31st May 2016
IGCSE HISTORY DEVELOPMENT OF DICTATORSHIP : GERMANY, 1918-45
1. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC AND ITS EARLY PROBLEMS A. The German Revolution of 1918 i.
Causes of Revolution
Failure of the First World War and hardships that came with it. In late 1917, Germans still held high hopes of achieving victory in the war. A Spring Offensive in 1918 was launched by the Germans. It was initially successful but eventually stalled due to inadequate personnel and supplies. Germany’s civilian population suffered severe food shortages, caused by Allied blockade and domestic policies. Food shortages led to cuts in navy rations which led to a mutiny. In addition to the hardships suffered, there was a Spanish influenza epidemic throughout Europe in 1918 which killed many civilians and soldiers. With the invasion of Germany imminent, its leaders began seeking armistice, triggering civilian and politic unrest. By November 1918, the war had cost 2.4 million German lives. The Kiel Mutiny of October 1918 instigated the German Revolution which ended the both the war and the reign of the Kaiser.
Influence of Russian Revolution. Russian Revolution of November 1917 had increased pressure for change, particularly within the Communist groups.
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Events of the Revolution
25 October 1918 – Naval commanders at Kiel sent ships out to fight British fleet. Sailors mutinied.
26 October – 5 November 1918 – Kaiser and government did nothing to stop mutiny. Strikers and demonstrations against the war and the Kaiser ensued. On the 4 November 1918, 40,000 soldiers joined the sailors and a Soldiers and Workers Council was set up.
6 November 1918 – The Soldiers and Workers council took control in cities. Their main aim was to end the war.
7 November 1918 – Social Democrats sent an ultimatum to the Kaiser that unless he abdicates, they would too join the revolution. This was threatening as the Social Democrats were the most popular party amongst the workers. Their addition to the revolution would only increase the intensity of the revolution.
9 November 1918 – There was a general strike in Berlin. Armed workers and soldiers joined the streets. Social Democrats were afraid that extremist parties would gain control of the revolution. Social Democrats formed a temporary government led by Friedrich Ebert, who became the new Chancellor. Ebert announced the Kaiser’s abdication and setting up of the German Republic which they would run in coalition with other socialist parties.
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Effects of the Revolution
The abdication of the Kaiser and the formation of a new German state and democratic system, Weimar Republic. The government would continually suffer from criticism and protest for forcing the Kaiser to abdicate and agreeing to end the war prematurely.
The signing of the armistice with allies to end the war. New government agreed to armistice on 11 November 1918. This meant that Germany had to surrender all land won in war. Germany had to surrender its munitions. Germany had to pull troops back 48km from France. The armistice was unpopular and economic suffering continued, mainly due to the Allied Naval Blockade of Germany which continued into June 1919. This caused political turmoil throughout 1918-1919.
B. The Strengths and Weaknesses of The New Constitution The New Constitution, The Weimar Republic, was drawn up in 1919. The Weimar Constitution attempted to set up a democratic system where no individual could gain too much power. The temporary government was not a long-term solution, so SDP organised elections for a National Assembly on 19 Jan 1919. The constitution was signed into law by Ebert on 11 August 1919. i.
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Strengths of New Constitution The Reichstag was set up. The Reichstag represented the whole nation. They discussed issues such as tax, finance and foreign policies. Members of the Reichstag was re-elected every four
years. All Germans over 20 years old, male or female, had the right to vote.
Proportional Representation was a key element of the Reichstag. This meant that the number of Reichstag seats which political parties are given depended on the percentage of votes they gained. The purpose of this is to set up a democratic system where no individual can gain too much power. The Chancellor was the head of the government who chose ministers and ran the country. He would need the majority of Reichstag votes to pass a single law. The President was head of state and is reelected every 7 years, could dismiss the Reichstag, call for a new election and had control of the army. Power was also shared between the Chancellor and the President. No single group or person had all the power. The President shared similar powers to President of USA which meant that he could protect the Republic in a crisis.
The Bill of Rights was set up. This guaranteed every German citizen the right of freedom of speech, religion and equality under the law. Cheques and balances introduced into government to make system fairer. Anyone could form a political party which were all new freedoms for Germany which was very modern at the time.
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Weaknesses of the New Constitution Proportional Representation meant that even a party with a small number of votes would gain seats in the Reichstag, increasing political instability as there would be a “congestion” of parties in the Reichstag. This meant that whatever government or party was in power, the constitution was always weak. Chancellors needed coalition of parties to gain the support of the majority to pass a law. Parties normally could not come to an agreement as they shared different aims and therefore, decision making would require a long time and it becomes a tedious process. Thus, rendering the new constitution a disorganised system. The system of New Constitution is too fair. Balance of powers in the constitution meant that government by the Chancellor was very difficult in times of crisis. Article 48 was introduced when parties could not come to a compromise. Chancellor will suspend the constitution under Article 48 and rule by decree. This renders the new democratic system of the Weimar Republic useless. This meant that the Chancellor could virtually rule as dictator under Article 48, which was what Hitler did with the Enabling Act. It is a
weakness as Article 48 would later be used and abused by Hitler to make himself a dictator legally.
C. Reactions to the Treaty of Versailles i.
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Terms of Treaty of Versailles The Allied victors met at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 to decide the fate of Germany. The Treaty of Versailles was the result of these negotiations and was mainly shaped by the French’s desire to punish Germany.
War Guilt, Article 231 became known as the “War Guilt Clause” as Germany was held entirely responsible for starting the war.
Reparations, Germany had to pay reparation fee of £6600 million. Germany was also excluded from participating in the League of Nations.
Colonies, Germany lost all 11 of its colonies in Africa and the Far East. They were given as “mandates” for the Allies to look after.
Military, German army limited to 100,000 soldiers. Navy limited to 6 battleships, 6 cruisers, 12 destroyers and 12 torpedo boats. No
submarines were allowed. No air forces were allowed. Troops in Rhineland had to be demilitarised. Rhineland would house French troops for the next 15 years.
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Land,- Alsace Loraine were returned to France. Germany was forbidden from uniting with Austria. Danzig was made a free city under League of Nations. The Saar, land of coalfields was given to France for 15 years. West Prussia, also known as the “The Polish Corridor” was given to Poland. Germany lost 13% of land in total, 50% of iron reserves and 15% of coal reserves. 6 million people were lost. Reaction to Treaty of Versailles (Consequences of ToV)
German Outrage, Germany was given 15 days to sign the Treaty was allowed no say in final provisions. The Treaty is known as the “diktat” as Germany had no choice but to sign. They felt it was unfair as it was an imposed settlement and Germany herself had not been allowed to partake in the discussions. This angered many political groups in Germany. Germans felt “pain and anger” as German land and people were being stolen. Some Germans now lived in France or Poland.
Humiliation, Germany was no longer a strong country to be feared, but a weak one at the mercy of allies. Germany had a strong military tradition, so losing their military was very humiliating and caused Germans to lose their pride. Millions of soldiers were now out of work and ended up joining the Freikorps. Clause 231 that spoke of War Guilt did not physically hurt Germany but it hurt Germany’s pride. This weakened the popularