te Si wold emin om ti time owd  minoity Ilmic ect—oten peected by te moity o Mlim, wo belonged to  The Spread of Islam

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te Snni bnc o Ilm nd ond te Si’ belie ncceptble. Ate Ali’ det te Si tned tei ttention to Ali’ on, Hn. At te time Hn w  eligio col in te town o Medin, nd e tyed cle o politic, to te dippointment dippointment o te Si, ntil i det in 669. Te loy loyltie ltie o te Si ten ited to i bote, Hyn. Altog ctio, Hyn w pod o i mily’ nme. Wen te Si ged im to clim i igt to te clipte in te ye 680, Hyn geed to ty. Only  ot time beoe, new d come o te det o Mwiy. Mwiy’ on Yzid d tken ove, bt te Si elt tt te time w ipe o evolt. Tei cente o ctivity w te city c ity o  K. Tey ent meenge to Hyn in Medin, ging im to come to K to led tem gint te ted Umyyd. HusAyn’s dEfEAT And dEATH

Hyn decided to tke i cnce. He et ot o K wit i mily nd  mll bnd o ollowe. Te Umyyd Umyyd clip, Yzid, eing new o Hyn’ mc, immeCoMMEMorAtInG husAyn ditely ent toop to pevent te gop om ecing K. Ne te town o  usayn’s defeat and beheading near Kbl tgedy tck. Hyn nd i the town of Karbala, which occurred mll gop wee ttcked by te Umyyduring the month of Muharram, were felt d toop. One by one Hyn’ ollowe deeply by the Shia. They had placed great ell, ollowed nlly by Hyn imel. hopes in Husayn, so his death cast a pall over their community. Mixed with this It i id tt te oldie eitted beoe sadness was guilt because they had failed deling te nl blow to te gndon o  to come to Husayn’s assistance when he te popet. needed them. Since that time the Shia Hyn i id ten to ve been remember Husayn’s sacrifice through spe beeded by one o te oldie. Hi ed cial rituals and prayers held every year  w ent to te clip Yzid in Dmc. during the month of Muharram, the first Yzid gloted ove te ed nd mde Islamic month. cde emk bot Hyn nd te et

H

40

ISLAM

o Ali’ mily. Fo i ole in Hyn’ det, Yzid wold neve  be ogiven by te Si. Te killing o Hyn did not bing n end to te ctivitie o te Si, mny o wom begn looking to ote membe o  Ali’ mily to led tem. Ding D ing te next ew decde tee men  wold led evolt gint te Umyyd Umyyd bt wit no cce. cce . Fo te Umyyd Umyyd te Si emined  tony poblem.

thE uMAyyADs AnD nEw ConquEsts Altog te Umyyd wee eventlly ovetown te Si contined to ee tem  te ymbol o nt govenment. Even tody wen te Si citicize moden politicl lede, lede , tey oten compe tem to te Umyyd o te event centy. Te Umyyd dynty lted o ogly 100 ye ding  wic te Ilmic Empie gew in bot ize nd powe. Umyyd oce extended te le o Ilm wet co Not Aic to te Atlntic cot. Tning not te Mlim mie coed te Stit o Giblt nd invded Spin. Tey moved witly co Spin nd into oten Fnce. Only in te ye 732 wee tey  nlly lted by  Fnki my nde te commnd o Cle Mtel. Depite ti deet Spin emined in Mlim nd. Fo te next 750 ye Spin wold wold be  dynmic Ilmic lnd. Te Umyyd Umyyd mie contined to dive d ive etwd. Te emining e o In ell to te Mlim,  did Agnitn nd te e now clled Pkitn. Wit tee new poeion te empie eced new level o powe. Mc o te welt o te Umyyd clipte cme om te txe tt te clip impoed on te people conqeed ove te ye. Fo ll tei toity te Umyyd till ced eio politicl politic l poblem. Te Kiite nd te Si wee till ctive, nd bot gop ped popgnd gint te Umyyd. On occion one o te ote o te two movement wold ognize  bloody  evolt. No wee tee te only gop oppoed to te Umyyd; mny ote Mlim wee ngy wit te ling dynty. One common complint w tt welt nd pivilege wee not ily ditibted by te Umyyd Umyyd nd tei ppote. ppote .  The Spread of Islam

41

Tee eeling o ttion  ttion elped el  evoltiony movement tt d ecetly been oming in te eten povince o  Kn, wic i tody pt o Centl Ai. By te ye 750 te Umyyd mily w on te deenive, nd mc o te empie d llen into te nd o te evoltionie, evoltionie, wo t tt point elected  new clip o te empie: Ab l-Abb. He w  membe o te Abbid mily nd led only o  ot time  beoe i bote, l-Mn, cme to powe. Al-Mn led o mny ye.

thE AbbAsID CALIPhA CALIP hAtE tE Te Abbid led om 750 to 1258. In te t 200 ye o  tei le tey eced dizzying eigt o powe nd welt. Tei empie tetced om Moocco to Indi nd te Abbid clip ened te epect o te entie wold. Tei welt cme om mny dieent oce. Wit tei my nd nvy te clip contolled te tde ote tt cicoed te empie. Tei empie podced vt mont o gicltl podct nd took in evene tog txtion, llowing te ely Abbid to live comotbly in get plendo plendo.. To n tei empie te Abbid developed  lge bectic govenment centeed in Bgdd. Soon ti new  cpitl becme  mo bn cente—te b o politicl nd economic ctivity o te wole empie. To deend temelve nd te empie tey etblied  powel tnding my bed in gion togot te Ilmic lnd. An impeive intelligence netwok bcked te my   my    wit inomnt wo woked in evey  cone o te empie. Te mot impotnt impo tnt my w kept in Bgdd, wee it cold deend te ling mily nd te tte. Among te ccompliment o ti peiod w te development o te Ilm42

ISLAM

ic legl ytem. Te bi o ti new code  w, o coe, te Qn nd te tecing o Mmmd. Uing tee two oce  tei gide te col woked ot  et o lw nd egltion tt cme to be known  te i. A tey w it ti w to be te ondtion o Ilmic ociety. To enoce tee lw nd egltion te col lo woked wit te govenment to etbli n Ilmic cot ytem. At te ed o ti new ytem  wee te cie dge, te qdi.

thE CoLLAPsE oF thE EMPIrE By te middle o te 10t centy te Ilmic Empie d given bit to  new  nd get civiliztion. civiliz tion. Te Abic lngge nd te eligion o Ilm d tken oot togot te Middle Et, Not Aic, Spin, nd Centl Ai. In lw, eligion, edction, t, cience, nd commece te Ilmic commnity w living tog  golden ge. By compion, Eope w in te midt o te “Dk Age.” divisions And dEfEA dEfEATT

Altog te cltl cievement ding te Abbid le  wold live on, te 10t centy bogt new politicl poblem tt te clip poved poved nble to olve. Peeving Pee ving te nity o te empie w epecilly diclt. Fo moe tn  centy, cent y, tog tog diplomcy diplom cy nd te tengt o te my, te Abbid clip d contolled te empie. By te nint centy ti contol begn to lip. In Not Aic nd ote egion locl lede begn to go tei own wy. wy. Oten tey contined to ecognize te ledeip o te clip wile etbliing tei own le ove  pticl egion.

Ornate tilework in a mosque in Isahan, Iran. Many mosques eature calligraphy and geometric and oral motis since representations o God and human beings are not permitted.

 The Spread of Islam

43

By te middle o te 10t centy te clip wee oced to ecognize te end o tei powe. In 945  tong my led he Abbasids commissioned archi by  Pein mily nmed te Bwyid tects and builders to construct wept into Iq nd cpted Bgdd. palaces and magnificent homes in the Altog tey llowed te clip to etin capital and other regions. For a short i ocil title, tey n te empie. period the capital was moved to the city Anote development te divided of Samarra, like Baghdad on the Tigris te Ilmic wold in te lte 10t centRiver, where the ruins of the many paly. Elie in te centy  gop o Sii aces built by this dynasty are still visible. d cceeded in etbliing  mll  The Abbasids also provided a great deal of support to the scholarly community. In tte in Not Aic. Fom ti cente o  Baghdad and other cities brilliant work  powe tey lnced ttck to te wet, was carried out in intellectual centers. gint Egypt. In 969 tee lede, clled Working with Jewish and Christian scholte Ftimid dynty, conqeed Egypt ars, Muslim thinkers set out to translate nd etblied  new city, Cio, wic and study the works of other great cul becme tei cpitl. Ti dynty wold tures, including Greece and India. Many le Egypt o 200 ye, ding wic it works of mathematics, medicine, theol wold be in lmot contnt confict wit ogy, and philosophy were translated into te Snni egion, wic wee till nde the Arabic language. Using these works the Muslims created their own bodies of  te nominl le o te Abbid clip. original ideas, which they laid out in the Ftimid le cme to n end in 1171 many books written during this period.   wen Cio w oven by te my o  Sl l-Din l-Ayyb l-Ayybi,i, known in te Wet  Sldin. Hi victoy bogt n end to Sii le in Egypt nd w wmly welcomed by te inbitnt o Egypt. Mot o tem d neve ccepted Sii belie, peeing to emin Snni o Citin. Citin . Wile ppy to eceive eceive tei pie, Sl l-Din d to tn i enegie to Jelem, ten nde te le o te Citin Cde oce.

Arts AnD sCIEnCE unDEr thE AbbAsIDs

T

THE CRusAdEs

Te Cde wee  eie e ie o cmpign lnced ove ove o centie, beginning wit n ttck on Jelem t te end o te 11t centy, to etn it to Citin le. Initilly te Citin mie cceeded in cieving tei gol—te conqet o Je44

ISLAM

lem. Ti victoy vic toy in 1099 w ollowed ollowed by te etbliment e tbliment o  mll kingdom long te Meditenen cot. Te ll o Jelem cme   ock to mny Mlim. To tem Jelem w o get ymbolic impotnce. It w, ccoding to Ilmic belie, om Jelem tt Mmmd d tveled on i miclo oney to even. Te Umyyd clip

thE ruLE oF o F thE FAtIMIDs FAtIMIDs

 A 

t the height of their power the Fatimids (969–1171) ruled over a large area that included Egypt, large parts of Syria, Persia, the Arabian Peninsula, and North Africa. As a result it became a powerful state. Under the Fatimids Egypt experienced a period of  great cultural achievement and Cairo became a large, bustling city. The Fatimids built a series of mosques and palaces throughout

Cairo, many of which can still be seen today. Among their accomplishments was the creation of the al-Azhar mosque complex—a religious and educational center that would survive the fall of the Fatimid dynasty in the 12th century. Today it is a major university, attracting students from all over the Islamic world. Originally a center of Shii education, it is now a center of Sunni thought.

View rom the Citadel o Old Cairo with the al-Azhar mosque and university in the oreground.

 The Spread of Islam

45

d bilt  mo moqe, te Dome o te Rock, on te ite  believed to be te plce om wic Mmmd tted on ti  oney. Mny Mlim gew detemined to ee te city bck in Mlim nd. It ell to Sl l-Din to ognize n my to cy c y ot te tk. Ate tking Egypt e d gone on to conqe Syi nd Meopotmi, t etbliing  nied tte. Fom ti poition o  tengt e ent i my gint te Cde in 1187. Ate deeting te te Citin my  my i toop eetblied Ilmic le ove Jelem. Menwile in Bgdd te Abbid clip contined  mee geed. Te empie ove wic te dynty d once led  w now boken boken into mny mll pt. Mot o tee tte wee contolled by mility men wo d little inteet in eligio mtte. Deep politicl nd eligio dieence divided te Ilmic commnity commnity.. Mongol ConQuEsT of bAgHdAd

Ding te ely pt o te 13t centy Mongol mie d  been weeping co te vt lnd o Cin nd Ri, moving wet into Centl Ai. By te 1250 te Mongol, nde tei lede Hlg, moved witly tog Pei nd to te gte o  Bgdd. Tee tey demnded complete complete ende om te lt l t Abbid clip, l-Mtim. Wit ew politicl nd no mility  oce t i dipol, te clip d little coice bt to gee. Bgdd w oven by te Mongol toop. Te clip nd i mily wee lte tken to  mll villge vi llge nd exected, binging  d end to te once powel Abbid clipt c lipte. e.

thrEE nEw MusLIM EMPIrEs Neve gin wold wold one dynty dynt y le ove te wole o te Ilmic wold. Te det o te lt Abbid clip cloed  long nd oten gloio cpte in te itoy o Ilm. In te eydy o  te clipte te powe nd cltl cievement o te Ilmic wold wee enowned. Te politicl nity o te empie tt d mde mc o ti poible w now t n end. Wt d 46

ISLAM

not ended, oweve, wee te deep piitl nd cltl link  between te mny egion o te Ilmic wold. Even wit te cievement o te Abbid clipte, te Ilmic wold d yet to ec it politicl nd cltl pek. Te Mongol invion d been devtting. Howeve, by te 15t centy not only d te Ilmic wold ecoveed ecoveed om te invion, bt it d lo begn to tke get tide owd. Wit te ie o tee new empie te moity o te egion o Ilm now d dynmic politicl ledeip. At te eigt o tei powe tee tee tte led ove    vt e tetcing om wt i known tody  Bnglde  wet to moden-dy Algei. In te et, ling ove te Indin bcontinent, w te Mgl Empie wit it cpitl in Deli. In In te Svid dynty oe to etbli  new Sii tte  tte ling om In. And beginning in te middle o te 14t centy  Tki tte known  te Ottomn Empie oe in Antoli. In time, te Ottomn wold contol mot o Not Aic nd te Middle Et, ll o Antoli, nd mc o oteten Eope.

The Sultan Ahmed mosque, also known as the Blue Mosque, was built in Istanbul between 1609 and 1616. In 1453 one Ottoman ruler, Mehmet II, laid siege to Constantinople, the capital o the once-great Byzantine Empire. The city ell and the new Muslim rulers renamed it Istanbul.

 The Spread of Islam

4

48

ISLAM

Te le o tee tee empie wee not piitl gide o tece in te wy Mmmd d been. Tei ole, t let in teoeticl tem, w to pold te Ilmic it nd to ee tt te lnd o Ilm wee well deended gint bot intenl nd extenl tet. In ti wy, like te clip o old, te Mgl, Svid, nd Ottomn le d bot politicl nd eligio eponibilitie. ARCHiTECTuRE And Cul CulTuRE TuRE of THE EMPiREs

Te politicl powe o tee dyntie coincided wit cltl nd economic ctivity togot te Ilmic wold. Like te Mgl le, te Svid lo took  keen inteet in eligio nd cltl mtte. Abb I, te getet o te Svid lede, led om 1588 to 1629 nd did mc to pomote Inin t nd citecte. Along wit mgnicent bilding eected in In, te cpitl, Inin tit  tit podced wok o clligpy  nd minite pinting  well  mncipt illttion. Ote in te dynty lo encoged te wok o te eligio nd legl col, mny o wom woked woked  govenment nctionie in cool, moqe, nd cltl cente. Te cievement o te Ottomn ltn wee no le billint. At tei pek o petige tey povided n tmopee in  wic col, tit, micin, citect, nd poet ll foied. Te betil moqe nd ote bilding o peentdy Itnbl ttet to te cltl envionment oteed by tee le. CoMMERCE, REligion, And PoliTiCs

Ti peiod lo witneed  get del o commecil ctivity. All tee dyntie wee ble to povide povide te e nde tei contol wit politicl nd economic tbility. Togot ti peiod mecnt bogt nd old  get viety o good—om expenive pice, clote, nd ewel to bic oodt c  ice nd wet. Ti commece w cied ot witin ec o  te empie  well  co ontie,  get tde cvn nd ocen feet cicoed te egion o te Middle Et nd oten Ai.  The Spread of Islam

49

Interior o the Sultan Hassan Mosque, Cairo, Egypt. The ight o steps leads to the minbar, where the Friday sermon is given to the congregation.

Ti w lo  peiod wen te eligio col, o lm (mening “lened one”), becme bec me deeply involved involved in  wide nge o ctivitie—lgely wit te bleing o te politicl le. Te eligio col eved te commnity  tece, pye lede, nd piitl gide. gide . Some lm eved  locl politicl lede, voicing te wie nd gievnce o tei ollowe to te tte. Te govenment in In, Itnbl, nd Deli ll ecognized te vle o ving contol ove tee eligio ge. A  elt tey employed gowing nmbe o tee men in te govenment beccy. Eventlly te lm becme  divided gop. Wee te top col—toe men wit good poition in te beccy—ppoted te tte, ote lm kept tei ditnce om te govenment. In In epecilly, te lowe-nked lowe-nked membe o  ti eligio commnity eed to eve te tte. Some o tee men becme citic o te politicl etbliment, wile mny ote tyed completely ot o politic. Toe ew wo poke ot won te ppot o te genel pblic. ConQuEsT, EduCATion, And PREACHing

Ding te 15t to 18t centie Ilm ped te eld in bot Ai nd Aic. Te ped o Ilm took plce in  viety o wy. Conqet bogt new  e nde Ilmic le. Fo exmple e o Centl Ai, Indi, nd Centl Aic  wee conqeed t dieent time by Mlim oce. Edction nd pecing by  Mlim miionie, tece, oly men, nd col ped Ilm to newly conqeed e nd to emote pt o pevioly etblied Ilmic teitoie. Oten tee wee cimtic men wo won people ove to Ilm tog te oce o  50

ISLAM

tei ccte nd mege. Jt  oten c miionie nd tece woked witin popltion tt d long been nde Ilmic le bt d not yet conveted. In Antoli, o exmple, nde te Ottomn, mny Citin conveted to Ilm.  Jt  impotnt impo tnt w te ole plyed by mecnt mecnt wo wee ctive ding ti peiod. In cotl e om Et Aic to te ilnd o Indonei, mecnt etblied contct wit locl popltion. Tee ocil excnge led to te etbliment o  mll commnitie wee miionie, mong ote, wold come to ettle. In ti wy Ilm gdlly ped, o exmple, exmple, to te inteio egion o Indonei nd Aic. THE End of THE EMPiREs

A wit ll empie te dy o petige nd powe cme to n end  tie lowly pped te tengt o ll tee o te dyntie. Wt wee once dynmic tte lowly becme ollow ell tt nlly collped nde te pee o bot intenl pevl nd extenl tet. Te Svid nd Mgl tte dippeed  by te 19t centy, nd te Ottomn eld on ntil te ely  pt o te 20t centy cent y beoe nlly vniing. vniing. By te 18t centy, oweve, Ilm d etblied itel  togot vt e o Aic nd Ai. In mny o tee egion Mlim wee te dominnt moity. O coe dieence emined get in lngge, locl ctom nd vle, ete ting bit nd de, t nd mic, nd economic ytem om one egion to te next. Howeve depite tee dieence tong nd lting bond developed to tie te dipte Ilmic egion togete. toget e. A Mlim ll te people o tee egion woipped te one God, All, nd veneted i meenge, Mmmd. All pyed cing te ced city o Mecc, nd ll cied ot te ote pecic itl expected o Mlim. And o coe ll ogt gidnce om Ilm’ get book—te Qn.

 The Spread of Islam

51

CHAPTER 4

QURAN, HADITH,  AND THE LAW 

M

lim believe tt te text o te Qn i te litel Wod Wod o God—eveled to Mmmd ding i lietime,   witten down by i ollowe nde i peviion, nd pt into book om oon te i det. Fo ti eon te Qn povide povid e te ondti ondtion on nd giding piit o Ilm.

thE worD oF GoD Mlim become cqinted wit te Qn t  yong ge nd mny contine to tdy it togot tei live. Vee o te   book e ecited into te e o bbie, nd  oon  Mlim cilden e old enog to pek tey begin memoizing nd eciting Qnic vee. Mlim cilden len to ed nd  wite by eciting te book nd by copying ot vee by nd. A yong Mlim ppoc dltood tey len to e te book in pye. Te ttcment to te Qn contine ntil te lt dy o  Mlim’ lie, wen ection o te book e oten ed to te dying. Finlly, ollowing ollowing Ilmic tdition, elected pge o te Qn e ecited ove te gve o  deceed Mlim. A Muslim amily studying the Quran at an Islamic center in Indonesia. Today the majority o Muslims are not native speakers o Arabic and thereore the Quran is made available to them in translation. However, any translation o the Quran ceases to be the literal word o Allah. 52

ISLAM

Quran, Hadith, and the Law

53

Memoiztion nd ecitl o te Qn e igly vled ctivitie in te Ilmic   wold. Mot Mlim cilden len potion o te Qn by et nd e tem continlly in pye nd on ote occion. Some Mlim go on to memoize te entie book—n ct tt en tem te epect o tei commnitie. Mlim lo plce get vle in te ecittion o  te Qn. Togot te Ilmic wold Mlim gte to e te book ecited nd ow get ppecition o toe  wit pticlly well-tined voice. It i diclt to convey te dept o ppecition nd ttcment tt Mlim eel towd towd te Qn. Fo Mlim te book i  niqe event in te itoy o mnkind. mnkind. It i oten decibed dec ibed  te one te t e micle bogt by Mmmd. Mmmd. It i togt tt ince te Qn epeent te Wod o God, it i  peect pe ect wok. Like God it i etenl nd ncngeble.

A British Muslim girl quietly reading the Quran in Arabic. The Quran teaches that its words were sent down to Muhammad rom God in the Arabic language. 54

ISLAM

thE MEssAGE oF thE qurAn Accoding to Ilmic tdition nd te Qn itel, te Qn i te lt in  eie o eveltion ent to te wold wold by God. Among i meenge wee Moe nd te ote Hebew popet, popet, wo  bogt te To, To, nd Je Cit, C it, woe ollowe ollowe docmented i lie nd i tecing in te New Tetment o te Bible. Like tem Mmmd w te bee o  divine mege—te Qn. Teeoe Teeo e Mlim do not eect te elie e lie mege bogt   by Moe, Je, nd te ote popet wo cme beoe Mmmd. On te conty te Ilmic tdition view tee elie popet nd tei mege wit get eteem. Howeve te Qn tece tt ove time bot te Jewi nd Citin cipte ve been copted co pted by te men nd women wo ve tied to intepet tem. Fo exmple te Jew nd te Citin e citicized in te Qn o ving climed to be  divinely coen people. Te Qn tte tt only God will decide wo, i nyone, i to be coen nd o wt eon. Te Citin e lo citicized o ving togt o Cit  divine. In te view o Mlim ti i to y tt God e i divine nte o tt God   divine ptne. Ti ide contdict one o te mot ndmentl Ilmic pinciple—te bolte one SURAS AnD  AYAS  ne o God. Te Qn condemn ny individl he Quran is made up of 114 chapo gop tt tie to ocite ny obect ters known as suras, each of which is o being wit God. Mlim e te tem made up of a varying number of verses, srk (ociting nyting wit God) o called ayas. The longest chapter contains c n ct, wic tey believe i te one 286 verses, the shortest only three. The longer chapters are known as the Medinan nogivble nogivb le in tt mn cn commit. chapters because it is believed they were Mlim believe tt Citin commit revealed to Muhammad after his arrival in n ct o  srk wen tey clim tt Je Medina, following his journey from Mecca. i divine.  The shorter chapters are believed to have Mlim believe tt te ole o te been revealed earlier, in Mecca, and are Qn i to coect te eo nd le called the Meccan suras. suras. ide tt men nd women ve dded to

T

Quran, Hadith, and the Law

55

LorD oF thE worLDs

I

n addition to uniqueness other characteristics of Allah (God) are described by the Quran. The first chapter of the book, called Surat al-Fatihah, describes some of  these qualities:

God’ elie eveltion. A te nl eveltion om God, it i believed to be te mot peect. It w ent to wn mnity tt te elie eveltion d been copted nd to bing bi ng people bck to te te eligion.

GoD, huMAnkInD, hEAvEn, hEAvEn, AnD hELL hEL L Accoding to Ilmic tdition God i t o ll mecil, edy to ogive te inne  long  tt peon epent nd tn   bck to te woip o God nd  tly  eligio lie. God i lo geneo. Te Qn pek oten bot te bonty  o te ntl wold given to mnity    by God. It y, “God i He Wo ceted te even nd te et nd ent down  wte om te clod, ten bogt ot  wit it it to tin yo.” (14.32) Te getet poo o God’ mecy nd compion, oweve, e te popet nd te eveltion, pticlly te popet Mmmd Mmm d nd te Qn. Tee povide men nd women wit te gidnce tey eqie to mke tei wy tog te wold nd ltimtely to lvtion. Te eveltion nd te tecing o  Mmmd ccompli evel tk: Tey wn mnity o  te evil o in, tey povide knowledge knowledge o God nd o te pope   wy to woip, nd tey decibe te ewd tt wit te peon wo ollow te eveltion nd Mmmd’ exmple.

I te e o Go, te Mercul, te Copssote. All prse belogs to Go, te Lor o te Worls, te  All-Mercul, te All-Copssote, te Mster o te t e Dy o Juget. It s You  we serve  to You You we pry or support. Gue us o te rgt pt, te pt o  tose tt You You ve blesse, ot tt o  tose wt wo You re gry, or o  tose wo go stry.  —1.1–7

MAsTER of THE dAy of JudgMEnT

Howeve God i lo te Mte o te Dy o Jdgment, woe powe nd tice e  get  i mecy. Fo toe inne wo epent God will ow ogivene, ogivene, bt o toe inne wo peit in tei copt wy God will be nogiving. One vee in te Qn y tt te inne wo ttempt to win ogivene  wit ll te welt o te wold, nd even twice tt, will il. God G od 56

ISLAM

 will eview tei live on te Dy o JdgsPIrItuAL CrEAturEs ment nd nd tem nepentnt. Tei ccording to the Quran, in both heaven ewd will be te e o ell. and hell humans will be joined by Te Qn oe vivid deciption o  spirits created by God. The spiritual crea bot even nd ell. In ell inne e tures of heaven are the angels. Created out om bot pyicl nd mentl ngi. of light, their role is to serve as messengers Wile depi nd e ll tei et between God and humanity, delivering nd mind, tei bodie e toted wit the divine revelation to those chosen by e nd molten metl. A vey dieent God. It was the angel Gabriel who brought expeience i pomied o toe wo e the revelation from God to Muhammad in ved. Heven i decibed in te Qn the cave at Hira. Below the angels are the  jinn, who are made of fire and who can be   plce o ic gden wit nning either good or bad. Like human beings, ping, wee te ved will deligt in these fiery spirits will be judged by God at te bet o ood nd dink nd te comthe end of time and sent to either heaven pnionip o betil yong men nd or hell. In the period before Islam the jinn  women. were thought to inhabit rocks and trees. In ell te inne oin Stn nd i olWith the establishment of Islam belief in lowe. Te toy o Stn, wo i known the jinn was incorporated into the new  Ibli in te Ilmic tdition, i one o  religion, seeing them as intermediaries te mot vivid pt o te Qn. It begin between humanity and the angels but not  wit n mtion o te pecil peci l eltionalways to be trusted or believed! ip tt exit between mnkind nd God. God ceted people to eve  i epeenttive on et. At te moment o cetion God mmoned te ngel to inom tem o mnity’ pecil qlity. He odeed tem to bow down beoe te t o mn, Adm,  bt Ibli ngily eed. Wen Ibli eed to bow down beoe Adm, God ct im ot o even o diobeying te divine commnd:

 A 

Te ll te gels bowe togeter, except Ibls, wo reuse to o tose wo were bowg. Go s: “O, Ibls, wy re you ot og tose  wo re upo ter kees?” He s: “I  ot gog to keel beore  beg  ore out o cly, o spe u.” Go s: “Te leve ere, you re cst out,  ee you re curse utl te Dy o Juget.” He s: “My Lor, spre e utl te Dy o Resurrecto.” Go s: “You y Quran, Hadith, and the Law

5

 o tose wtg or tt ppote y.” He s: “Sce you ve e evl o e, I wll certly ke te worl ttrctve to tose o ert,  I wll ke evl o ll o te, except tose o te wo re your scere  ollowers.” Go s: “Ts s te pt tt les rectly to e. As or y  ollowers, you wll ve o fuece over te except tose wo go stry to ollow you,  surely Hell wll be te plce or te.” (15.30–43) HuMAn REsPonsibiliTiEs

Te Qn clely tte tt God expect mn to peom te itl o Ilm nd ed te Qn. Q n. Howeve it lo povide gideline o living lie   Mlim. Accoding to te Qn mn being e individlly eponible o tei own ction nd togt. Coneqently te deciion to ollow te te pt o God, to live  inceely eligio lie, i p to ec peon. Toe  wo cooe to do o will win God’ mecy mecy,, nd toe wo do not  will en e n only i nge.

thE MusLIM CoMMunIty CoMMunIt y AnD thE qurAn Te devot Mlim i not only n individl bt lo  membe o te Ilmic commnity. Tt commnity  te eponibility to ollow God’ will, wic men to pold te tecing o te Qn. A te Qn y, God mde te Mlim into  pticl commnity, o u, t  e d elie done wit te Jew nd Citin. He expect tt commnity to ct  n exmple to ll ote commnitie. guiding THE CoMMuniTy 

To gide te commnity te Qn povide egltion tt evey Mlim i expected to ollow. Tee inclde not only te itl dtie o pye bt lo le egding ineitnce, mige, nd ote pect o lie. Ove te coe o Ilmic itoy tee le  le ve become te bi o Ilmic I lmic lw. lw. Te Qn y tt te gol o te Mlim commnity i to cete  t ociety. So te Qn not only tece mn being bot God, Mmmd, nd te eveltion bt lo eve   gide to te commnity o Mlim on ow to ollow God om dy to dy. 58

ISLAM

A page rom an 18thcentury Turkish Quran decorated with geometric patterns. The Quran contains many passages that require much study beore their meaning becomes clear. Since Muslims throughout the ages have sought guidance rom the Quran, it has always been important or them to know what the book is teaching. As a result those who study the Quran are looked to by other Muslims or guidance. Oten these people become teachers in their local communities.

Stdying nd explining te Qn becme, vey ely on, n impotnt bnc o Ilmic edction nd intellectl lie. Tsr  i te tem ed by Mlim o Qnic intepettion o explntion. In te nint nd 10t centie Mlim col pent ye tdying te vee o te Qn. Te bet o tee col podced mltivolme wok—till ed tody in ni veitie togot te Ilmic wold—in wic tey lid ot tei detiled intepettion. Pep te mot mo o tee  wok, Muktsr trk l rusul wl uluk wl kul, w witten in te ely 10t centy by  col in Bgdd nmed Ab  J Mmmd ibn Ji l-T l-Tbi bi (d. (d . 923). lifE And TEACHings of MuHAMMAd

Altog te Qn embodie te tecing o Ilm, tee i note oce o gidnce Mlim look to  well—te lie nd tecing o Mmmd. No individl i viewed wit te me we nd epect by Mlim  i Mmmd ibn Abd All. In contle biogpie nd poem Mlim ve poken o tei poond ttcment to te popet. He i eveed by Mlim Quran, Hadith, and the Law

59

o i pecil eltionip to God. Like te popet beoe im e w elected to bing te divine mege to mnity. Howeve Mmmd i togt to ve  been cloe to God tn wee ny o te ote popet. He w te one coen to  bing te Qn, God’ lt eveltion, to mnity. Fo tt eon i eltionip to God w niqe.

MuhAMMAD AnD hADIth Mmmd i lo eveed by Mlim o ving ving lived  emkble lie. A gited tece, Mmmd inpied i litene. A get politicl lede, Mmmd tned  mll gop o ollowe into  powel commnity, te ondtion o  n expnding empie. A killed mility cie, e led i ollowe to victoy gint moe powel enemie, enemie , eventlly gining contol o te entie Abin Peninl. Fo ll tee eon it w not long beoe Mmmd w een by i ollowe   model mn being. Fo tem nd o te genetion o Mlim te tem, e becme te exmple o ll Mlim to ollow—not ollow—not only n exempl exemply y mn being,  bt even incpble o eo o ny kind. THE HAdiTH

Even ding Mmmd’ lietime Mlim begn to collect toto ie o i ctivitie nd tecing. Hi cloet ollowe—toe  wo d obeved Mmmd on  dily bi o ye—ped on tee toie to ote te i det. Tee ccont, known  dit, gew vey popl nd oon wee ciclting ci clting togot te Ilmic commnity commnity.. A te dit begn to ciclte tog te commnity, Mlim litened wit get inteet. Tee epot wee ped on om peon to peon, commnity to commnity, in bot 60

ISLAM

  witten nd ol om tog te centie. Fom te dit Mlim lened bot Mmmd’ ccompliment ccompliment   milmi lity nd politicl lede  well  detil o i pivte lie. Fo intnce tee e ccont o Mmmd’ metod o bttle nd diplomcy  well  deciption o i eligio ctivitie nd mily lie. No Mlim cold eve ope to be like Mmmd in evey wy wy,, bt mny Mlim believe tt i tey tive t ive to ollow Mmmd’ exmple, tey will live  pio nd meningl lie. finding THE TRuE HAdiTH

By te time Ilm d ped beyond te Abin Peninl it   becme obvio to mny in te Ilmic commnity tt mot o tee epot bot Mmmd wee biction, tt tey  d been ceted te Mmmd’ det by membe o te commnity wo climed tt tey d ed te epot om omeone wo d ecoded tem in te time o te popet. Vey  Vey  oten toe wo mde p tee epot wee well-mening Mlim wo togt tt tei ct o biction w  ign o tei eveence o Mmmd. Ote d ceted new dit in n ttempt to pt ot tei own nwe to DEMAnD For thE hADIth poblem cing te ely Mlim commnity. Wile no one w pnied o ithin 200 years of Muhammad’s ti ctivity, it becme cle tt te bdeath the numbers of hadith icted epot wold ve to be weeded (accounts of Muhammad’s activities and ot. Ate ll, i te commnity w going teachings) circulating around the Islamic to e te dit   oce o gidnce, community probably were in the hundreds of thousands. By that time the it wold ve to be e tt only te te Islamic Empire had spread well beyond dit wee being ed. the limits of the Arabian Peninsula. In the In ode to nd te te dit Mlim areas conquered by the Muslim armies col begn to exmine lge nmbe large numbers of people had converted o tee epot. Since te empie d to Islam. Like those before them these gown o lge col oten o ten d to tvel new Muslims were eager to learn about  vt ditnce in ode to collect te mny  Muhammad and his teachings. This furccont. Gdlly te col wee ther increased the demand for the hadith. ble to ditingi te el dit om te

 W 

Quran, Hadith, and the Law

61

bicted one. Ot o ti exting eot cme  nmbe o  collection o dit tt wee conideed elible. A time went on ix o tee collection wee own peeence by te colly commnity o Ilm nd becme te tndd wok o dit—till ed tody by tdent nd col in niveitie togo togott te Ilmic wold.

thE LAw oF GoD Fo Mlim te i, o Ilmic lw, i te divine pln o te Ilmic commnity. It ly ot te egltion nd dtie tt ll Mlim e expected to ollow ding te coe o tei live, inclding te itl tt Mlim e expected expec ted to peom wen  woipping All  well  te egltion o bevio wit one’ mily nd in ociety. oc iety. Te i developed om te deeply  elt need o te ely Mlim. Te conqet d tnomed te mll commnity in Medin into  powel empie. Fo mny Mlim, ow oweve, eve, te ice o  te empie wee only o econdy impo impo-tnce. Te t pioity w te nce o  mol Ilmic commnity. I it w to ollow te Wod o God nd te tecing o Mmmd, tee Mlim id, it needed  body o Ilmic lw. Fom te eigt to te tt o te 10t centy col o Ilm woked t te diclt poce o developing ti body  o lw. One poblem tey ced w tt mny pge in te Qn wee intepeted in dieent wy by dieent col, elting in gment nd dipte. Te Qn moeove did not contin A man praying using mishaba, prayer beads. There are 99 nwe—even ptil nwe—to ll te prayer beads corresponding to the 99 names o God. By qetion tey ced. In toe ce wee repeating these names, such as the Compassionate and the even te dit did not povide nwe Merciul, Muslims are brought closer to God. 62

ISLAM

te col wee obliged to come to  oltion by ing tei own opinion, gided  cloely  poible by te pinciple o te Qn nd dit. By te beginning o te 10t centy  te legl expet d eced tei gol: Te bic element o te i wee in plce. Ti code o egltion, et ot in legl mnl witten by te vio col nd tei tdent, owed tt te digeement mong te dieent gop o legl col d not dippeed. On cetin ie o lw, c  ow divoce between  bnd nd wie cold be cieved nd ow te popety  o  deceed peon w to be divided mong te peon’ ei, te col d eced conficting confic ting conclion bot wt te Qn nd dit pemitted. Tee dieence led to te emegence o vio cool o Ilmic lw.

thE sChooLs oF LAw Te cool ll developed in te me wy: A gited gi ted col wold et ot i ide in i cle nd witing; i tdent wold ene tee nd p tem on to tei tdent, wo wold in tn do te me. In te ely peiod  nmbe o tee cool cme into being, bt mot o tem diolved qickly qick ly.. Te ew tt vived wee nmed te te men ond wom te cool d t omed. HAnAfi sCHool

Te two oldet Snni legl cool e clled Hn nd Mliki. Te ome w nmed te Ab Hni (d. 767),  legl col  wo lived nd woked in te Iqi city o K. He cqied  epttion mong col o i libel view on te lw nd o i get intelligence. Ab Hni ed  ed legl pecedent ote tn toe ond in te dit to expnd Ilmic I lmic lw nd dvied Quran, Hadith, and the Law

63

tt exteme Qnic pniment pniment old be ed ely. ely. Some o te getet legl col o te ollowing genetion genetion wee i tdent. Te Hn cool i cently dominnt in Indi, Centl Ai, Tkey key,, nd pt o Egypt. MAliki sCHool

Muslims in the courtyard o Vakil mosque, Shiraz, Iran. Mosques throughout the Islamic world are used or prayer, study, and contemplation. During the month-long ast o  Ramadan it is common or Muslims, usually men, to spend long hours in the mosque reading, praying, and quietly conversing.

64

ISLAM

Te Mliki cool took it nme om Mlik ibn An (d. 796),  col om te city o Medin—te t cpitl o te Ilmic Empie nd te cente o vigoo wok by legl nd eligio col. Mlik w one o te mot igly epected o tee men. Te Ummyd clip d climed tt lw cold be mde  witot eeence to te Qn, bt Mlik ibn An ovetned ti igt nd once gin plced empi on te impotnce o  te dit. He i known to te peent dy o i dediction to collecting dit nd o witing te l-Muwtt —one o te mot infentil ely book on te lw. Te Mliki cool i cently  dominnt in Not nd Centl Aic. sHAfii sCHool

Pep te getet legl col in Ilmic itoy w MmPep md ibn Idi l-Si, wo gve i nme to te Si cool o  lw,, wic i cently ollowed in Mlyi, oten Abi, nd lw Et Aic. A ic. He w bon in Pletine nd tdied in vio pt o te Middle Et, inclding Medin, wee e tdied nde te get Mlik ibn An. He ten tgt in Bgdd nd lte Egypt, wee e died in 819. Al-Si lid ot i ide on te lw  in te Rsl —one o te mot enowned  book o te ely peiod o Ilm. In i book l-Si ged peively tt te te Qn te mot impotnt i mpotnt oce o legl col to e in ecing tei deciion w te dit. It w to  get extent bece o ti gment tt te dit becme o igly egded  by ll Mlim. Wit l-Si’ wok te

tte o Mmmd oe to new eigt. Like Ab Hni, lSi ttcted mny ne tdent, ome o wom went on to contibte to te development o Ilmic lw. HAnbAli sCHool

Te lt o te Snni legl cool to emege w te Hnbli cool—nmed te Amd ibn Hnbl (d. 855), wo w  yonge yong e contempoy o l-Si in Bgdd. Ely on ibn Hn bl cqied te epttion o being otpoken nd vey cone vtive. Feqently e d bitte gment wit ote col ove  viety o eligio nd legl ie. He even becme involved invol ved in n ngy dipte wit te cot nd t one point w eted nd beten o i opinion. Ti elped tengten i ollowing mong tdent nd yonge col wo ed i  view. Tody te only e wee te Hnbli cool i dominnt i te moden tte t te o Sdi Abi. sHii lAw—THE JAfiRi sCHool

Beide te cool o legl togt in te Snni Mlim commnity, tee i te Sii lw cool, wic i known  te Ji cool. It w nmed te  get Sii col wo lived nd tgt in Medin nd lte in Bgdd: J l-Sdiq. In i ely  cee l-Sdiq lived  qiet lie, witing nd olding cle o i tdent. In I n 750 te Abbid wept  wept into powe, powe, nd in  ot time te qiet o l-Sdiq’ lie li e w tteed. Al-Sdiq w by tt time one o te leding membe o te Sii commnity. Ti tt w not entiely to i liking. Te new Abbid clip om te vey tt o tei le viewed te Si  politicl ivl nd teeoe kept  cloe eye on l-Sdiq nd ote Sii lede. Altog l-Sdiq d lwy been cel to ty ot o politic—ptly o e tt e wold end p  beeded like Sii lede Hyn—te econd Abbid clip, lMn, odeed l-Sdiq eted on evel occion. Al-Sdiq Al -Sdiq died in te ye 765 nd it w believed by mny tt e w poipoi oned on te ode o te clip. Fo te Si, i det wold dive one moe wedge between te two Mlim commnitie. Quran, Hadith, and the Law

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CHAPTER 5

THE VARIETY OF RELIGIOUS LIFE IN ISLAM

T

e diviion o te Ilmic commnity into te Snni nd Sii tdition begn wit te det o Ali (Popet Mmmd’ coin, on-in-lw, nd te ot clip) in 661 nd i on Hyn in 680. Depived o tei lede te Si gew tted  te Umyyd took ove te clipte. Depite te lo o Ali nd Hyn mny o te Si emined loyl to te Alid mily. Te title given by te Si to Ali, i two on, nd  elect  elect gop o men wo cme te tem w imm. Following Hyn’ btl mde te Si geed tt te poition o imm old go to  membe o te Alid mily. Bt wic one? A nmbe o te Si ged tt te new imm w now  Hyn’ on, lo nmed Ali, te only one o Hyn’ mle oping to vive te mce t Kbl in 680. Ali, known lo  Zyn l-Abidin, w ten  epected col eteemed o i deep piety. Howeve ote o te Si d note coice in mind. Ti digeement led to  diviion witin te Sii commnity. Altog  nmbe emined itl to Ali, te on o  Muslim girls greeting each other. Muslim women traditionally dress modestly. As long as they stay within religious guidelines, the type o clothes that are worn may vary according to cultural tradition and personal choice. 66

ISLAM

 The Variety of Religious Life in Islam

6

Hyn, ote tew tei loylty beind  tid on o Ali ibn Abi Tlib,  mn nmed Mmmd ibn l-Hnyy. Wen ibn l-Hnyy died in 700 nd Ali Zyn l Abidin died in 712, once gin, te Si—inclding te ollowe o ibn l-Hnyy nd Ali Zyn l Abidin—ced te poblem o nding  new  imm. A beoe tey cold not gee on  wic Alid to cooe  tei next lede. A nmbe o mll Sii gop ppeed, ec wit it own cndidte o imm. Ti ptten o digeement ove te cceo o  deceed imm wold epet itel eqently ove te next 200 ye. Mot o tee gop  wee mll nd dippeed qickly. Only  ndl o tem  vived ti ely peiod.

thE shII brAnChEs O tee vio bnce o te Si, te eliet to emege  w te Zydi tdition. Zyd ibn Ali, te wom ti gop i nmed, w te on o Ali Zyn l-Abidin. Unlike i te Zyd  w willing to gt o te igt o te Alid mily. In 740 e ognized  ebellion in K gint te Umyyd. A wit Hyn ye elie, te Kn pomied tei ppot to Zyd. Once gin, t te ccil moment te Kn bcked ot. Te Umyyd Um yyd oldie ovewelmed Zyd’ ollo ollowe, we, killing Zyd in in te poce. Depite Zyd’ det i ollowe emined ctive. Led by  ote membe o te Alid mily one gop o Zydi ettled in noten In, wee tey etblied  mll tte tt vived into te 11t centy. Ote Zydi mde tei wy to Yemen in otweten Abi. Te tte tey etblied tee wold ve  long, eqently violent itoy togot wic te Zydi mintined tei peence. In te ely pt o te 20t centy te lede o ti Zydi commnity wee ble to cete 68

ISLAM

n independent tte tt lted into te 1960 beoe ccmbing to evoltion. THE isMAilis

Te itoy o note ect o te Si w no le eventl. Te Imili Si emeged te te det o te mn tey looked to  tei imm. Imil ibn J w te on o te mo Sii col J l-Sdiq,  get-gndon o te mo Hyn. Altog e died t  ily yong ge Imil w een by  nmbe o Sii  tei imm. Tey tneed tei loyltie to i on Mmmd ibn Imil nd ten to i decendnt. Te Imili, like te Zydi, owed  get del o eocelne in peding tei doctine. Ognized in mll cell Imili ctivit moved into vio egion to om mll commnitie. Te movement mov ement boke pt in te nint centy wen one o it leding ctivit, Ubyd All, climed tt e w te new imm. Reected by te ote Imili, e nd i ollowe ollo we went to te e o Not Aic A ic known tody  Tnii. In  montino e Ubyd All nd i men ognized  mll my. Tey ten ovetew  te Abbid goveno wo contolled te e. Te elt w te bit o te Ftimid dynty in 969. THE TwElvER sHiA

Te mot infentil nd nmeo Sii gop i known in Abic  te Itn Aiyy nd in Engli  te Twelve  The Variety of Religious Life in Islam

69

Si. Tody te Twelve om  moity in In nd e peent in lge nmbe in Lebnon, Kwit, nd Iq. Wit little dobt te mot ignicnt membe o ti ect in ecent ye w te mn wo led te 1979 Ilmic Revoltion in In, te Aytoll Komeini. Beoe i det in Jne 1989 e d become one o  te mot contoveil ge in ecent wold itoy. itoy.

Muslims praying in the direction o Mecca in the Islamic Center o America. The Islamic Center was established in Detroit in 1963 and the current building was completed in 2005. Many members o  the community are Shiis but the center is open to all Muslims. 0

ISLAM

thE twELvE IMAMs A te nme o te ect indicte te Twelve believe tt te poition o imm ped om Ali ibn Abi Tlib down tog  cin o 11 ote men, ll decendnt o Ali’ mily. Among tem wee Ali ibn Abi Tlib Tlib nd i two on, Hn nd Hyn,  wo wee te econd nd tid imm te tei te te.. Te ot imm w Ali Zyn l-Abidin nd te ixt w te enowned   J l-Sdiq. Fmo o i deep piety nd billint colip, e w eponible o developing mny o te doctine o te Twelve Twelve ect. Tee doctine doc tine centeed c enteed on te ge o te imm. Accoding to te Twelve te imm poeed cetin ditingiing ccteitic. divinE insPiRA insPiRATion Tion

Fit te imm wee divinely inpied. Like Li ke Mmmd tey tey e  believed to ve d  cloe eltionip wit God. In te book o Twelve col te imm e eeed to  Te Poo o  God o Te Sign o God. Tee title e ed to ow tt te imm e God’ epeenttive on et nd tt devotion to te imm i eqied o ll. Unlike Mmmd te imm did not cy  divine mege me ge to mnkind. Howeve ino  te imm wee te povide o piitl gidnce, tey wee conideed te diect ei to Mmmd’ legcy. Some Twelve wite ve decibed te imm  ving been ceted ot o te me btnce  Mmmd. Te btnce i decibed   billint ligt ceted by God beoe te cetion o te wold. Fom ti divine ligt God i believed to ve ceted Mmmd nd te imm  well  Ftim, te popet Mmmd’ dgte, te wie o Ali ibn Abi Tlib, nd te mote o  Hn nd Hyn. APPoinTMEnT by iMAMs

Te Twelve lo believed tt ec o  te imm w ppointed by te imm  The Variety of Religious Life in Islam

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 beoe im. Jt  Ali d ppointed Hn, Hn ppointed Hyn, nd o on. Ti ide gew om te belie tt Mmmd d coen Ali  i cceo in  emon e gve t te end o i lie. In i emon Mmmd epotedly told te Mlim gteed beoe im tt pon i det tey wee to ollow Ali. Altog Snni Mlim deny ti eve took plce, te Si believe tt it did, nd o tem it i n event o get ignicnce. PossEssing knowlEdgE And wiTHouT ERRoR

Te imm, ccoding to te Twelve, poeed poe ed two t wo ote ccteitic  well. Fit tey wee incpble o eo o in. Second te imm wee in poeion o  pecil body o knowledge,   wic tey eceived om God tog thE onE GuIDED by GoD Mmmd, nd wic llowed tem to eve  te piitl nd politicl lede he term used for the Hidden Imam is o te commnity. al-Mahdi, or “the one guided gui ded by God. God.”” Tee wee ccteitic poeed In his role as the Mahdi the Twelfth Imam  by ll 12 o te imm. Clely in te eye is expected to bring a new social order to o te Si tey wee niqe nd emkthe world—an eternal age of justice in which the sufferings of the Shii commuble mn being. O te 12 tee w nity will end. As we have seen, the Shia one wo tood ot mong ll te ote: were a minority in the Islamic community community te Twelt Imm.

T

and too often a persecuted minority. They They had seen their leaders killed and imprisoned; moreover, moreover, early in their history they had attempted several revolts against the rule of the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs, only to see these revolts harshly put down. It is believed that with his armies of angels and followers rising up with him on that chosen day, the Hidden Imam will finally end the suffering of the Shii community. He will then rule with justice and wisdom over that community until the Day of  Judgment, when God will decide the fate of every being.

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ISLAM

thE twELFth IMAM In 874 Hn l-Aki, te Elevent Imm, ddenly died in te city o Sm—ten te cpitl o te Abbid clipte. Jt  d ppened te te det o te ote imm, te Sii commnity  ged ove wo w te cceo to lAki. Some id it w i bote J; ote digeed. Te Twelve d tei own opinion. Tey inited tt l-Aki d n innt on wom e d coen to c-

ceed im. Ti w te t tt mny in te Sii commnity  d ed o te boy, o tey ected wit kepticim. How wee tey to know e exited? Te epone cme tt to evel i identity w to ik ving te boy nd te wole Sii commnity ttcked by te Abbid toitie. Wile te Si wee le politiclly ctive tn tey d been in elie peiod, tey wee till viewed wit picion by te Abbid. Fo ti eon it w conideed nwie to evel te identity o te new imm. Wile mny expeed dobt bot ti myteio cild, te moity o Sii lowly cme to ccept te ide tt e d   become te new imm nd tt e w in iding ntil ome te time. T e w given te title o te Hidden Imm. Te col o te Twelve commnity tgt tt e d gone into iding in  mll cve in Sm. Tody Sii till gte in te mll moqe locted ove ti cve c ve to py o o i etn. et n.

thE rECkonInG DAy  Following te dippence o te Twelt Imm mny in te Twelve commnity begn to wonde wen e wold come ot o iding. Wen ked, te Twelve col id tt te Twelt Imm wold emege om iding wen e w mmoned by  God; in ote wod t te end o time. On tt Lt Dy, te col explined, te Hidden Imm will eppe in  bt o  celetil ligt. He will tnd t te ed o n my o ngel nd o ll te Sii wo ove te centie ollowed te imm itlly. He will be weing Mmmd’ ndl nd ing, nd in i nd e will wield Mmmd’ wod. Hi detintion will  be Mecc, ten Medin, nd ten te et o te wold. In ec o  tee plce e will pomie etenl lie to toe wo wee itl to te imm. And wit get violence e will ten tn gint toe wo oppeed te imm nd te commnity o Si. DIsAGrEEMEnt bEtwEEn thE sunnIs AnD thE shIIs Held de by te Twelve Si tee ide bot te imm wee neve ccepted by te Snni commnity commnity.. In ct c notion wee  mo ce o te diviion between te two commnitie.  The Variety of Religious Life in Islam

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Fo te Sii politicl nd eligio ledeip cold only come om one oce: te imm. Te Twelt Imm wold eventlly etn to igt  igt ll te wong o te wold. Fo tee eon te imm—nd tey lone—cold eve  te pope lede o te commnity. Te Snni d  dieent ide o ledeip. Tey epected te imm  men o get lening bt tey cold not ccept tt te imm wee inpied by God. No cold tey gee tt te imm wee te diect ei o Mmmd. Fo te Snni te lede o te commnity wee te clip. c lip. It w not believed tt te clip wee divinely inpied o in poeion o pecil knowledge o ny kind. Tey wee imply  mn being coen to led te commnity in ti wold: to deend te commnity om intenl nd extenl enemie nd to pold pold te i. Tey wee neve conideed  oce o eligio gidnce in te wy te imm wee by te Si. THE PATH To sAlvATion

Anote mo digeement between te Sii nd te Snni   w ove te ide o lvtion. Te Ilmic commnity, it w  believed, wold win God’ mecy on te Dy o Jdgment only  i te commnity   wole lived ccoding to God’ lw. Fo te Snni te i,  te embodiment o God’ lw, d to  be epected nd ollowed by ll. Te clip wee tee only to deend te i nd to potect te commnity, not to led te commnity to lvtion. Only te entie Ilmic commnity   wokingg   wole cold cieve ti gol.  wokin Fo te Si te qet qe t o lvtion ly not wit te commnity bt wit te imm. Witot tem it cold neve ope to win God’ mecy; only te imm cold led te Ilmic commnity  long te igt pt. ulAMA—guidAnCE And lEAdERsHiP

Ding te ye tt ec o te imm lived nd tgt witin te commnity, te Si cold tn to tem o gidnce. Ti cnged, oweve, wen te Twelt Twelt Imm dippeed di ppeed.. Te Si 4

ISLAM

now ced  tobling qetion. I te imm wee te only te gide o te commnity commnity,, ten wt w to ppen wen te lt o te imm w no longe peent? I no imm w peent, ten wt w to pevent te Si om loing it in te imm nd in tei eligio belie? And wo w to pek o te commnity in time o toble? Anwe to tee qetion cme om te col o te Twelve commnity: te lm. Tey ged tt tey wold cy ot te nction o te Hidden Imm ntil c time  God decide tt te Hidden Imm old etn. Ti did not men te col wee climing temelve  eql to te imm. Rte tey wee cting  cetke nd wold epeent te imm ntil i etn, et n, wen tey wold nd ove tee eponibilitie to im.

A small mosque on the banks o the Tigris River in Baghdad, Iraq. The tall tower o the minaret can be seen on the skyline and is used by the muezzin to call Muslims to prayer pr ayer..

 The Variety of Religious Life in Islam

5

thE sChoLArs oF thE twELvEr t wELvEr shIA Tee ide wee developed ove  long peiod, om ogly  te end o te 11t centy into te 19t centy nd p to te peent dy. Te Twelve Twelve lm, epecilly te leding membe,  becme vey infentil. Tee men t te top o  iecy o  col wielded  get del o powe—epecilly in In, wee  lge popotion o te poplce eventlly conveted to te Twelve Si ect. Fo  time te politicl powe o te Twelve Twelve col w limited, minly bece In w nde te le o Snni lede le de wo  wnted to keep powe ot o te nd o te Si. Ti cnged in te 16t centy wit te ie o te Sii Svid dynty,  wic gve gve te lm te oppotnity to infence politicl deciion. Howeve te lm digeed mong temelve ove ow  involved in politic tey old become. Moeove depite tei cceptnce o Twelve doctine te lede o te new dynty   wee concened tt te lm wold gin too mc powe; tey  detemined not to let tt ppen. ppen. In te mentime te lm contined to debte te qetion o tei involvement in politic. Some id tt politic old  be voided nd tt te lm old concentte on eligio ctivitie. Ote ged tt by inceing tei politicl involveinvolvement te lm cold wok towd towd limiting te copt ctivitie o te tte. Still ote mintined tt politicl ctivity w ne  bt not i it ment eving e ving te govenment. govenment. Te ole o te lm in tei view old be to ppot te tte wen it led tly   bt to ttck it wen it becme tynnicl. Above ll, tey id, te eligio ledeip old mintin it independence om te govenment. THE QAJAR dynAsTy 

Wile ti debte mong te lm contined, In’ politicl lndcpe cnged. Te Svid wee ovetown in te middle o te 18t centy. Te new le, te Q, wee lo Sii; like te Svid, oweve, tey wee wy o te lm  becoming too powel nd teeoe ogt to keep te col6

ISLAM

ly commnity t by. To do o tey plced  nmbe o lm in govenment poition. Altog on te ce ti move eemed conty to te le’ ppoe, it ctlly eved tem qite well. Tog tee ppointed ocil tey wee ble to keep  cloe eye on te lm nd tei ctivitie. Te ppointment lo enbled In’ le to clim tey d te ppot o te colly commnity. Te tenion between te tte nd In’ eligio lede emined, ow oweve. eve. THE PAHlAvi dynAsTy 

At te tt o te 20t centy cent y te Q wee eplced eplced by  new  powe: te Plvi Plvi dynty. Te onde o te dynty w  viovio lent-tempeed oce nmed Rez Kn (1878–1944), wo et ot to cete  centlized tte in In. To contol te eligio commnity Rez Kn intitted policie tt tictly limited te ctivitie o te lm. Fo  time Rez Kn w ccel in contolling In’ eligio lede. Hi policie, oweve, ngeed mny Inin. A Rez Kn, nd ten i on Mmmd, contined to pe tee policie otility to te dynty gew. By te 1960 tee tenion wold ec te point o exploion.

thE AsCEtICs oF IsLAM Te diviion o te ely Ilmic commnity into dieent gop d come ot o confict ove mtte o eligion nd politic. At te me time te ely commnity w cing note kind o  confict—not o wod nd e bt o piitl belie. Te ccee o te ely Ilmic commnity d been ttling. In  eltively ot time te once mll nd vlneble commnity d ped beyond Abi into te egion o te Middle Et, Centl Ai, nd Not Aic. Wit te conqet o tee lge teitoie d lo come new level o welt. Ti  w epecilly te o te Mlim mility nd politicl elite, wo gined contol o lge lge citie, citie , mot o wic wee impotnt commecil cente. T tey wee ble to expnd nd benet om tde. Tey lo ccmlted welt by impoing impoing evy txe t xe on  The Variety of Religious Life in Islam



te people o tee conqeed citie. A tey popeed te elite o Ilmic ociety, inclding te clip, lived in get lx y. REJECTing RiCHEs foR siMPliCiTy 

Howeve not ll Mlim ed ti tte o te good lie. A te empie gew ome Mlim begn to k diclt qetion: How old Mlim live? Wt kind o ociety wee Mlim going to bild ot o tei new empie? EArLy AsCEtIC voICEs W cce in ti wold  pope concen o Mlim? Wt o te tecing ne of the earliest voices of ascetio Mmmd nd te Qn? Fo tee cism in Islam was that of al-Hasan Mlim mteil poeion nd politial-Basri (d. 728). Theologian and teacher, cl powe ment little i te deepe tt al-Basri was famous for his powerful sero te Qn nd te tecing o Mmmons. He is said to have warned his listeners that the world was a wretched place md wee ignoed. Inceingly tey  in which too many people had forgotten tned wy om te ice enoyed by  God. Stories circulated after his death of  ote ond tem to led imple live. how he would spend long hours weeping, Tey woe plin cloting nd nned te not only because of the state of the t he world pit o money. Mny w povety   but also out of fear of God’s wrath on the neceity. Tey dedicted temelve to day of judgment. te woip o God tog medittion Not all the early ascetics were as gloomy; nd pye. In ping ti wy o lie others thought of God with a profound tey becme te t cetic o Ilm. sense of love. Rabia al-Adawiyya (d. 801)

O

was one such individual. Like al-Basri she lived a simple life, shunning fine clothes and property. However her approach to the worship of God was very different. She described God in joyful language. It was as if she were describing the emotions of  a human being in love, although for alAdawiyya this was a far greater love. It is believed that she received during her lifetime many marriage proposals from men of her community and that she said no to each of them, claiming that her love was reserved for God.

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ISLAM

dEEP ATTACHMEnT To god

Te model o tee ely cetic wee Mmmd nd te t lede o te commnity, men like Ab Bk. Mmmd, tey believed, d led  imple lie o devotion to God. He d not pemitted imel to be tempted by te lxie o  ti wold. Ate im Ab Bk d lo nned welt, peeing to live in  tte o povety nd deep eligio devotion. Ti w ow te cetic ogt to led tei live.

Fo tee devot ely Mlim te getet getet concen w God, God ,  wom tey believed to be not only te ceto o te nivee bt lo te obect o poond devotion nd love. In dieent wy te cetic expeed ti deep ttcment to God.

thE rIsE oF suFIsM Al-Bi, l-Adwiyy, nd ote like tem ttcted ollowe  wo ed tei ide nd cme to len om tem. Tee indi vidl in tn t n ttcted tdent o tei own, nd in ti wy te ide o ceticim  ceticim nd bolte devotion to God ped tog te Ilmic commnity commnity.. Tee ide nd pctice gve bit to Ilmic myticim,  wic i known  Sm. Te mytic, o S, ollowed in te oottep o te ely cetic bt tey my lo ve bobed te tecing o Citin nd Jewi mytic living in e o te Middle Et. Fo evel genetion tey developed tei ide into moe oml pctice. It i impotnt to note tt Sm i not  ect o Ilm; it  been nd till i pcticed by bot te Snni nd Si. Fo te S noting w moe impotnt tn te peence o  God in te wold. Te S w lie     kind o oney in i n wic one w contntly eeking  diect expeience o God. Mny o  tem believed tt te wy to eek tt expeience w to tdy  te Qn nd te dit nd to py eglly—in ot, to live te imple nd diciplined lie o  devot Mlim. Ote S digeed, oweve. Tey elt tt ltog pye, te tdy o  te Qn, nd ote dtie o Mlim wee necey to  eligio lie, tee pctice wee not enog. Tey ogt  moe diect nd emotionl expeience o God tog detcment om woldly i nd tog pctice c  cnting o  wiling wic bing bot  tnce like tte dwing te S cloe to being one wit God. At t te nmbe o S w vey mll. Ully tey wee col wo pent tei dy in pivte dicing te nte o  te piitl lie nd te vio itl pctice tt cold bing one cloe to God. Tei ide ide  wee beyond te ndetnding o   The Variety of Religious Life in Islam

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te vege peon nd t in te beginning d little popl ppel. Gdlly, oweve,  te S begn to ttct tdent nd ollowe tee mytic nd oly  men nd oly women begn to be een  people wit nl piitl powe. A te ide nd itl pctice developed by te S ped, inoml tdy  gop gteed in moqe o ome. By te tt o te 10t centy S cente wee etblied in wic  S mte  wold eve  tece nd lede to ollowe. ollowe. Some o tee ollowe low e wold go on to become tece temelve, nd mny o  tei tdent wold do te me in tei tn. T Sm w ped on om  om genetion to genetion. genetion. By te 12t centy S cente cold be ond in citie, town, nd mny l e togot te Middle Et nd Not Aic. Tee cente oten inclded cool, moqe, nd otel wee tdent cold nd  mel nd  plce to leep. Te et o tee cente w te oe o te S mte, o yk. Tee te yk wold condct cle cle  nd led le d ollowollowe tog itl pctice.

suFIsM

T

he term Susm probably comes from the Arabic word for wool, suf. It is thought that the early Muslim ascetics wore garments made from rough wool.   These plain, unfinished garments were meant to symbolize the rejection of the luxuries and concerns of this world. The Muslim ascetics—those who are selfdenying and live a very simple life for religious reasons—may have copied this practice from Christian monks living in the Middle East when Islam spread through the region.

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ISLAM

thE suFI orDErs By te 12t centy te cl gteing o te elie peiod d evolved into oml ogniztion clled S ode. Ec S ode, o trq, w bilt on te tecing o n ely mte nd te tdent o tt peon. Tei ide nd te itl tey ed becme omlized into pecic om o woip. Oten te S ode wold be te nme o it onde—lly te oiginl mte o n ely  tdent. One o te eliet o te S ode w te Qdiiy, nmed te Abd i-Qdi

The Mausoleum o Mevlana Celaleddin Rumi in Konya, Turkey.. Mevlana was a Turkey teacher and philosopher in the Su tradition. Born in 1207 he taught a doctrine o tolerance, charity, and awareness through love. Ater he died in 1273 a shrine was erected over his burial place. The mausoleum and its surrounding halls and living quarters have continued to attract large numbers o pilgrims over the centuries who eel that the spiritual power o this saint is still present.

l-Jilni (d. 1166). O Inin decent, Abd l-Qdi d been  legl col in Bgdd o mny ye. Only lte in lie did e  begin to tec i S ide in pblic. Hi ollowing qickly gew  nd  cente w opened o im. Following i det i cloet tdent contined to tec i ide nd open Qdiiy cente togott te Middle Et. togo E t. Ote ode wee etblied ding te 12t nd 13t centie.. Te Swdiy ode, tie ode, o exmple, took it nme om  The Variety of Religious Life in Islam

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Um ibn Abd All l-Swdi (d. 1234),  eligio col om te mll Inin town o Swd. Cente o ti ode  wee et p togot In, Centl Ai, nd Indi. Anote exmple o S ode, te Sdiliy, w onded in Not Aic by Amd ibn Abd All l-Sdili (d. 1258). Bon in Moocco nd edcted in Egypt, e ttcted  lge ollowing in Egypt nd lte in Tni, wee e died. Cente o i

Graves o relatives o Salim Chishti at his mausoleum at Fatehpur Sikri, India. Salim Chishti was a highly respected Su who taught generosity to others through sharing o ood and wealth, tolerance, respect or religious dierence, and renunciation o material goods. He said the highest orm o devotion was human service through helping those in misery or distress. In Islam saintly individuals are considered to have God-given spiritual power and visits to their tombs enable ordinary people to be touched by the saint’s power. 82

ISLAM

ode wee oon peent om Syi nd Abi co Not Aic to Moocco. By te 14t nd 15t centie S ode wee o wideped tt tey d conideble politicl powe. Feqently govenment in dieent egion o te Ilmic wold woked woked to win te ppot o te S ode. Te Svid dynty—wic com bined Sm nd dicl Sii ide nd led In om te lte15t to te ely-18t centy—begn   S movement. S ode plyed n impotnt pt in peding Ilm to new  egion o te wold. In Indi nd e o Centl Ai, Mlyi, nd Indonei, pl lge pt o b-Sn Aic, S miionie conveted nmeo people to Ilm. S ccompnied mecnt  tey plied tei tde co te Indin Ocen to vio egion o Ai nd co te tde ote o te Aicn continent. Tey even mced wit mie o vio Ilmic dyntie tt widened te e o tei contol tog conqet. In ec egion S ode wold et p cente wee tey wold ped te mege o Ilm.

 The Variety of Religious Life in Islam

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CHAPTER 6

MUSLIM RITUAL LIFE

R 

itl i te men by wic believe expe in n odely  nd egl wy te deep belie tt pe tei live. Te mot impotnt o te itl pctice peomed by Mlim e oten clled te Five Pill o Ilm. Te t o tee i slt, o dily pye. pye. Mlim cy c y ot te slt ve time dily. Ec eion o pye begin wit te cll c ll o mmon to woip.

PrAyEr AnD shAhADA Fo mny non-Mlim wo tvel to te Ilmic wold te cll to pye pye i one o te t cle tt te dily di ly live o Mlim e dieent om tei own. In Citin commnitie on Sndy  moning nd on olidy te itl e clled to woip by  te inging o cc bell. In te Ilmic wold it i te mn  voice tt mmon te believe evey dy d y.. AdHAn And MuEzzin

Te cll to pye, o , i mde om te tll tow towelike elike tcte tt i pt o mot moqe, clled  , o, in Engli, minet. Te individl wo cll Mlim to pye e known Muslims at prayer in the courtyard o a mosque in Cairo, Egypt. Muslims say prayers,  salat, ve times daily in the direction o Mecca. 84

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Muslim Ritual Life

85

thE CALL to PrAyEr

T

he call to prayer is rather short. In its opening phrase,   Allahu akbar  (God is most great), it proclaims the important Islamic belief: God is the supreme being over all things. The call continues: “I bear witness that there is no deity except God,” affirming the oneness o neness of God, Go d, a central Islamic tenet. The phrase that follows names Muhammad as the prophet of Islam: “I bear witness that Muhammad is the messenger of God.” Finally, in two phrases Muslims are told to “come to prayer” and “come to salvation.” The idea behind these is that through prayer Muslims will worship God and in return be shown God’s favor. The call to prayer ends as it began, with the phrase “Allahu akbar.” 

 us. Tditionlly te us, o mezzin, mde te cll om te minet itel ing only tei voice. Tody it i common o tee men to e micopone long wit lodpeke ttced to te ppe pt o te minet. Te mezzin delive te cll ve time dily in  low cnt. In lge town nd citie tee voice om  long wve o  ond. Fo te peon viiting te Ilmic  wold o o te t time eing te cll c ll cn  be  piing nd moving expeience. REAdy foR PRAyER

Ate te  wuu o itl clening i complete te Mlim i edy o pye. Altog it i conideed bet to py   wit ote Mlim, it i peectly cceptble to py lone—t ome, o exmple. Wen Mlim py togete tey do o in in  ow, ide by ide. I men nd women e togete te women mt py beind o eptely om te men. In mny pt o  te Ilmic wold women commonly py  t ome, nd it i te men wo e te moqe eglly eglly.. Stnding in ont o te ow o itl i  ingle individl wo led le d te pye. pye. In te moqe te pye pye i lly  lly led by   peon known  te imm, o pye Muslims prepare or each o the daily sessions o  prayer with a short ritual o cleansing called the wudu. They wash with plain water at designated areas in the mosques. There are usually washbasins located in mosques or this purpose. At home or at the workplace Muslims simply use the acilities available.

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lede. Otide te moqe wen Mlim py togete tey  imply cooe omeone to led; oten ti peon i n olde mn coen o i piety. Te imm nd te ow o peon beind im ll ce in te me diection, towd te oly city o Mecc nd te ced Kb. PRAyER PHRAsEs And PosiTions

Te slt conit o poken pe nd  et o o pote: tnding, bowing, potting, nd itting. Tee pote e cied ot in  egl cycle tt evey Mlim len   cild. Tee i  ligtly dieent cycle o pe nd pote pot e o ec o te ve dily pye. It i conideed  pio ct o Mlim to epet pt o ll o  cycle o pye. Te poken pe e ot, volnty pye to God. Te pye end ec time in te me wy. Tning to te let nd to te igt ec individl wie te peon beide tem pece nd te bleing o God. Ti i one thE FIvE PILLArs oF IsLAM obvio wy in wic Mlim m tt tey e ll membe o te me comm1.  salat —prayer, carried out five nity nd tt tey e  common belie  times daily. in te one God. 2. shahada—literally, “bearing witness”;  ShahaDa—bEARing wiTnEss

Te econd o te pill o Ilm i  ot ttement known  te s, o being witne. Te content o te s i imil to tt o te cll to pye in tt it poclim te onene o God: Tere s o Go but All  Mu s te esse ger o All. Mot Mlim len ti ttement wen tey e cilden. It i lo te ttement tt ll convet to Ilm e eqied to mke t te time o tei con veion. Ti ot ttence expee te mot ndmentl belie o te Ilmic it, nd lening nd eciting it om te

a short statement affi a ffirming the greatness grea tness and oneness of Allah. 3.  sawm—ritual fast that takes place each year during Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic calendar. 4.  zakat —almsgiving; a religious tax set aside for the poor, the sick, the insane, and other less privileged groups of the Islamic community. 5. hajj—pilgrimage to the holy city, Mecca. The The opportunity to perform the hajj occurs every year during the 12th Islamic month. Every Muslim is encouraged to participate at least once in his or her lifetime.

Muslim Ritual Life

8

et contitte one’ ymbolic oining o te Ilmic I lmic commnity.

FAstInG AnD thE ALMs Sw, o itl ting, i te tid pill o Ilm. Ti t tke plce ec ye ding Rmdn, te nint ni nt mont o te Ilmic clend. Ding te t o Rmdn, wic lt o te entie mont, tict etint e plced pon te dily live o Mlim. Fo exmple, tey e not to et o dink ding te dyligt o. Wen te n et t te end o ec dy Mlim bek te t, bt even ten tey  e expected to et nd dink in modetion. Te t eme te next moning. Tditionlly te beginning o te t ec dy tke plce  wen tee i enog ligt in te ky to ditingi between   wite nd dk ted. Smoking i lo obidden ding Rmdn,  e exl eltion. Rmdn i ment to be  time o  pyicl btinence nd inceed devotion to eligio pctice. THE dEMAnds of fAsTing

Te t o Rmdn  been citicized by ome Mlim  bece o te demnd it mke pon te individl nd pon ociety. Some Mlim ge tt it i wtel to ve people obeve te t o igooly. Tey init tt people ntlly   wok moe lowly nd pooly wen tey e not eting. Some o  tee citic y tt people old old be given te coice o wete to t o tt te t old be otened in ome wy. wy. Agint tee gment ote Mlim epond tt on te conty te t need to be celly obeved bece Rmdn i te only time wen Mlim cn lly concentte on te pctice o tei it wile pending le time on te concen o  tei eveydy live. It i  time o woip, contempltion, nd o Mlim to tengten tei tie to mily nd commnity. 88

ISLAM

A i te in evey eligio commnity, tee e mny Mlim wo do not cloely obeve te itl o tei it. In pi  vte, o exmple, tee e Mlim wo cooe not to t,  t  tey oten cooe not to py. Wt i inteeting bot Rmdn, oweve, i tt in pblic it i extemely e to nd  Mlim eting o dinking ding dyligt o. In mny pt o te Ilmic wold cé nd etnt et nt emin cloed tog mc o te dy o only eve oeign toit. PRAyER And CHARiTy 

Fo toe wo do obeve te t Rmdn i  piitl time ding wic te Mlim concentte moe tn eve on eligio ctivitie c  eding te Qn. It i not ncommon o Mlim men to eeve evel dy o Rmdn o piitl etet, wen tey tn t n wy om te wold nd dedicte temelve to eligio mtte. Rmdn i lo  time wen Mlim e expected to py moe ttention to te ngy, te poo, nd te depived. Sing ood wit le otnte neigbo, o exmple, nd donting clote e wy in   wic ti need i met. Te Qn itel  pek o te ppot tt Mlim old give to te needy in tei commnitie. Sc ct e lo  wy to demontte commitment to te it. Te ot pill o Ilm ddee te need o te poo nd te detitte moe diectly. Te zkt, o lmgiving, i  kind o eligio tx tt ll Mlim wo cn od it e expected to py t  pecied time ec ye. Te money collected i et ide o pecic gop o people in te Ilmic commnity inclding te poo, te ick, te mentlly ill, nd ote gop  wo e nble to end o temelve.

Muslims praying outside Regents Park Mosque in London at the end o  Ramadan, when the estival o Id al-Fitr is celebrated. A box to collect the money given or zakat is beside the congregation.

Muslim Ritual Life

89

Fo Mlim, te zkt i not conideed city bt te  eligio oblig obligtion. tion. In mot o te Ilmic wold tody te  zkt i not enoced by te govenment. It i expected tt Mlim will py volntily. Like te ote o pill zkt ply n impotnt pt in te eligio lie o Mlim. Te Qn tte tt giving lm i  dty tt God eqie o Mlim.

thE FIFth PILLAr: PILGrIMAGE Te t pill o Ilm i one tt ll Mlim e tongly encoged to peom t let once in tei live: te pilgimge to te oly city o Mecc o,  it i clled by Mlim, te . Ec ye ding te 12t Ilmic mont, D l-Hi, Mlim om ll ove te Ilmic wold peom te ced oney. In Mecc tey pticipte in n elbote et o itl ding  peipe iod o ve dy. Unlike te ote o pill o Ilm te  i not obligtoy; oblig toy; only toe wo ve eced mtity nd wo ve te nncil eoce to py o te tip wile till povid poviding ing o dependent t ome e expected to peom te pilgimge. Te t ct o te pilgimge i ptting on  clen wite gment known  n r. Weing ti gment i obligtoy  o men, bt women e encoged to we te cloting tt i ntive to tei ome contie. Women e eqied to keep tei ed coveed o te entie peiod o te pilgimge, bt men mt keep tei ed be. Fom ti point ntil te end o te  te pilgim e conideed to be in  tte o oline. PERfoRMing THE HAJJ RiTuAls

Ate tei ivl in Mecc pilgim et ot to peom te itl o te . Mlim om non-Abic-peking egion 90

ISLAM

A house in Egypt belonging to a Muslim who has gone on pilgrimage to Mecca. The house is painted with illustrations o Mecca and o  the journey to Saudi Arabia to show neighbors that the pilgrimage is being made.

o te wold e oten ited by gide known  utwws,  wo e employee o te Sdi Abin govenment. Te gide tnlte o te te pilgim wo do not pek pe k o ndetnd Abic nd it tem in cying ot te itl. Some o te itl e peomed t te coice o te individl. Tee inclde i nclde eion o pye nd note itl known  te tw, wic involve involve wlking ond te Kb t let even time. Te pilgim ve le coice wen it come to te gop itl, wic e te min itl o te . Te gop itl e cied ot in  et ode ding te ve dy o te pilgimge. One c itl tke plce in te mll town o Min t otide o Mecc. Tee, on  wide plin known  At, pilgim cy ot te  wuku, o tnding ceemony, in  wic tey e eqied to be peent on te plin om noon to net. It i te one occion occ ion ding te  wen ll te pilgim mt be togete. Tent e eected o te ge cowd, nd o ti ingle dy o te ye te plin o At eemble  vey    by town. Ding tee o pilgim e expected to py  qietly. At te cente o te plin i  mll montin known  te Mont o Mecy. Ding ti dy pilgim cend te montin,  wee tey k God to ogive tem o tei in. All pilgim Muslim Ritual Life

91

mt cy ot te ll et o itl t At; ile to do o men te pilgimge w incomplete nd mt be epeted in note ye. “visiToRs” of god

Altog te pilgimge to Mecc my be  nncil bden o ome nd epecilly teno o te eldely, mot devot Mlim yen to tke pt in it. Fo te individl Mlim te impotnce o te  cnnot be oveempized. In  wy te pilgimge i  gete veion o te slt —te   —te pye o wic Mlim ec dy ce in te diection o Mecc nd te Kb. Ding te pilgimge, oweve, te Mlim i ctlly in Mecc, wic i ometime eeed to  te oe o God. T in Mecc te pilgim i in  wy one o God’ viito. A te oe o God Mecc i te oliet ite in te wold o o Mlim. THE fAREwEll taWaF 

Wen te ve dy o te  e ove te pilgim tke o te r. Ding te next ew dy pilgim contine to py nd peom t let two moe o te tws ond te Kb. Wit te econd o tee, wic i clled te ewell tw, te pilgimge i ten conideed complete. Mny pilgim dd one lt l t pt to tei voyge— viit to Mmmd’ AFtEr hAJJ tomb in Medin—o tt tey my py  tei epect to te popet o Ilm. he pilgrims make their way back  Te pilgimge bing togete Mfrom Mecca to their home counlim om ll ove te wold. It i  time tries by plane, bus, ship, and train. Upon their arrival they are usually greeted with   wen Mlim o mny dieent bcka joyous welcome by their families and gond, peking dieent lngge, neighbors. The accomplishment of the pilnd pcticing dieent ctom e grimage is a time to celebrate. The pilgrim,  common nd intene expeience. Eve after all, has been through one of the most ince Mmmd et ot on te t pilimportant events in the life of a Muslim. gimge to Mecc mny ccont o te Having made the holy journey to Mecca  ve been witten. Tee deciption and the Kaaba, the pilgrim is now a hajji ow ow moving te expeience o te or, if the pilgrim is a woman, a hajja. pilgimge i o Mlim.

T

92

ISLAM

thE rItuALs oF thE shIA TAAZIYA—thE PAssIon PLAy  Wile ll Mlim e expected to cy  he centerpiece of the rituals of Ashura ot te  nd te ote o pill o  is the elaborate performance known Ilm to te bet o tei bilitie, te Si as taaziya, or passion play. Performed durpeom dditionl itl  well. Te ing the Islamic month of Muharram in oc o te mot impotnt o tee itevery Shii community, the passion play l i te 10t dy o te Ilmic mont o  is a detailed and emotional reenactment of the death of Husayn. While it may be Mm. On tt dy in 680 Hyn, thought of as theater by westerners, it is te gndon o Mmmd, w killed quite unlike the plays one might attend in bttle by Umyyd oldie. Te dy i in the West. One obvious difference is known  A. that audience participation is not only Ding A, on tge, cto cexpected but encouraged encouraged.. y ot te event o Hyn’ det in emkble detil. Moe tn t i det i potyed, oweve. All o te event involving te Sii commnity nd it imm in tei tggle gint te Umyyd nd Abbid clip i decibed nd cted ot. Te climx o te peomnce i te ttck on Hyn nd i innt on. A te toy bild to it inevitble climx emotion bot on nd o te tge begin to gow. Togot te peomnce membe o te dience oe dvice to te cto, ot nd lg wen te imm e doing well, nd ll d wen ting tn bdly o te imm nd tei ollowe. Tee emotion ec  pek wit te ttck on Hyn. A te Umyyd oldie cloe in wit tei pe nd wod, cking wy t te imm nd i oe, nd wen Hyn’ ed i nlly eveed, membe o te dience weep nd ot ot ce gint te Umyyd oldie. On occion, wit  pticlly vivid peomnce, dience membe ve been known to lep on tge nd  t te cto c to plying te oldie in ode to potect Hyn nd i mily.

T

AsHuRA PRoCEssions

Ote itl it l event ond  ond te pion ply. Feqently beoe beoe te ply  poceion i eld in wic model o te Kb nd te Muslim Ritual Life

93

RAWZA KHAVANI 

tomb o te imm e cied. Membe o te commnity diply onte bnne usayn, the grandson of Muhamdwn wit cene o te det o te mad who was killed in battle by imm nd on wic e witten vee o  Umayyad soldiers in 680, is remembered te Qn nd ying om te imm. during the day of Ashura. This This is during the Te poceion o te tzy inclde rawza khavani, or recital of the suffering of  the Imam Husayn. An individual or family note event tt mny non-Sii ve will invite a group of friends to a private ond ditbing. In te poceion gathering. There a professional reciter will mc line o men, mny tipped to tell the story of Husayn’s Husayn’s martyrdom, often te wit, tiking temelve co te in great detail. A skilled reciter will touch olde o ed wit knive nd cin his listeners deeply, bringing tears to their   wile cnting ytmiclly te nme eyes and perhaps rousing them to their o Hyn. Fo te oeign viito tee feet crying out the name of Husayn. Like cene cn be ocking. Fo te Si the passion play these can be extremely tei mening i cle: A i  time to emotional events. expe deep emotion o pin nd nge. In te ye 680 te Si d clled on te Imm Hyn to clim i plce  lede o te Ilmic commnity. Wen e nlly eponded to tei cll nd et ot to meet tem, tey iled to ppot im. Rte tn mc ot to oin im in gting te ted Umyyd le, te Si tyed ome nd let Hyn to be lgteed. It i ding A tt te Sii commnity expee gilt gi lt ove it ile to ct nd ngi ove te det o te beloved Hyn.

H

ToMbs of THE iMAMs

Te Si ono te imm in ote wy. In pemoden time locl dyntie cold not lwy gntee te ety o pilgim tveling to to Mecc. Mecc . So o  long time viittion to te tomb o te imm wee een  n cceptble btitte to te . Tody, even tog te Si o In, Iq, nd ote Sii e tke pt in te pilgimge to Mecc, it i conideed  pio ct to viit tee tomb nd  well  toe o lee membe o te Alid mily. 94

ISLAM

thE rItuALs oF thE suFIs Togot Ilmic itoy Snni nd Sii like ve lo cied ot te itl o Sm. By te 14t centy Sm w o wideped in te Ilmic wold tt it w commonplce o odiny Mlim to cy ot S itl. Te bod tem ed o tee itl i kr. In cying ot kr te S epet te nme o God—Mlim believe tt God  99 known nme—nd i ttibte. cie d ot in pivte, wee tey e lly pcDkrs my be cied ticed to complement pye, o tey my be peomed in gop  by te S ode. Ec o tee ode  it own pecil kr  developed by te ely mte o te ode nd tei tdent nded o ye go.

Whirling dervishes in Turkey carrying out dhikr  by revolving very ast and repeating the praises o God. These revolving movements create a spiritual state that brings the person involved closer to God.

Muslim Ritual Life

95

DHIKRS 

T

he broad term for Sufi rituals is dhikr.   These rituals can be carried out in private or as a group. In the group dhikrs some of the orders simply repeat Allah (the Arabic word for God) over and over again, sometimes in a soft whisper whisper,, sometimes in a loud, clear chant. Some orders will do so while sitting calmly. Most prefer to stand and often the participants will sway from side to side as they utter the dhikr. Other Sufi orders have developed more elaborate rituals where long phrases in praise of  God and Muhammad are repeated. Such rituals may include intense physical movement such as dancing or a strong rocking motion of the upper body. Regardless of  the form it takes the goal of the dhikr  is nearly always the same: to draw the person closer to God.

Peoming kr  becme  common pt o te eligio live o mny, i not mot, Mlim in te 14t centy. In neigboood nd villge togot te Ilmic wold Mlim met in moqe nd S cente to peom kr  wit te ote membe o tei ode. Dkr   wold be peomed on eligio olidy nd on ote pecil occion c  te popet Mmmd’ bitdy. PossEssing baRaKa

By ti peiod note kind o itl pctice w lo common. Fo te odiny  Mlim te eligio wold w inbited not only by God nd te popet bt lo   by deeply piitl individl we migt ee to  int. Among tee int wee S mte, oly men nd oly women  wo wee een in mny pt o te IlmI lmic wold  poeing brk — piitl powe given tem by God. Brk enbled tem to cy ot miclo ct c  eling te ick. Te brk o te intly individl w believed to live on te te individl’ det. It w cied on by te membe o  te int’ mily nd moe oten it w believed to inbit te tomb in wic te int w bied. Coneqently viit to te tomb o int becme commonplce. commonplce. Fo odiny Mlim te gol o c  viit w to be toced by te int’ powe—by  te brk. A viit to te tomb o  intly individl oten involved cetin itl. Viito wold bing mll oeing to te int o te int’ mily. Plte o ood, mll git, o m o money   wee common oeing. Viito wold lo toc te tomb o  te int, wic wold become won in plce wee it d been toced oten ove te ye. Pye migt lo be peomed

96

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o  potion o te Qn ed lod. Fo exmple in viit by  Mlim to te tomb o  locl int in te oten Mooccn city o Mkec, te eciting  bie Qnic vee o pye te viito ten leve mll g tied to te b cicoing te  window o te tomb. In ti wy te viito eek to win te elp o te int nd  mll toc o te brk. oPPosiTion To vEnERATion vEnERATion of sAinTs— THE wAHHAbi MovEMEnT

Mny in te commnity, epecilly eligio lede, col, nd bette-edcted Mlim, ve obected tongly to te  venetion o te int. In tei view te tecing o Ilm e copted by c pctice. Tei opinion eem to ve led  nmbe o Mlim to top engging in tee ctivitie, c tivitie, bt even tody ote contine to pctice tem. One pticlly ngy ttck on te pctice o tomb viit, nd on Sm   wole, cme om  dicl movement tt ppeed in Abi in te 18t centy. Known  te Wbi movement, it w ble to eize contol o mc o te Abin Peninl in te ely 20t centy. Te tte it etblied boe te nme o  lge tibl cln tt ppoted te movement: movement: te Sd cln. Ti w te cetion o wt we know tody  Sdi Abi. One o te t mee tken by te new tte w te detction o te tomb o te S mte nd te ote int. Te venetion o te int w denonced. A  elt tody  Sdi Abi i one o te ew e o te Ilmic wold wee Sm i complete completely ly bent.

Muslim Ritual Life

9

CHAPTER 7

THE PATTERNS OF ISLAMIC LIFE

 A 

ltog mny ote ctom nd bit e common togot te Ilmic wold, it wold be wong to tink tt ll Mlim live in te me wy. wy. Mlim live e ped not only by Ilmic nom nd ctivitie bt lo by te ctom nd bit tt e ntive to ec e o te Ilmic wold. Fo ti eon Mlim in Indonei o Senegl do not live in exctly te me wy tt Mlim in Cin, Agnitn, o Moocco do. Eveywee Mlim ve dpted Ilmic nom nd vle to locl ctom nd belie. Te viety o lngge tt Mlim pek i n exmple o te impotnt dieence mong Mlim. Abic,  te lngge o te Qn,   pecil tt mong Mlim nd i lmot lwy ed wen te Qn i ecited. Scol nd tdent o Ilm togot te wold tive to len to ed nd  wite Abic; mny come to Egypt’ l-Az nd ote niveitie in Ab contie to do o. Te vt moity o Mlim, oweve, ow eve, pek no Abic ote tn  ndl o vee om te Qn. In Pkitn Ud i te common lngge o Mlim; in A Muslim congregation praying at al-Faisal mosque, Pakistan. Islamic prayer,, or prayer o r salat, consists o a cycle o postures including prostration. At the close o each session o prayer worshippers turn to the let and right to wish peace and the blessings o God upon those worshipping beside them.

98

ISLAM

 The Patterns of Islamic Life

99

Muslims gathered or Friday prayers in the streets outside a mosque in Abu Dhabi. Unlike Sunday in the Christian world, Friday is not considered an ofcial day o rest by Muslims. Still it has become traditional in many Islamic countries or businesses to close around noon so that business owners and employees may attend the Friday prayer.

Tkey nd pt o Centl Ai it i Tki; nd in In Fi i poken on  dily   bi. Ote O te lngge e poken in ote egion o te Ilmic wold. Ti doe not men, oweve, tt te Qn cnnot be ndetood by tee Mlim. In ec nonAbic-peking egion locl lngge e ed in eligion cle nd in emon to tec te Qn nd dit. Te Qn Q n i lo mde vilble in tnltion o,  tey e known in Ilm, intepettion,  it i believed to be impoible to exctly  tnlte te Qn. Altog tei wy o lie my vy  getly om egion to egion nd conty to conty, depending on locl ctom nd bit, mot Mlim ve ome ptten o lie in common.

thE FrIDAy PrAyEr In Ilm Fidy i te one dy o te week et ide o pecil eligio obevnce. Evey Fidy Mlim ttend  pecil eion o woip tt tke plce t noon. In mny e o te Ilmic wold moqe e o cowded on Fidy tt people py otide on long mt povided by te moqe. In Cio, o exmple, it i not nl to nd ome ide teet cloed to tc on Fidy moning. Long tw mt e olled ot on tee teet to ccommodte te itl. KhUtba—RECiTATion And sERMon

Wt mke te Fidy pye eion pecil i te emon given  by te imm o by note individl coen o tei knowledge o te Qn. Te emon e mon i known  te kutb nd it i mde p o two pt: Te pece begin wit  ecittion o  potion o  te Qn nd ten poceed to te emon. Mot oten te b ect o te emon i te Qnic pge p ge itel. Te pece pece will explin te pge in imple lngge nd dic ow tt po100

ISLAM

tion o te ced book elte to te live o i litene. Ding te mont o Rmdn, o exmple, te pece will dic ow ting i n impotnt dty eqied o te Mlim. Mlim . REligion, PoliTiCs, And soCiAl issuEs

Wile mot oten te pece will dde eligio mtte, e my e te Fidy emon to tlk o ote bect  well. Fo exmple e my comment on ocil poblem c  povety, cime, nd dg be; in time o w e my ge i litene to ppot te govenment govenment gint it enemie, o e my cll on te govenment to nd  pecel oltion. In mny pt o te Ilmic wold te Fidy emon given by  leding pece will  be bodct ove te dio o be own on televiion, ecing million o people.

thE MosquEs Not ll moqe e ed o te Fidy emon. Mot moqe e ily mll nd e genelly ed by eident e ident o te immedite neigboood. Te mll locl moqe i known   s, o plce o pottion. Fo te Fidy F idy pye eion  lge nd  mihrab

niche indicating direction o Mecca

 minbar 

 zula

 riwaqs

pulpit

covered prayer area

shaded arcades

miae

fauwara

ountain A cutaway view o a typical mosque to highlight the key eatures.  sahn

open prayer area  The Patterns of Islamic Life

101

moe centlly locted moqe, o , i ed. In mll town nd villge only one c moqe migt exit, wee in te lge citie  mll nmbe o tee lge moqe e peent in dieent e o te city. cit y. All moqe wete mll o lge ve cetin imil ete. Mot i not ll povide nning wte o tt toe coming to py cn cy ot te  wuu, o itl clening, tt i expected o ll Mlim beoe pye. pye. All ve lge, cle centl e e   wee toe in py pye e cn line li ne p in ow o te peomnce o   woip. And ll ve wt i known  te rb. Mlim mt py in te diection o Mecc nd in ode to indicte te diection o te oly city  nice i bilt into te ppopite wll. Ti nice i te rb, wile te diection o Mecc i known  te “t n tei ce” in te qbl. Te Qn itel cll on Mlim to “tn diection o Mecc nd te Kb in pye. pye. Mny moqe lo ve  br  —te plpit om wic te pece give te AL-AZhAr unIvErsIty, CAIro Fidy emon. In ome moqe te ver the course of Islamic history sevbr my only be  ied pltom, wee eral of these large Friday mosques in mny ote it   et o ti ledbecame important educational centers. ing to  mll tge cloed in by  iling. It Perhaps the most renowned of all is the cn be qite n elbote tcte. In te university of al-Azhar in the historical cenmoqe o Ibn Tln in Cio, one o te ter of Cairo. For centuries it has attracted oldet moqe in te wold, te br i students and scholars from all parts of the  bilt o dk bown wooden pnel cved Islamic world: Students from the Sudan in wondel nd vey inticte deign. or Nigeria interact with those from as far

O

away as Malaysia and Pakistan. For much of its history al-Azhar was strictly a religious center where Muslims could study the Quran and hadith (the accounts of  Muhammad’s teachings) and delve into other areas of Islamic education. Today al-Azhar is a major university offering courses in a range of fields in addition to the religious subjects it has traditionally offered.

102

ISLAM

AnnuAL FEstIvALs Te lge moqe c  l-Az e commonly locted in by commecil e. Fom Ilm’ ely itoy mecnt ve been dwn to te moqe  bece tey e cente o o mc ctivity, eligio nd otewie. A  elt one nd in Ilmic citie lge nmbe o  op, booktoe, nd mll etnt

lining te teet nd lley tt cicle tee moqe. Wit moqe nd mketplce ide by ide tee e e lly mong te biet nd mot congeted pt o  town. Tey become epecilly cowded ding eligio olidy nd ote pecil occion c  te mont-long t t o Rmdn. RAMAdAn

CALLIGrAPhy 

C

hristian churches are usually decorated with stained glass, paintings, and statues, but mosques very rarely are. Instead they are decorated with inscriptions of the Quran. These can cover the walls and ceilings of the mosque, including the inside of the dome that sits atop many mosques. These inscriptions are an example of the dominant art form in Islamic culture, calligra calligraphy, phy, and arise from a ban on depicting any living creature, Muhammad, or Allah.

Altog Rmdn i conideed  dty  tt Mlim e expected to tke qite eioly nd te pyicl demnd o  te t e txing, Rmdn lo  it ligte ide. In mot pt o te Ilmic wold it bing  mked cnge in te pce o lie. Activity ding te dyligt o low conidebly; people become qiete, le ctive, nd ometime moe clm tn tey nomlly e. Wit te end o te dy dy,, oweve,, te t i boken, nd it i expected tt Mlim will bek eve te t wit pye nd  ot mel known  te tr. In ome pt o te Ilmic wold, c  Moocco, te mel my conit o  tick op wit bed nd it. Following te beking o te t ting gow etive. In te town nd citie o te Middle Et,  well  ote e o te Ilmic wold, it i ctomy c tomy o Mlim to go ot te te tr. Tey viit wit mily nd iend  iend o imply toll. Sopping ditict oten emin qite by  op nd etnt ty open. In Cio, ne te l-Az moqe,  book i i eld ding Rmdn. And neby, benet lge cnv tent, membe o  S gop ecite te Qn nd peom tei krs. Te ig point o Rmdn come towd te end o te mont. On te evening o te 27t dy Mlim celebte wt i known  te Nigt o Powe. Accoding to Ilmic tdition it  w on ti nigt in 610 tt Mmmd t eceived te eveltion o te Qn. In mny pt o te Mlim wold te evening i  noiy one  yong men let o ewok ewok in te teet. teet .

 The Patterns of Islamic Life

103

id Al-fiTR

Muslims praying at a mosque on the island o  Phuket in Thailand. Beore entering the mosque Muslims remove their shoes, placing them in a designated area near the entrance. Mosques range greatly in size rom the enormous “communal” mosques ound in many urban centers to those much smaller in size ound in villages and local neighborhoods.

104

ISLAM

Anote impotnt occion come wit te end o Rmdn. On te t dy o te next mont, Swwl, Mlim celebte  pecil nd long-wited olidy known  te Fet o Ft Beking, o Id l-Fit. l -Fit. Fo tee dy Mlim gte wit mily  nd iend o long mel, te ing o git, gi t, nd oten eligio devotion. In mny Ilmic contie, te Id i  ntionl olidy. Toe wo e bod o wok o tdy tvel ome to be wit mily. Fo mny Mlim it i  time to celebte te enewed commitment to tei it nd to oe tnk to God o ving een tem tog te long t. id Al-AdHA

Anote impotnt celebtion o te ye come ding te mont o pilgimge, D l-Hi. One o te itl cied ot towd te end o te pilgimge in Mecc i te cice o niml, lly eep, got, o cmel. In Mecc, wile ome o 

te met i eten by te pilgim, mc o it i ditibted to te poo. In te et o te Ilmic wol wold d  imil cice i mde by  ec oeold o neigboood. In te week leding p to ti celebtion, known  Id lAd, o te Fet o Scice, in city cente  well  in bb it i qite common to ee get nmbe o eep nd got, ometime in nexpected plce. At time one ee dlt eep  being tnpoted in te bck et o txi, tied in bndle on top o be, nd eeding on te tece o ptment bilding nd in te bck oom o op.

IsLAMIC DAys oF obsErvAnCE Id al-Adha (known also as Id al-Kabir)—This is the festival of  sacrifice held throughout throughout the Islamic world on the 10th day of the month of Dhu al-Hijja. The sacrifice is an important element of the pilgrimage to Mecca, the hajj. Id al-Fitr (known also as Id al-Saghir)—Held on the first day of the month of Shawwal, this is the feast celebrating the end of Ramadan. This is a particularly joyful event for Muslims. Mawlid al-Nabi—The birthday of the prophet Muhammad, held on the 12th day of the month of Rabia I. A particularly popular event. Nabi, or “prophet,” is one of the titles given to Muhammad. The Shia celebrate his birthday on the 17th day of that month, which is also the birthday of Jafar al-Sadiq, the Sixth Imam. Ashura—During the first 10 days of the month of Muharram the Shii community commemorates commemorates the suffering and death of Imam Husayn, the prophet’s grandson and the Third Imam. These events reach their peak on the 10th day, which is known as Ashura.

 The Shia also commemorate the birthdays of each of the imams. In Iran, which has a Twelver Twelver Shii majority, each of these 12 birthdays is considered a national holiday. For example the first of their imams, Ali ibn Abi Talib, is believed to have been born on the 13th day of  the month of Rajab.

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Muslim children in Lahore, Pakistan, dressed in new clothes to celebrate Id al-Fitr, marking the end o the month o  Ramadan. This is oten a national holiday in Muslim countries as amily meet to pray, share easts, and exchange gits. 106

ISLAM

 MAWLIDS  Fo mny Mlim, tog cetinly not ll, te wl i note occion o celebtion. It i  etivl mking te bitdy o  int o ome ote eveed peon o te pt. No wl i moe widely  obeved tn tt o Mmmd. Known  te Mwlid l-Nbi nd eld evey ye ding Rbi l-Awwl, te tid Ilmic mont, it ignl te deep venetion elt  by Mlim o Mmmd. Te Mwlid l-Nbi i celebted in    viety o wy. Specil pye e id in Mmmd’ ono, o exmple, nd oten S gop will old pblic krs in wic i nme i pied. In lge citie nd town centlly locted e e decoted wit nging ligt nd bnne, giving  etive tmopee. fEsTivAl of MulAy idRis, MoRoCCo

In Moocco te ite o one nnl celebtion in ono o  int i te mll town o Mly Idi. Locted ne te noten city  o Mekne, te town ete n elbote ine in wic i locted te tomb o Mly Idi, te wom te town i nmed. Sometime eeed to  te ntionl int o Moocco, Mly  Idi w te onde o te t Ilmic dynty in Moocco in te lte eigt centy. Topped by  betil geen dome, te ine w bilt in te ltte pt o te 15t centy. Since tt time te etivl in ono o Mly Idi  dwn lge nmbe o people om ll ove Moocco nd emin  popl event to te peent dy. CElEbRATions foR Al-bAdAwi, EgyPT

In ee nmbe pep no wl i lge tn tt o Amd l-Bdwi, eld ec ll in te Egyptin town o Tnt. It i n enomoly popl event—one tt mny Egyptin e elc The Patterns of Islamic Life

10

tnt to mi. Te celebtion in Mly Idi nd o l-Bdwi in Tnt e  nmbe o ete. At bot event people gte to  be toced by te brk o te int. Toe wo cn ty to toc te tomb o te int wile mming pye o epeting te nme o Mly Idi o l-Bdwi. In te brk, it i believed, lie te powe to bing good lck, tengt, good elt, o even cce in cool o in  bine del. MusiCiAns, sToRyTEllERs, And PREACHERs

Tee celebtion e lly vey etive. S gop gte to old tei krs nd ttct new membe. Poceion tke plce ognized by S nd ote gop  well. Ding tee poceion bnne e diplyed nd oten te lede o te S ode i bogt ot on oebck o ll to ee. Attcted by te lge cowd micin, toytelle, tveling mecnt, nd pece come to pctice tei kill nd en money. Tent in wic e old eveyting om ood to clote to pice nd cm e eected in ny cle e. Bot event lt o dy nd mny  o toe in ttendnce pend nigt weeve tey cn—be it in  moqe, on te foo o oe nd op, o in  qiet e on te gond. Fet dy, wls, nd ote c occion e celebted togot te Ilmic wold. I one tn om tee noiie, moe pblic event to te qiete wold o Mlim mily lie, one dicove ptten tt e mc moe pivte bt no le  pt o te live o Mlim te wold ove. ove.

MusLIM ChILDhooD Sevel event mk te t ye o  Mlim cild’ lie. Aond A ond te time o bit te innt in nt i given  Mlim nme. It i common, t let witin devot Mlim milie, to e  e te nme o igly  eveed ge o Ilmic itoy. Mmmd i,  one migt expect, te mot popl nme o ll o mle cilden. Ote inclde Um, te one o te t clip, nd Ali, te Ali ibn Abi Tlib. Te nme Hn nd Hyn e popl  well ince tee wee te nme o  108

ISLAM

Mmmd’ gndon—bot o wom it i believed e loved dely.. Since tey wee lo te t o te imm tei nme e dely pticlly popl mong te Si. Oten mle e lo given nme tt e omed om one o te nme o God, c  Abd All (evnt o God) o Abd l-Rmn (evnt o te All-Mecil). Femle cilden imilly e nmed te Mmmd’ wive nd ote impotnt nd well-known women in ely Ilmic itoy. Kdi, te nme o Mmmd’ t wie; Ftim, te nme o one o i dgte; nd Ai, te nme o note o  Mmmd’ Mmm d’ wive, e ll popl nme.

A Muslim teacher helps children in their kindergarten class at the AlGhazaly Muslim elementary school in Jersey City, New Jersey, one o 10 such schools in the state.

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109

In thE nAME oF GoD, thE MErCIFuL, thE CoMPAssIonA CoMPAssIonAtE tE

 A 

s soon as Muslim children begin to speak they are taught common religious phrases. Then short passages from the Quran are learned. One phrase taught to youngsters is bismilla al-rahman alrahim, which means “in the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate.” It is a set of words used by Muslims throughout their lives in a variety of situations— before meals, when stepping into a room or onto a bus, when entering a mosque to worship. The phrase gains its importance from the fact that each chapter, or sura, of  the Quran begins with these words.

RECiTing QuRAniC vERsEs

Te Qn i wee oml edction   begin o mny Mlim cilden. In te t ye o cool o in  mll cente known   kuttb cilden len to ed  by eciting vee om te Qn. In ti   wy tey len not only to ed bt lo to ecognize te centl tecing o tei it. One o te t pt o te Qn lened by ll Mlim cilden i te t : te St l-Fti. MAlE CiRCuMCision

Fo Mlim boy n event tt ppen ely in tei live i cicmciion, o ctting wy o te mle oekin. In ome Mlim e, ti tke plce ond te ge o 10. In ote e it i not te ge tt mtte, bt wen te boy i ble to ecite te entie Qn lod o te t time. Altog te opetion itel i lly ove in minte, te occion i oten celebted in vio wy. In pt o Moocco, o exmple, it i ctomy o toe milie tt cn od to ent  oe to ve te boy pded ond te neigboood on oebck. fEMAlE CiRCuMCision

In ome pt p t o te Mlim wold, gil nd yong women women my  ndego  itl clled emle cicmciion, o clitoidectomy. Ti opetion, wic nge in degee om  mll inciion to te emovl o te clitoi, i cied ot in pt o Aic. Some Mlim tee conide ti itl necey to peeve te gil’ pity nd to mke e migeble, m igeble, believing it to be  eligio dty. Te opetion cn ve eio elt coneqence o te yong womn, womn, wic my inclde det de t eite t te time o te gey o lte in cildbit. In ecent ye emle cicmciion  been bnned in Egypt nd tee i pee om wold elt ogniztion on ote 110

ISLAM

govenment o te e govenment e  to ollow Egypt’ exmple. Mny Ilmic col nd tt te pctice  no bi in te Qn bt  come into Ilm om pe-Ilmic ctom. Howeve it emin  deeply ooted pctice tt will tke mny ye o edction to cnge.

MArrIAGE Mlim e encoged to my nd to be cilden. In mny  pt o te Ilmic wold,  in te non-Ilmic non-I lmic wold, it  been ctomy o mige to be nged by pent o gdin. Ti pctice i cnging; in bn e, e , nd mong te edcted cle, cle ,  yong womn commonly commonly  t let le t  y in wom e mie. Yong men nd women my ee ec ote in ni veity cle o t mily gteing bt dting emin e in te Ilmic wold. In mny egion o n nmied cople to  be een togete in pblic lone i till conideed bevio tt  bing me on bot o tei milie. uniTing Two fA fAMiliEs MiliEs

Mige between two t wo people, ccoding to Ilmic lw, lw, i ettled  wit  contct in wic te igt nd dtie o bot te mn nd womn e lid ot nd geed on by bot peon. In mny  pt o te Ilmic wold mige i een  te niting o two milie te tn t two individl. Mot oten te ceemony itel i te imple nd qiet. Howeve o te celebtion tt ollow milie oten pend lge m o money on ood, ood, clote, nd git. gi t. Te lvine o  te celebtion depend on te welt o te milie involved, nd even te pooet milie will boow money in ode to tge wt tey believe will be conideed  pope wedding. Ully tee will be eld in te ome o t otide te ome o  one o te two milie. milie . Te celebtion cn lt togot te nigt o even longe. longe. Tey e oten commnity event in wic n entie villge o neigboood will be invited to oin in te celebtion. Vey oten men nd women celebte t te me time  bt in epte bilding o e.  The Patterns of Islamic Life

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MARRiAgE To MoRE THAn onE wifE

Male amily members and riends gathered during wedding celebrations to sign a marriage contract in Tripoli, Libya. The marriage contract is a legal document that outlines the duties o  the husband and wie and it is oten regarded as the uniting o two amilies.

112

ISLAM

An ie tt  been diced  get del witin te Ilmic commnity i wete men old my moe tn one womn. (Ti pctice i known  polygyny in wic  mn  moe tn one wie.) Polygyny eem to ve been peent in peIlmic Abi, nd it i known tt Mmmd imel d  nmbe o wive by te end o i lie. Te Qn tte  tte tt men my my p to o wive bt only i tey cn tet ec o  tem eqlly nd ily (4.3). Since te ie o Ilm polygyny  been  tndd pctice, bt col e ncetin  to ow wideped it  been. Tody te pctice i te bect o mc gment. Tee e toe wo y tt te pctice old be bnned bece it i impoible to tet moe tn one wie eqlly. Mny Mlim—   bot men nd women—ge tt it i lo  om o get di-

cimintion gint women nd o old be bolied. Tey  point to note vee in te Qn: “ Yo will not be ble to tet yo wive eqlly, no mtte ow d yo ty.”

FooD AnD DrInk In ddition to  dicion o mige m ige te Qn povide gideline o ote pect o te Mlim’ peonl lie, inclding eting nd dinking bit. Mlim e obidden to conme cetin kind o ood nd dink. Pok o exmple i obidden,  i te eting o ny met om n niml tt  died o ntnt l ce. Mlim my only et om n niml tt  been lgteed popely popely,, wic men tt it blood  been dined  mc  poible te te lgte. Te dinking o lcool i lo tictly obidden. Te Qn mention wine peciclly,  bt it i believed tt ti elly ment ll btnce contining lcool. Ti inclde cooking wine nd o mny Mlim te  bn inclde ny medicine tt ve ve lcool in tem. In mny contie o te Ilmic wold, oweve, lcoolic  bevege e old nd conmed. Some o tee contie, c  Algei, Moocco, nd Egypt, ve tei own ntionl bee nd  wine compnie. In b nd etnt bee nd wine e old, ltog lly only non-Mlim toit ode c dink. Te peence nd e o tee btnce  ceted  get del o debte in wic devot Mlim nd eligio lede ve clled o te bnning o te le nd mncte o ll lcoolic bevege. On occion b nd otel ve been ided  by Mlim ctivit wo poceed to m bottle o lcool nd even bn b to te gond. In ome bn e—Cio nd Cblnc o exmple—lcoolim  been ecognized   ocil poblem. DEAth A in evey it det i mked in Ilm wit olemn itl. Te lt o o  dying Mlim’ lie e ped wit  ecittion o te Qn. Te 36t  o te Qn, entitled Y Sin, i concened wit det nd God’ dgment, o it i conideed  The Patterns of Islamic Life

113

rEMInDEr oF GoD’s PowEr

T

he last three verses of Ya Sin, the 36th sura of the Quran, remind the listener of God’s power at the end of life:

Is ot He, wo crete te eves  ert, ble to crete te lke o te? Yes, surely, He s te Cretor  te AllKowg. Hs co, we He esres  tg, s to sy to t: “Be!,”  t s. So glory to H  wose  s power  over everytg. Uto H you sll be reture.  —36.81–83

te mot ppopite pt o te Qn to ed. A mily membe o te locl imm ecite ti  ot lod bot to comot te dying peon nd to pepe tt peon o te coming dgment. Following te peon’ det  pecibed et o itl i peomed. Te   body i t celly wed nd peped o bil by being wpped in  clen wite clot. Ten  nel evice i peomed, ometime in  moqe, oten imply t ome. Te evice i lly led  by te locl imm. Following ti evice te body i ten tken to te gve ite. It i not eqied o te cope to be plced

Gravestones in a Muslim cemetery. 114

ISLAM

in  con. Mlim do not pend  get FInAL rECItA rEC ItAtIon tIon At thE GrAvEsIDE G rAvEsIDE del o money on eite te bil peption o te bil itel. Te deceed i ike the funeral service, a Muslim’s burial site is very simple. When the   bied qickly, lly te moning olbody is placed in the ground, care is taken lowing te det. to see that the head is facing in the direcTe body, eite in  cket o imply  tion of Mecca. If I f the body is i s in a coffi n, pon  nel bie ( tnd on wic  usually it is marked to indicate the place cope o con i plced), i ten cied of the head. Pious words are then said in  poceion o mily nd iend to over the grave and then there is a recitate bil ite. Te poceion o  welltion of the Surat al-Fatiha, the first sura, known individl will dw lge nmor chapter, of the Quran. The recitation of   be o people, mny o wom my oin this sura symbolizes that the life that has long te wy to te gveyd. In 1970  just ended was that of a Muslim. Because Muslims learn the sura early in life, often as Cio in Egypt w te cene o pobbly  one of their first lessons in school, and use te lget ingle nel poceion in it frequently over the course of their lives itoy. Jml Abd l-Ni, pep te on all sorts of occasions occasions,, it is fitting that at getet nd mot epected Ab lede the end of their lives the sura is recited for o te 20t centy, died o  et ttck them this last time. in Septembe o tt ye. Hi nel i id to ve ttcted moe tn o million people, not only om Egypt Egy pt bt lo om co te Abicpeking wold nd beyond.

L

 The Patterns of Islamic Life

115

CHAPTER 8

ISLAM AND THE MODERN WORLD

B

y te 18t centy te Ilmic commnity d cnged conidebly om toe t ye in Medin, wen  mll gop o Mlim oined Mmmd in etbliing te t Ilmic ettlement. Wit te nmbe o Mlim now in te million te commnity tetced om te Atlntic cot o Moocco to te mny ilnd o Indonei. Ilm d tly become   wold  wol d eligion. Fo 200 ye tee empie—Mgl, Svid, nd Ottomn—d contolled mc mc o te Ilmic wold. Wit tei cencen tlized om o govenment nd tong mie tey d bogt tbility to te lnd o Ilm. Wit tbility  tbility d lo come tde,  wic ment gete popeity o ll tee empie. Howeve ll o ti cme to n end  politicl politic l nd economic tengt gve  wy to decline. Te Svid ell om powe in te 18t centy  nd ten te Mgl dynty cmbled c mbled in te 19t centy. Te Tki Tki Ottomn empie eemed to vive  vive bt te decltion o Sebi’ tonomy (el-le) in 1829, Geece’ evolt in 1830, nd Lebnon’ independence in 1861 wee e ign o it declining powe. Tkey, te te Cimen W in 1856, lo lot A Muslim amily walking in a San Francisco park. The highest concentrations o Muslims in the United States are in Caliornia, New York, Michigan, and Illinois. 116

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te Blkn. So even tog te Ottomn Empie Empie wold vive into te 20t centy it tengt w getly diminied.

thE ChALLEnGE oF thE FuturE A te Svid, Mgl, nd Ottomn empie cmbled te Ilmic wold ced ced n ncetin ncet in te. In te ge o te tongly  nied empie te Ilmic eligion w viewed  te oce o  te empie’ nity. In te newly tonomo Geece, Lebnon, Sebi, nd te wekened Tkey te concen o vivl mde people k wy te Ilmic I lmic wold  eed ti collpe. Mny eligio Mlim wnted to emove te ddition tt in tei view d divided te eligion nd plit it ollowe into digeeing competitive gop. gop. Tey wnted to id Ilm o c S pctice  te woip o int nd te inclion o mic nd dncing in itl. Mny o tee citic ened tt te S int temelve d become competito to All nd tey  clled o te ppeion o eom o te S ode. Ote eligio-minded people blmed eligio col, o lm, o mecniclly epeting elie legl deciion in  wy tt tt dedened Ilmic lie. Tey wnted tei col to ecpte te oiginl piit o Ilm nd pp pply ly it bic belie to te cllenge cllenge o  new ge. Only wide nd deep eligio eom, tee people  believed, wold bing itl gidnce nd ppot o bilding moden Ilmic ntion. A nEw IsLAM Te new eome ged tt te time d come to pt Ilm nd Ilmic ociety bck on te igt pt. Ti ment idding Ilm o non-Ilmic pctice, ollowing te dtie nd egltion o te i moe cloely, nd deling wit te new poblem o ociety in cetive wy. Fo mny o tee Mlim te model o ction w Mmmd, wom tey elt d eomed te ociety o i dy. Tey  ogt to ollow i exmple by binging cnge to tei own ocietie o tt Mlim cold ce te cllenge o te moden  wold  wol d wit enegy eneg y nd cetivity. ce tivity. 118

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THE EMERgEnCE of sAudi ARAbiA

Reom movement ppeed in dieent e o te Ilmic wold ding te 18t nd 19t centie. Pep te eliet w te Wbi movement begn   by Ibn l-Wb (d. 1792),  conevtive pece wo d tdied lw nd teology in Mecc nd Dmc in te middle o te 18t centy. He w te tet to Ilm  coming om witin, not om te Wet. Te cie intenl ce o te coption o Ilm e dged to   be Sm nd woip o te int. He ged ecely tt Mlim old eek gidnce only om te Qn nd dit. He eminded people o te model given by  Mmmd Mmm d o te te Ilmic wy o lie tt moden Mlim d ogotten. Te Wbi movement gined te ttention nd ppot o n Abin tibl lede nmed Ibn Sd. Wit te elp o  te tibe’ gte te movement by 1803 dominted mc o  te Abin Peninl, inclding Mecc. In Mecc nd Medin te ollowe o Wb detoyed S cente nd te tomb o int. Tey even deected te tomb o Mmmd nd i cloet ollowe to pevent nyone om viiting tem in  ec o micle. Altog te Wbi tte w detoyed in te ely 19t centy, it w etoed nd eventlly, t te  beginning o te 20t centy, it becme te moden ntion o Sdi Abi.

A Bedouin girl in the Sahara Desert. Islam is the majority religion throughout north Arica.

wEsT AfRiCA—uTHMAn don fodio

Anote 18t-centy eome w Utmn Don Fodio (d. 1817),  col om te e o peent-dy Nigei. Tined in Ilmic lw nd teology, teology, e citicized ci ticized te le o i egion. He cced tem o  Islam and the Modern World

119

wAGInG JIhAD

T

he 18th-century reformers Wali Wali Allah, Don Fodio, and al-Sanusi proposed a commitment commitme nt to revitalize Muslim religion: to wage jihad, or striving on behalf of Islam. Jihad meant an individual struggle on the part of each Muslim to remain true to the principles of Islam. However it also meant an armed struggle in defense of Islam when this became necessary. When local rulers passed laws restricting the religious practices of the Muslim population Don Fodio declared jihad and with his followers he conquered a large region of West Africa. He established the state of Sokoto, run according to Islamic law, which survived until 1905. In Cyrenaica, part of what is today Libya, al-Sanusi also declared the need for jihad to establish a unified and strong faith among strongly independent Bedouin tribes (nomadic Arabs).

 being nt nd tynnicl bt lo o llowing te locl popltion to cy ot ite involving mgic nd to mix te itl nd belie o Ilm wit te pctice o ote, locl eligion. He too clled o  etn to  pe Ilmic it. indiA—sHAH wAli AllAH

Ange ove te e o non-Ilmic itl by Mlim w ed by S Wli All (d. 1762), n Indin col. A membe o te Nqbndi ode o te S, e, nlike Ibn l-Wb, did not cll o  bn on Sm. Sm w cceptble, even necey,  long  te S tyed te to Ilm. He w pticlly concened wit toe wo mixed Ilmic nd Hind pctice. He clled o  enewed dediction o ll Mlim to te Qn nd dit nd te eection o ll oeign belie. libyA—MuHAMMAd liby A—MuHAMMAd ibn Al-sAnusi

Ti piit o eom cied otide citie nd town. In Cyenic, pt o wt i tody Liby, Mmmd ibn Ali l-Sni (d. 1859) clled o te piction o Sm nd Ilm mong Mlim Bedoin (nomdic Ab). He etblied te Sni ode o Sm, pledged to ceticim nd teity in woip, in te Libyn deet oe, oming  tong colition o Bedoin tibe dedicted to te te pinciple o Ilm. All tee eom movement wee centeed on Ilm nd it need to eom nd gow tong om witin. Yet  ccel  tee mee wee, Mlim ociety ced  gowing tet om otide it teitoie: te inceing mility nd politicl powe o Eope.

thE thrEAt oF EuroPE A te contie o Eope gew ice tey begn to ct  geedy eye on te egion o te Middle Et, Ai, nd Aic. 120

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By te tt o te 19t centy cent y wide egion o te Ilmic wold d llen into te nd o Eopen tte. To mny Mlim Ilm itel w nde ttck. In te 19t centy Ri eized  vt e o Centl Ai  wee te popltion w pimily Mlim,  it i tody. Te Dtc d eized Indonei nd pt o Mlyi. By 1911 tey  contolled bot e. It w te Biti nd te Fenc, F enc, oweve, oweve,  wo wold le ove te lget pt o te Ilmic wold. By  te ely 19t centy Bitin contolled mot o te Indin Peninl nd e te et in Sotet Ai. By te end o te centy tey d dded Egypt nd te Sdn to tei empie. In te 1820 te Fenc begn ending toop gint te egion o  Not Aic. Algei ell t, ond 1830, ollowed by Tnii in 1881 nd Moocco in 1912. Itly I tly invded te emining e o  Not Aic (wt i tody Liby) in 1911. Te Ottomn wee deeted nd diven ot o te Ab egion o te Middle Et by Get Bitin nd by  wideped Ab evolt in noten Abi nd Syi ding Wold W I (1914–18). Bitin d pomied to elp te Ab egion cieve independence, bt inted Bitin nd Fnce decided in 1916 to cve p te Middle Et between temelve. Bitin eized   wide bnd o teitoy tt inclded Pletine, Jodn, nd Iq,  wile te Fenc took ove te e tt wold lte become Syi nd Lebnon. A  elt, by te ely 20t centy te vt moity o te lnd o Ilm wee Eopen colonil tte. In tee egion Mlim now d vey limited contol ove tei politicl nd economic live. A te peence o te Eopen becme gete it becme cle tt Mlim wold ve to ccept dtic cnge in tei ocietie.

thE PEnEtrAtIon oF thE wEst Colonil powe bogt enomo cnge to te lnd tey  dominted. Fit tey etblied Eopen-tyle cool togot te Ilmic wold. Stdent tee lened Eopen politicl nd economic ide  well  Eopen ppoce to Islam and the Modern World

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cience nd tecnology. A tdent gdted nd enteed te lbo mket mket tey cied tee ide into ociety t lge. Second te colonil powe cnged cnged economic nd bine pctice in Mlim egion. Commece nd podction now beneted te Eopen te tn te locl egion. Tditionl mecnt   wee oced ot o bine wile  new genetion o tde  wit tong tie to Eopen tde oe. THE islAMiC woRld in CRisis Young Muslim boys among the crowd gathered to hear speakers at the start o a London protest march against cartoons o the prophet Muhammad that were printed in a Danish newspaper. Anger over the cartoons created widespread outrage in Muslim communities internationally.

Ove time,  toe cooled  cooled in Eopen wy gined welt nd powe, tey ped tei pctice to wide gop. Mny Mlim wee edy to ccept te new ide; ote wee picio o te cnge being intodced into Ilmic ociety. Howeve egdle o wt vle tey eld mot Mlim Mli m geed tt te Ilmic wold w in cii. Tey ced ditbing qetion o  ow Mlim wee to ect to te peence o te Eopen nd  wt vle nd ide Mlim wold cy into te te. At tke w te te o Ilm nd Ilmic ociety. ociet y. Te conevtive lm nd tei ppote clled c lled o  eection o Eopen vle nd intittion. Tey clled on Mlim to commit temelve moe lly to te pinciple o Ilm. Only ten, tey  ged, wold te Ilmic commnity  egin it nity nd be ble to compete  wit Eopen tte. AdAPTATion And REviTAlizATion

Ote Mlim elt ti ttitde w too conevtive. Tey geed tt it w impotnt to deend Ilm. Howeve tey  ged tt o te Ilmic wold to compete wit te Eopen tte, it wold ve to dpt. Tey cced te lm o living in te pt nd o not ecognizing tt Ilmic lw nd edction d to  be eped i Mlim wee to meet te 122

ISLAM

cllenge o te moden wold. Tee citic elt tt te tn eect eveyting Eopen, Mlim old e toe ide ide  nd intittion om Eope tt cold elp evitlize Ilmic ociety.

rEForMErs oF IsLAM Mny o te eom-minded Mlim took  tong inteet in Weten cientic ide. Tey popoed tt c ide be incopoted into Ilmic edction. Science Sci ence wold t open te wy  in te Ilmic wold to new mility nd cientic tecnologie,  wic wold benet te ociety   wole. CREATing A ModERn CodE of RulEs And lAws

Sc eome  Jml l-Din l-Agni (d. 1897), Mmmd Abd (d. 1905), nd Rid Rid (d. 1935) looked o wy to dpt Ilm to moden time. In Ilm, tey ged, ly ll o  te pinciple necey to cete  moden Ilmic wold. Tey  geed tt te itl o Ilm nd te gidnce o te i  wee eentil to Mlim lie, bt tey believed tt i te i  w to del wit te poblem poblem o modem Ilmic ociety oc iety it wold ve to be pdted. Ti ment ing te min pinciple o te i to cete  moden code o le nd lw. Only  new nd evitlized i, tey decled, cold pt Ilmic ociety bck on it eet. Mny o tee ide wee ed by two ote leding Mlim tinke o te lte 19t nd ely 20t centie: Syyid Amd Kn (d. 1898) nd lte Mmmd Iqbl (d. 1938). Iqbl,  lwye, dmied Eopen democcy nd plimenty govenment. He did not believe oweve tt tt Mlim needed to boow  bo ow  tee ide om Eope. Like l-Agni e elt tt tee ide  wee contined in te pinciple o te i nd tt Mlim needed only to eintepet te i to evel tem. RisE of nA nATionAlisM TionAlisM

Altog tei witing wold infence genetion te tem, Abd, Iqbl, nd te ote neve becme politiclly poweIslam and the Modern World

123

l. Fo one ting tei tinking ttcted motly tdent nd intellectl—not te bod popltion o Mlim. In ddition tey ced oppoition om ote Mlim tinke. On one ide te conevtive lm eected te e o ll Eopen ide nd intittion, believing tt c ide wee otide Ilm. On te ote ide  new genetion o Mlim elt comotble  wit Eopen politicl nd economic ide. Ti econd gop inclded toe wo embced te ide o ntionlim—te notion tt  people old goven temelve nd detemine tei own te witot infence om oeign powe. It w n ide tt wold cnge te ce o te Ilmic wold ove te coe o te 20t centy. cent y.

turkEy 

 A 

s the 20th century progressed European rule over the Islamic world gave way to independent states. In 1923   Turkey—which was one of the few areas in the Islamic world never to have fallen under European rule—was declared an independent republic. The leader of the   Turkish nationalist movement, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk (d. 1938), immediately set out to make Turkey a fully secularized (non-religious) state. The sharia was replaced by a European-style code of law; Muslim dress and customs were banned.   Today Turkey remains the most secularized country of the Islamic world. In 1993  Tansu Ciller, leader of the True Path Party, became Turkey’s prime minister, making her the third Muslim woman to be elected head of state, after Benazir Bhutto (d. 2007) in Pakistan and Khaleda Zia in Bangladesh. Today Turkey continues to strive for a balance between the political forces of secularism and Islam.

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ISLAM

thE IDEA oF nAtIonALIsM Ntionlit ide wee ped by Mlim tdent wo d been edcted in Eopen cool. Tee inclded bot cool tt d been etblied in Mlim egion nd te niveitie in Eope itel t wic Mlim yot tdied. A new genetion o Mlim tdent gdted te ide o ntionlim cgt on togot te Ilmic wold. PARliAMEnTARy sysTEMs And sECulAR univERsiTiEs

Te concept o ntionlim gve ie to  nmbe o politicl movement, ll imed t ending Eopen colonilim. Tei lede lly inclded yong Weten-edcted lwye, onlit, nd enginee. Elie eome d been committed to eoming Ilmic lw nd edction, bt tee yong ntionlit   wee le inteeted in eligion. Tey did not eitte to e ide om Eope.

Tey cmpigned o te cetion o Eopen-tyle politicl, legl, nd edctionl intittion. Among te intittion tey  oped to cete in te Ilmic wold wee plimenty plimenty ytem nd ecl (non-eligio) niveitie. Devot Mlim, nd epecilly te lm, eceived tee ide  wit kepticim. Tey wee ngy ng y tt te ntionlit eemed to ve et ide tei commitment to Ilm. Mot o te ntionlit elt tt eligion old be let ot o politic. Tey wee not gint eligio pctice nd belie bt tey elt tt tee d no plce in te gt o independence. gRowTH of indEPEndEnT sTATEs

Soon te Tkey decled itel n independent epblic, independence ollowed ollowed o ote egion in te Ilmic I lmic wold: Iq in 1932; Syi in 1947; Indonei in 1950; Egypt in 1952; Moocco, Tnii, nd te Sdn in 1956; Mlyi in 1957; Nigei in 1960; nd, ollowing  long nd cotly evoltion, Algei in 1962. Pkitn cme into being in 1947 in te midt o Indi’ gt o independence om Englnd. An Ilmic ntionlit movement, te Mlim Lege, d won ppot mong te Mlim o Indi o  epte Mlim tte. Te Lege w nlly ble to cete te tte o Pkitn, bt only te  civil civi l w wit Indi in wic nded o tond o Mlim nd Hind lot tei live. In 1971 te eten l o Pkitn boke wy te note bloody civil w to become Bnglde.

thE struGGLE For PowEr In te moity o te newly independent Mlim tte politicl powe w eld by ecl govenment. Mny wee contolled  by mility oce wit no inteet in combining eligion nd politic. Ti et te tge t ge o confict confict between te ecl ntionlit nd te vio gop witin tei tte tt ppoted Ilmic om o govenment. Fo tee gop it w time to etn to Ilmic pinciple nd te le o te i. Two c gop wee te Society Societ y o Mlim Bote, onded in Egypt in 1929 by Hn l-Bnn, nd te Jmt-i Ilmi, Islam and the Modern World

125

onded in Indi in 1941 by Mwln Mwddi. Fo bot l-Bnn nd Mwddi Ilmic ociety w nde ttck not only by  te Eopen colonil powe bt lo by te ecl ntionlit movement. mov ement. Tey vg vgely ely citicized c iticized tee movement o dopting Weten Weten ide nd o bndoning bndoning Ilm. REligious And PoliTiCAl AggiTATion

Sultana Ali, originally rom Bangladesh, being sworn in as a U.S. citizen during Naturalization Ceremonies at the Onondaga Courthouse in Syracuse, New York. York.

Fo bot lede te eption o eligion nd politic w   violtion o Ilmic pinciple. Tey ged tt Ilm bogt togete ll pect o lie, inclding politic nd eligion. Mwddi, l-Bnn, nd ote like tem won te ppot o  lge nmbe o Mlim. Unlike mny o te lm, tey wee dedicted to politicl ctivity. Tei commitment to te it tck  cod in te et o mny Mlim ove te t l  o te 20t centy. cent y. Te ppot tee gop enoyed did not ecpe te ttention o te politicl lede o te Ilmic ntion. Oten tei t ection w to clmp down on tee Ilmic movement, ending tei lede to pion. Eventlly oweve ome lede o  Mlim tte begn to tke  dieent ppoc. Tey tied to e eligion to win te ppot  ppot o te bod popltion. In Egypt, te govenment o Jml Abd l-Ni (d. 1970) ponoed  eligio newppe nd clled o te ppot o te lm o te Al-Az moqe. Al-Ni’ cceo, Anw Sdt (d. 1980), went even te in ociting i govenment wit eligio ymbol, event, nd intittion c  l-Az. In Syi Hz l-Ad (d. 2000), wo eized powe in Egypt in 1970, epetedly ed Ilm in ti wy in te 1970 nd 1980. gRowing soCiAl And EConoMiC PRoblEMs

Tee gete towd Ilm, oweve, did little to cnge te npoplity o  126

ISLAM

te govenment. Altog tee govenment clled temelve democtic, tey  led wit little popl ppot nd wee lo eponible o poo economic policie nd mpnt coption. Tee wee gowing ocil poblem, mong tem ig te o povety nd cime. To mny  devot Mlim te obvio eon o tee poblem w te decline o Ilmic  vle nd pctice.

thE MoDErn woMAn

T

he issue of the role of women is very complex in modern-day Islam. In areas that have undergone a fundamentalist movement or return to traditional ways, such as Afghanistan or Iran, the role of women has been curtailed in comparison with a few decades ago. In some places women are no longer allowed to study or to work. Their status is very difficult and oppression and brutality are a mark of these societies. In other areas such as Saudi Arabia, where women have been strictly constrained, small signs of  change are seen, for example in allowing women to drive. However in most Muslim societies, women are encouraged to play a significant role in society but are also expected to dress modestly and behave appropriately. Overall, the last 30 years or so has seen a shift in how women dress and in their expectations. It is true to say that conforming to traditional dress and role codes has increased significantly, though whether that has seriously restricted the role women play within Muslim societies is an open discussion. To outsiders it looks more conservative but to those inside it is a return to traditional dress but with some modern ideas.

A nEw CoMMItMEnt to IsLAM In te lte 1960 nd ely 1970,  politicl, ocil, nd economic poblem contined to gow, Mlim togot te Ilmic wold begn to enew tei commitment to Ilm. Tee w  gowing ene tt Mlim old look to tei own tdition nd e tem to evitlize tei ocietie. Some now begn to e te opinion tt Ilm—nd pticlly  te i—contined ll te gidnce needed by individl nd ociety. Te new dediction to Ilm took dieent om. Mny odiny Mlim mde  gete commitment to te belie nd pctice o Ilm, nd mny begn to led  wt w een   moe Ilmic lietyle. Ti inclded tdying te Qn; cying ot dily pye pctice nd te t o Rmdn itlly; ppoting intittion c  clinic, cool, nd yot cente n by eligio ogniztion; nd dopting modet modet tyle tyle  o de nd pblic bevio. bevio. In citie nd town togot te Ilmic wold it becme moe common to ee yong women weing plin, long dee nd cve ove tei i.

Islam and the Modern World

12

Howeve o mny Mlim te commitment to Ilm w moe tn  etn to Ilmic wy. It w  cll to politicl ction. Aco te Ilmic wold yong yong Mlim men nd women  oined o omed politicl movement. Tei mege w tt te time d come to pt n end to eclized, Weten-tyle govenment nd to mke te i te ondtion o Ilmic ociety.

thE IsLAMIC rEvoLutIon Pobbly no ingle event in te mid-20t centy d  mc impct on te mind o Mlim  te 1979 Ilmic Revoltion in In. Te evoltion w cied ci ed ot by  bod colition mde p o lm, tdent gop, letit ogniztion, nd ote—  nd w ppoted by mny odiny Inin. It gol w te ovetow oveto w o S Mmmd Rez Plvi (d. 1980). Te voice o te evoltiony movement w Aytoll Komeini (d. 1989),  eligio col. Komeini d ly citicized te ’ policie  conty to te tecing o Ilm. Mny Inin wee dwn to Komeini’ powel eligio mege. He ttcked te  o ndemining Ilm wit eclim nd o i lt on te powe o te lm. Fo i citicim Komeini w eted nd ent into exile. ovERTHRow of THE sHAH

Fom exile Komeini clled o te ovetow o te  nd te cetion o n Ilmic-tyle govenment eded by te lm. He ged tt bece te lm wee tined in Ilmic lw nd teology, tey wee te only one wo cold popely led n Ilmic govenment nd ociety. In te ll o 1978 evoltion  boke ot, nd in ely 1979 te  fed te conty. cont y. Komeini Komeini etned in tt ye to Ten nd becme te piitl ed o  te Ilmic Repblic. Te eect o te evoltion on te et o te Ilmic wold  w electic. Fo te t time n Ilmic movement d ccelly oppoed  moden ecl govenment. Fo mny Mlim—pticlly te new ctivit—te Ilmic Revoltion 128

ISLAM

 w enomoly encoging. It w  ign tt  etn to te idel o Ilm nd te dtie o te i cold bing cce. It lo conmed wt Mlim cold ccompli tog politicl ction. Te initil bt o entim o Komeini nd te Ilmic Revoltion gdlly died wy. Te moity o te Snni wold did not lly ccept Komeini,  Sii lede, o eltion wit ote Mlim contie eed. Moeove te new Ilmic govenment o In oon becme    ndemoctic  te ’ govenment d been. People wo d gown cctomed to ecl eedom ced nde tict Ilmic le. Mic w bnned,  women wee oced to we te bq ( gment coveing te ce nd body), nd ote eedom wee tictly ctiled. ElECTion of A ModERA ModERATE TE govERnMEnT

By te mid-1990 In w eing nde economic dip. People begn to cll o moe pogeive economic policie. In 1998 Inin elected  modete peident, Mmmd Ktmi. Te otcome w  victoy o te mny women nd yong people wo d voted o eom, eom, eecting conevtive policie c  te de code nd ote etictive egltion. In te piit o eom In ppointed it t emle enio   dge, nd eedom o peec impoved. Mlim toitie lited te bn on women leding congegtionl pye pye o ote women, wic d been  poblem in ll-gil cool. In’ moe modete govenment took tep towd impoving eltion wit Eope nd te United Stte nd w it eltionip  wit ote Mlim contie impove  well. Altog ome etening politicl dtment ve been mde ince te Ilmic Revoltion w wged wged moe tn 25 ye go, ecent tenion ove In’ lleged eot to develop ncle  wepon ve edced ny viible dvnce to  tivil t ivil level. WoWoie gow mong mny Mlim nd non-Mlim contie tt In migt become te t ncle teoccy ( om o govengovenment in wic  god o deity i ecognized  te peme civil le). Islam and the Modern World

129

The bridge at Mostar in the Republic o Montenegro. This amous bridge was built by an Ottoman architect in 1566 and destroyed in 1993 ater being bombarded by tank re during the Bosnian conict. Ater the war ended, the bridge was rebuilt and opened again in 2004.

130

ISLAM

thE bALkAn CrIsIs At bot te me time  te Ilmic evoltion in In, in Eten Eope  ie  ie in Seb ntionlim poved poved dito o Mlim in te ome Ygolvi. Ygolvi. Ate te det de t o te Commnit lede Joip Boz Tito in 1980 te etnic gop tt d mde p Ygolvi begn to bek pt long ntionlit line: Seb, Cot, nd Mlim. Te tonget o tee wee te Seb, wit dem o  “Gete Sebi” tt wold enite ll o te lnd tt d itoiclly been Sebin. Altog tey wee concentted in Boni, Mlim wee not  moity tee ltog tey wee in te moity in Koovo, n tonomo edel nit in Ygolvi wic w tipped o it tonomy in 1989. Mlim d lwy tied to live pecelly beide tei neigbo bt now ond temelve cgt in te midt o  w not o tei mking. In Mc 1994 Mlim nd Cot in Boni igned n geement tt ceted Boni nd Hezegovin  n independent tte. Ti did not ene tei ety,  ety, oweve oweve.. In pite o United Ntion (UN) pecekeeping eot, in Jly 1995 te Seb my  ttcked Sebenic,  Mlim “e e.” Tey took te Mlim men to  eld otide te town nd ot tem. Sebenic t  becme te ite o te wot mce o civilin in Eope ince Wold W II (1939–45). Exctly ow mny Mlim men died my neve be known bt te nmbe wee oic. Te event  bogt  new pe into te Engli lnln gge: “etnic clening.” Te Dyton Pece Accod o 1995 ended te w bt not te ted. Tond o Mlim wee let omele, nble to etn to town wee otility till n ig. In ddition mny Mlim ome  wee eized by Seb o bned to pevent tei owne om ecliming tem. Te mce lo let tond o widow nd tele cilden woe only oene  w to be Mlim.

Boni i not te only egion in wic Mlim eed temendo loe. Wen Ygolvi w beking p, Koovo,  egion o Sebi tt w oiginlly pt o Albni, wnted it independence. People in Koovo wee moe tn 80 pecent MM lim. Sebi ent toop into Koovo to pt down evoltiony  ctivity. Wve Wve o egee fed to neigboing contie. contie . In 1998 Sebin toop killed mny o te civilin inbitnt o Denic,  illy egion in centl c entl Koovo, Koovo, motly Mlim women nd cilden. Following te confict, Koov tecniclly emined pt o  Sebi ltog it w nde UN idiction. Koov niltelly  decled it indepdenence om Sebi in Feby 2008 wic  been ollowed by ecognition om mny UN tte.

thE MIDDLE EAst Te etbliment o Iel   ntion in 1948 let mny Pletinin Ab witot  omelnd. Mlim nd Citin Ab   wee diplced om  lnd tey d inbited o centie. Tei pligt w lgely nnoticed by te Weten ntion ntil te 1967 w between Iel nd te Ab tte o Egypt, Syi, nd Jodn. In  ew ot dy te tee Ab mie met deet. In te poce Jelem—ced to Jew, Citin, nd Mlim—w completely tken ove ove by te Ielie. Ielie . Ove te next 20 ye eltion mong contie in te Middle Et tbilized tbili zed omewt. Te Pletinin oweve till eed nde Ieli le, wtcing Ieli ettle clim lnd tt d   been tei. Beginning in 1987 te Pletinin begn to et temelve politiclly, politiclly, nd t time wit m,  m, in wt w clled c lled te “piing,” o intid, nde Yi At ntil i det in Novembe 2004. Contined ct o eitnce ve dwn ttention to te Pletinin ce nd eventlly bogt te Ieli nd te Pletinin to te bgining tble. Mny ie emin neolved between Iel nd te Pletinin. One i Jelem, te loction o te Dome o te Rock nd l-Aq Moqe, om wic te popet cended to even. Devot Mlim cll o it libetion om Iel  well  o  epte Pletinin tte. Islam and the Modern World

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A Muslim woman wearing a burqa in northern Aghanistan. The burqa is usually made o lightweight material that has two layers. This gives Muslim women the opportunity to reveal or completely cover their eyes. In some Muslim societies it is normal practice or women to be ully covered and religious or cultural tradition may govern dress codes. In other societies, dress codes may vary and some women dress modestly, usually covering their heads, arms, and legs while others may choose to wear garments or cloaks that cover the body more ully.

In 2005 Iel witdew om te Gz Stip te 38 ye o  occption nd dimntled ll o it ettlement,  ettlement, poviding ope tt  Pletinin tte my be  poibility o te te. te . Yet Yet te ely 2006 plimenty election won by te dicl Hm pty in Pletine ve ied tenion nd tempeed ope,   te bilding by Iel o  wll dividing Iel om Pletine nd ceting n economic embgo on mny e o Pletine.

AFGhAnIstAn: thE tALIbAn Ate te bekp o te Soviet Union in 1992 ome Soviet contie c  Agnitn, Azebin, Tkmenitn, Uzbekitn, nd Tikitn, Tikitn, pevioly ecl nd Commnit, ve emeged  wit gowing Ilmic identitie. Only in Agnitn, oweve,  tee been  move towd towd  pely Ilmic tte. Te Soviet Union d tied to impoe Commnit le om 1979 ntil 1989; ti w dito o Agnitn. In mny   wy te Weten powe, epecilly te United Stte, plyed  gme o poxy poxy w wit te Soviet oce by nding nd ming Ilmic eitnce gte. A  elt te Rin wee diven ot o Agnitn bt ti let  mive powe vcm into   wic poed Weten-med nd -nded wlod. Agnitn decended into ncy nd mny longed o  tong ledeip to emege to cb te wlod. THE TAlibAn

In 1994  new gop mde p motly o  Agni eligio tdent bt onto te wold cene. Tey clled temelve te Tlibn. Tey nnonced tt tei miion w to ee Agnitn om it copt ledeip nd to cete  ociety  in ccod wit Ilm. A tong nd welltined gting oce, tey lot no time in tking contol. By 1998 te Tlibn d come cloe to it gol o niying Agnitn nde it 132

ISLAM

le. Howeve it ndmentlit intepettion o Ilmic lw  ceted new poblem. A bn on women’ employment ell wit neql oce on widow nd tei cilden—bed om wokwoking, emle ed o oeold ced tvtion. Te UN citicized te Tlibn’ etiction et iction not only on women’ employment employment  bt lo on edction nd elt ce, nd it pended id. osAMA bin lAdEn

Te Tlibn lo boed Om bin Lden te lede o te teoit ogniztion l-Qed, wic ttcked New Yok nd Wington on Septembe 11, 2001. Te United Stte nd it llie invded Agnitn nd oted te Tlibn. Tee ye lte in Decembe 2004 Hmid Kzi w won in  Agnitn’ t poplly elected peident. Te new contittion nd plimenty election lo owed te cnge in eltion to Ilm. Peident Kzi ed ti election elt  n exmple to ndecoe i clim tt democcy nd Ilm e comptible. Howeve te contined powe o te Tlibn nd te etn o   wlod ve ve let mc o Agnitn A gnitn in  tte o w.

IsLAM In EuroPE Appoximtely Appo ximtely 14 million Mlim e ond in weten Eope,  wit te vt moity in Fnce (5.5 million), Gemny (3.5 million), Englnd (1.8 million), te Netelnd (500,000), nd Belgim (300,000). Mny cme  woke to mke p o te ot pply o mnpowe mnpowe in tee contie in te 1950 nd 1960. Mlim wo ve lived in Eope o genetion my till nd lie tee  diclt t. One eon i tt mny Mlim ve been denied ettled immignt tt; toe bon in Gemny, o exmple, e not tomticlly gnted citizenip. Mny till e mginliztion, nemployment, nd povety, nd mny ve complined bot police ment nd ote om o be. Eopen contie, wic ve tditionlly  identied wit Citinity, C itinity, ve viewed wit picion ttempt  by te yong Mlim genetion to et tei own eligio nd cltl identity. A poblem o mny Eopen Mlim, ten, Islam and the Modern World

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i to nd  om o Ilm tt t tei new identitie  Eopen wo e Mlim—enteing into Eopen ociety wile peeving tei Ilmic wy o lie.

IsLAM In thE unItED stAtEs stAtEs In te mid-1970 800,000 people, o 0.4 pecent o te Ameicn Ame icn popltion, identied temelve  Mlim. In te mid-1990 te nmbe d welled to 3,560,000, nd by 2008 it w etimted tt tee wee between 7 nd 8 million Mlim. Nm be vy ccoding to dieent et o dt nd te ge my    be even ige. Tee nmbe inclde people bon into te eligion, immignt to Ameic wo ve bogt bogt tei Ilmic  belie wit tem, nd convet wo my be Ccin, Aicn Ameicn, Hipnic, o even Ntive Ameicn. Te Ilmic commnity execie inceing incei ng infence in Ameicn lie. One e in wic Mlim infence my be een i in edction. Ameicn Mlim ve long empized te impotnce o edcting yong people in te etic nd belie o Ilm o  to eqip tem to led molly eponible live. To Mlim ti empi on mol eponibility i nAtIon nA tIon oF IsLAM I sLAM impotnt o two eon: t to oe  cle ltentive to Mlim yong people in growing group among the Muslims Ameicn ociety, nd econd to demonof America is the Nation of Islam. An tte to Ameicn t lge te te MAmerican movement now under the leadlim plce on living molly nd eticlly. ership of Louis Farrakhan, it has more than Tnk to  gete wene o M1.6 million followers followers.. Mainstream Muslims generally say that the Nation is not part of  lim   peence in Ameic Mlim tthe Islamic community. They find many of  dent enolled t Ameicn college nd the Nation’s teachings, particularly those niveitie gdlly expeienced gete about other races and religions, to be cceptnce. Ti expeience ndewent out of step with traditional Islam, which  eio olt, oweve, on Septembe 11, recognizes all people and all races to be 2001, wit te dedly detction det ction o te teteequal before God. In recent years however oit’ ttck on te Wold Tde Cente the Nation has shown signs of change in in New Yok nd te Pentgon in Wingways that may bring it more into line with ton. In te ollowing mont, mny oorthodox Islam. eign Mlim tdent in te United Stte

 A 

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ISLAM

etned to tei omelnd ot o e o epil gint tem. Mny Ameicn Mlim keenly elt te picion gint tem tt tee event ied in te mind o tei ellow citizen.

thE wAr In IrAq  Te two mot ignicnt itoicl event o ecent ye tt ve oced ttention on te Mlim wold ve been te teoit ttck on te United Stte on Septembe 11, 2001, nd te w in Iq. Te United Stte tied it invion o Iq on Mc 16, 2003, pimily by  oc on Sddm Hein,  btl dictto,, nd te poibility tt e migt ve wepon o m dictto detction tt cold be ed in te teoit ttck on te United Stte nd togot te wold. Te w  bogt  eigtened wene wene o te eligio complexity o tt Mlim conty nd Ilm in genel. Te moity o te Iqi popltion e Sii wo elt peected nde te Snni-dominted le o Sddm Hein. Fo te Kd, wo e motly Snni, tei gol o n tonomo Kdi egion tke pioity ove ny llince wit tei ellow nonKdi Snni. A  minoity te Snni e tt democcy   will not be in tei vo, o tey ve oined te politicl poce only elctntly. elctntly. Attempt Attempt to econge pot-Hein Iq cold led to politicl dominnce o te Sii moity;  eligioly netl ociety epecting ll om o Ilmic  belie;  Sii teoccy;  colition govenment; o  civil w. No mtte wt te elt in te ne te, te ittion it tion will be tene o mny  ye to come nd will ect te eligio nd civil lie o ote Mlim ntion, epecilly In, Syi, Tkey, Agnitn, Bin, nd Lebnon. Combined   wit te ntble ittion in Agnitn nd te elie ile in te Blkn, ti w, conideed by mny to be illegl,  given ie to te peception by mny 

An American soldier patrols the streets on the outskirts o Sadr City in Iraq. The events that have unolded in the country highlight the religious and political complexity that exists in Iraq.

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Mlim nd Wetene like tt te Wet wie to detoy  te powe o Ilm.

IsLAM FACInG thE 21st CEntury  A te Ilmic wold  moved into te 21t centy, it  looked   bck on tee centie o tggle. Beginning in te 18t centy Mlim clte lot mc o it vitlity  it politicl nd economic powe gve wy to Eope’ gete tecnologicl nd mility migt. Eope’ mc tog te Ilmic wold contined tog te 19t nd ely 20t centie. Ding tt time Ilmic tinke tied to ndetnd te eon e on o Eope’ dominnce nd to nd wy o Ilm to dpt to te new ide tt  wee enteing te clte om te Wet. Tei ol-ecing gve ie to  ntionlim tt blended blended te eligio nd legl clte clt e o  Ilm wit notion o independence nd enbled tem to tow  o Eopen dominnce. Tody te Ilmic I lmic wold old  tonge poition in te wol wold d tn t ny time ince  ince te 18t centy. cent y. EMERgEnCE of PAn-islAM

Inceingly identity witin Mlim contie i  tongly dened  by eligion  it i by te ntion. Te emegence o Pn-Ilm ( politicl movement pomoting pomoting te nity o Mlim nde one Ilmic tte) i becoming  mo cto in wold i. One exmple i te mive gowt in Ilmic bnking tt tted in 1975 nd now mnge mnge moe tn tn $300 billion in et. Ti movement movement ogt to cllenge te nom o conventionl bnking nd to nd wy in wic Mlim cold tde, bnk, nd invet in ccodnce wit Ilmic tecing. It cce indicte not only te ie i e o  Mlim middle cl woldwide, bt lo  deie to be ooted in tdition. Te Pn-Ilm tend i lo efected in ote pee c  te gowt o medi in Mlim contie—o exmple te Al Jzee TV T V netwok, wic ivl te BBC nd CNN in intentionl covege covege bt om n vo vowedly wedly Mlim pepective. pepec tive. PnIlm i lo efected in te mltintionl mkep o ome o te exteme gop tt dw gte om mny mny contie, contie , nited by  tei ppot o violence   men to Ilmic victoy. 136

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bRidging A Rising dividE

Mny in bot te Wet nd Mlim lnd empize  divide  between Weten vle nd Ilmic vle. Howev Howeve, e, ote y  tt ti divide i one lgely o ignonce nd e nd cn be  bidged by eeking common gond nd bilding iendip. One eot in ti diection w  lette witten by nely 140 Mlim lede in 2007 to Citin lede eeking to exploe e o common concen c  te envionment, intentionl eltionip, nd mtl ndetnding; c  lette wold ve been nimginble only  ew ye elie. Depite tee mo development, o mot Mlim Ilm contine to be wt it  lwy been:  tble ock o cetinty;  mol code; nd  plce o iendip, mtl ppot, nd eltionip wit God in te midt o te tempet o te wold. Mny Mlim tody ve gown p in  ecl wold. A tey look ond tem tey ee  ociety ll o poblem—  inclding nemployment, cime, nd declining mol vle. Like genetion o yong people beoe tem tey e looking o new ppoce, new wy to ode tei live in  diclt  wold. Ilm o tem i one c wy. Alwy enewing itel, it oe tem  el ltentive o cnge. cnge. Te oce o te Ilmic evivl weeping te wold tody i te oce o yot, wit it  belie tt te wold cn become  bette plce. An ETERnAl QuEsT

Ilm i by it vey nte n endle evoltion, n etenl qet to ec ot to God. Mlim e committed to cllenge wt tey ee  wong. Tey my not be pive. Wteve ppen te te o Ilm will inclde  get del o debte nd pep even confict. Altog ctivim eem on te ie, mot in te Mlim wold oppoe militncy nd extemim o eel tt te i old not be te bi o govenment. It eem mot likeli kely tt Ilm will emin  eligion nd civiliztion tt encompe  viety o point o view. Ti w te o Ilm ely in it itoy nd it emin te tody.

Islam and the Modern World

13

FACT FILE wldide me The Islamic aith has more than 1.4 billion ollowers. hl sml The star and crescent; some Muslims say that the Islamic aith guides a person, in the same way that the moon and stars guide a traveler. Some Islamic states have this symbol on their ag.

Feial Ramadan, a month-long estival, is the most important. It marks the time when the Quran was revealed to Muhammad and the gates o hell were closed and the gates o heaven were opened to him. Ramadan is the ninth month o the Muslim calendar. Id al-Fitr marks the end o Ramadan, when thanks is given to Allah or helping with the asting. It is also seen as a time o  renewed commitment to the aith. Another estival, Id al-Adha, marks the time when prophet Abraham was willing to sacrice his son at God’s command.

hl wiig The main holy writing in the Islamic aith is the Quran. Many Muslims believe that the Quran was written by God beore time began and was then revealed to the prophet Muhammad. The Quran is written and recited in Arabic. hl Place The most important holy place or Muslims is Mecca in Saudia Arabia because it is the birthplace o the prophet Muhammad. It is also special because the mosque in Mecca contains the Kaaba, worshipped as the rst house o God on earth. All Muslims try at least once in their lives to make the pilgrimage to Mecca. The cities o Medina and Jerusalem are also regarded as holy. Fde It is believed that the Islamic aith has been slowly revealed to humanity through a number o dierent prophets. However the nal revelation was given to the prophet Muhammad in the seventh century c.e. Many have a great amount o respect or Muhammad and will usually add the words “peace be upon him” ater speaking or writing his name, but it is only God that is worshipped.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

138

An-Na`im Abdullahi Ahmed. Islam and the Secular   State: Negotiating the Future of Shari’a. Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2008.

Nigosian, Solomon Alexander. Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004.

Newsweek magazine. Available online. URL: http://www. newsweek.com/. News and statistics on Muslims in the United States and worldwide.

Richardson, Joel. Antichrist: Islam’s Awaited Messiah. Enumclaw, Wash.: Wash.: Pleasant Word-A Division o  WinePress Publishing, 2006.

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FURTHER READING Ahmed, Akbar S. Journey into Islam: The Crisis of  Globalization. Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2007.

Esposito, John L., and Mogahed, Dalia. Who Speaks For Islam?: What a Billion Muslims Really Think. Washingtion D.C.: Gallup Press, 2008.

Ayoub, Mahmoud. Islam: Faith and History. Oxord: Oneworld, 2004.

Irwin, Robert. Islamic Art in Context. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1997.

Breuilly, Elizabeth, and O’Brien Joanne, and Palmer, Martin. Religions of the World World.. New York: Checkmark Books, 2005.

Marshall, Paul A. Islam at the Crossr Crossroads. oads. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Books, 2002.

Brown, Daniel Dani el W. W. A New Introduction to Islam. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Publishing, 2004. Campo, Juan E. Encyclopedia of Islam. New York: Facts On File, 2009. DeLong-Bas, Natana. Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and  Reform to Global Jihad. Oxord and New York: Oxord University Press, 2004. Dunn, John. The Spread of Islam. San Diego, Cali.: Lucent Books, 1996.

Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. A Young Muslim’s Guide to the  Modern World. Chicago: Kazi Publications, Inc., 1994. Ruthven, Malise. Islam: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxord University Press, 1997. Swisher, Clarice, ed. The Spread of Islam. San Diego, Cali.: Greenhaven Press, 1998. Weiss, Walter M. Islam: An Illustrated Historical  Barron’s, 2000. 200 0. Overview. Hauppauge, N.Y.: Barron’s, Wormser, Richard. American Islam: Growing Up Muslim York: Walter and Company, 2002. 20 02. in America. New York:

 WEB SITES Further acts and gures, history, and current status o the religion can be ound on the ollowing Web sites:

.c.c./eligi/eligi/ilam A guide to Islam, including history, belies, holy days around the world, and message boards.

.ilamld.e A site looking at the Muslim way o lie.

.eligileace.g/ilam.m This site contains balanced, clear, objective, and inclusive articles about religion, morality and ethics. It deals with Islam alongside other major aiths.

.eligifac.cm/ilam/  A comprehensive summary o the aith rom a site dealing with all major religions o the world.

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GLOSSARY  adhan —Te cll to pye mde ve time dily  Islam—An Abic wod mening to bmit o ende, peciclly to te will o God. om te minet o moqe.  —Te congegtionl moqe ed pticAllah—Te Ilmic tem, deived om Abic,  jami — lly tog not only on Fidy o te weekmening God. ly emon nd noon pye. aya  —A vee o te Qn. Ec cpte cpte (see sura)  jihad—“Stiving” o one’ eligion. Oten tncontin one o moe o tee vee. lted  “oly w.” baraka  —Spiitl bleing. Ued to ee to te powe o pticlly eligio individl, khutba  —Te emon, lly by  pominent eligio ge, given in te congegtionl c  “int.” moqe t te Fidy noon pye eion.  burqa—A gment coveing te ce nd body. caliph—Tem deiving om te Abic wod kuttab —Qnic cool lly ttended beoe te tt t t o egl cooling. kl. It w te title ed by te le o te Ilmic Empie. It cn lo men “epeent- Mahdi—Te meinic ge wo it i believed  will ive t te end o time to bing tice tive” o “depty.” nd ode to te wold. dhikr  —“Remembnce” o God. Ued by te S masjid—A locl o neigboood moqe.  ee to ee to tei itl pctice.  jami.  ghazwa  —Rid in te pe-Ilmic peiod nd in mawlid —Te etivl commemoting te bitely Ilm. dy o  eligio ge, lly  “int.” hadith—Te collection o epot o  ingle Anote tem ed i us. epot elting te wod nd deed o te popet Mmmd. Te wod nd deed muadhdhin —O mezzin. Te individl wo see adhan  adhan) ve time mke te cll to pye (see temelve e known  te Snn, o “wy  dily om te minet o  moqe. o cting.” hajj—Pilgimge, peciclly to Mecc. Te nn- Muslim—A believe o Ilm; nyting petining to te eligion, lw, o clte o Ilm. l pilgimge i eld in te mont o D lqadi—  Jdge in  i cot, lly ppointed Hi nd i one o te Five Pill o Ilm.  by te tte. Hijra—“Emigtion.” Te tem ed to ee to te   oney by te popet Mmmd nd i qibla—Te diection o Mecc in wic ll Mlim mt py. In moqe it i indicted by  compnion compni on om Mecc to Medin in 622. te rb, o pye nice, ond in evey  Idal-Adha—Te nnl et dy o cice eld moqe. on te 10t dy o te Ilmic mont D lsadaqa  —Volnty lmgiving. Hi, te mont o pilgimge.  —Pye Pye.. One o te Five Pill o Ilm. Idal-Fitr— Te nnl etivl in wic te end o  salat — sawm —Fting, pticlly te nnl t o  te mont o ting, Rmdn, i celebted. Rmdn. One o te Five Pill o Ilm. ihram —Te wite gment won by pilgim in Mecc ding te nnl pilgimge ( see hajj). shahada  —Being witne to te onene o God nd to te popetood o Mmmd. Alo Tee gment e lo indictive o itl one o te Five Pill o Ilm. pity. imam—Ued by Mlim to ee to te lede sharia—Te ytem o lw in Ilm bed on te Qn nd Mmmd’ nn. Oten tno  eion o pye o  eligio tece. lted  “oly lw.” Te Si e te tem o pecil individl  viewed  te eligio nd politicl lede o  shaykh—Eldely mn, tece, o tibl lede. Alo te ed o  S ogniztion o cente. te commnity. 140

ISLAM

shirk —Aociting ny obect or  being wit God. ulama—Religio nd legl expet. umma  —Commnity, peciclly  eligio comTe one nogivble in o Ilm. mnity. Mot oten ed in Ilm to ee to sura—A cpte o te Qn. te Ilmic commnity commnity.. taaziya  —Pion ply eld ec ye in Sii commnitie to commemote te det o   wudu  —Ritl clening peomed beoe ec eion o pye. Hyn ibn Ali.  zakat —Legl lmgiving conideed obligtoy  tafsir  —Intepettion, lly o te Qn. o Mlim nd clclted on te bi o  tariqa  —A S ode. income. One o te Five Pill o Ilm. tawaf  —Ritl cicling o te Kb in Mecc tt i pt o te nnl pilgimge o Mlim.

ISLAM

141

INDEX  A Abbid 42–43, 44, 46, 65, 73 Abd i-Qdi l-Jilni 82–83 Ab Bk 26–27, 34–36, 79 Ab Syn 32  (cll to py pye) e) 84–86 l-Agni, Jml l-Din 123 Agnitn 132–133 Amd Kn, Syyid 123 Alwi ect 69 Ali ibn Abi Tlib 37–38, 39–40, 71 All 13, 20, 24–25, 25–26, 30, 33, 55–58 Abic lngge 54, 98 citecte 49 t 44, 49 cetic o Ilm 77–79, 80 A 93–94, 105 Attk, Mt Keml 124 B l-Bdwi, Amd 107–108 Blkn cii, te 130–131 brk 96–97  bin Lden, Om 133 Bwyid, Bwyi d, te 44 Byzntine Empie 22, 36–38 C clligpy 103 cll to pye () 84–86 cilden 108–110; nd te Qn 52, 54 Citinity 20, 22, 23, 44–46, 55 cicmciion 110–111 commnity (u) 15, 58–60 Cde, te 12, 44–46 clte 42, 44, 49, 103

142

ISLAM

D Dy o Jdgment 56–57, 74–75 Dyton Pece Accod (1995) 130 det 52, 114–115 kr itl 95–96, 108 Dze ect 69 E Eope, Ilm in 133–134 F Fewell Pilgimge 32–33 ting itl (sw) 87, 88–89, 103 Ftim 71 Ftimid dynty 44, 45 etivl 88–89, 93–94, 102–108 Five Pill o Ilm 84–92, 87 ood nd dink 113 Fidy pye 100–101, 102 nel 52, 115 G Gbiel 24, 25–26, 57 H dit 60–61, 63 Hz l-Ad 126  (pilgimge) 20, 32–33, 87, 90–92 Hn cool 63–64 Hnbli cool 65 Hn l-Aki 72 Hn l-Bi, l- 78 even nd ell 57–58 Hidden Imm 72–74 Hi 26 Hyn 40–41, 65, 71, 93, 94 Hein, Sddm 135

I Ibli (Stn) 57–58 s 68, 71–74, 86–87, 94, 105 Iqbl, Mmmd 123 In, Ilmic evoltion in 128–129 Iq, w in 135–136 Ilmic clend 26 Ilmic lw (i) 15, 58–59, 62–65 Imili ect 69 Itn Aiyy 69–77  J  J l-Sdiq 65  Ji cool 65  Jmt-i Ilmi 125–126  Je Cit 13, 25, 55  inn (piit) 20, 57  Jdim 20, 22, 28–29, 55 K Kb 20, 21, 32–33 Kiite, te 38, 39, 41 Komeini, Aytoll 70, 128–129 kutb 100–101 Kn 68 M  (minet) 84 Mliki cool 64 mige 111–113 Mtel, Cle 12, 41 wls 105, 107–108 Mecc 13, 18, 20–21, 22–23, 29–31, 32–33, 90–92, 119 Medin 13, 26–29, 30–31, 119 Middle Et, te 131–132 miionie 50–51, 83 Moe 13, 25, 55 moqe 28, 86–87, 101–102; in Cio 45; Dome o te

Rock, Jelem 27, 46, 131; Sm 73 us 86 Mwiy 37–38 Mmmd Abd 123 Mmmd ibn Abd All 16, 20–33, 71, 72; confict wit Meccn 29–31, 32; te Fewell Pilgimge 32–33; God’ eveltion to 13, 24–26, 30, 33, 55; nd dit 60–61; oppoition to 25–27; politic 27–28; tecing o  59–60 Mmmd ibn l-Hnyy 68 Mly Idi 107, 108 mic 49, 108, 129 utwws (gide) 91

N l-Ni, Jml Abd 115, 126 ntionlim 124–125 Nyi commnity 69 O Om bin Lden 133 Ottomn Empie 47, 49, 51, 116–118 P Plvi dynty 77 Pn-Ilm 136 pilgimge () 20, 32–33, 87, 90–92 poety 19–20, 49 polygyny 112–113 pye 40, 58, 84–88, 100–101 Q Qdiiy ode 82–83 Qed, l- 133 Q dynty 77 Qn, te 10, 13, 14, 52–60, 62;

cilden nd 109; nd te commnity 58–60; on det 114, 115; on God, mnkind, even nd ell 56–58; lngge 98–100; te mege o 55–56; on polygyny  112–113; ecittion o 54; nd te i 62–65

R Rbi l-Adwiyy 78 Rmdn 88–89, 103 Rid Rid 123 Rez Kn 77 itl 40, 84–97; A poceion 93–94, 105; cicmciion 109–110; det 52, 114–115; krs 95–96, 108; etivl 102–108;  (pilgimge) 20, 32–33, 87, 90–92; mige 111–113; poeing brk 96–97; sw (ting itl) 87, 88–89, 103; te tomb o  te imm 94; wuu (itl clening) 86, 102;  zkt (lmgiving) 87, 89–90 S cice 104–105 Sdt, Anw 126 Svid 49, 51, 76, 83 int, venetion o 96–97 Sldin 44, 46 slt 84, 87 lvtion 74–75 Snin Empie 36–37 Stn (Ibli) 57–58 sw (ting itl) 87, 88–89 cool o lw 63–65 Sdiliy ode 83 Si cool 64–65 s 87–88

i (Ilmic lw) 15, 58–59, 62–65 ine 20, 21, 32–33 Society o Mlim Bote 125–126 Sm 79–83, 95–97, 107–108, 118, 119–120 Swdiy ode 81, 82

T tzy (pion ply) 93, 94 l-Tbi, Ab J Mmmd ibn Ji 59, 60 tsr 59 Tlibn 132–133 teoim 12, 133, 134 Twelve Si 69–77 U lm (“lened one”) 50, 74–77, 118, 122 Um ibn l-Kttb 36 Umyyd 38–42, 64, 68, 93 u (commnity) 15, 58–60 United Stte, Ilm in 134–135 Utmn Don Fodio 119–120 W Wbi movement 97, 119 Wli All, S 120  wedding 111–113  women in Ilm 127, 129, 136; emle cicmciion 110–111  wuu (itl clening) 86, 102 Z  zkt (lmgiving) 87 Zydi ect 68–69 Zyn l-Abidin 66–68

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 ABOUT THE AUTHOR  Matthew Matthe w S. Gor Gordon don i ocite poeo o itoy t Mimi Univeity o  Oio. He obtined  P.D. om Colmbi Univeity nd i te to o  Te Brekg o  Tous Swors: A Hstory o te Turks Turks Mltry o Srr nd coedito o Frco-Arb Ecouters.

 ABOUT THE SERIES EDITORS MartinPalmer i te onde o ICOREC (Intentionl Conltncy on Religion, Edction, nd Clte) in 1983 nd i te ecety-genel o te Allince o Religion nd Conevtion (ARC). He i te to o mny book on wold eligion.  JoanneO’Brien  n M.A. degee in teology nd  witten  nge o edctionl nd genel eeence eeence book on eligion nd contempoy clte. Se i co-to, wit Mtin Plme nd Elizbet Beilly, o  Relgos o te Worl nd Festvls o te Worl pblied by Fct On File Inc.

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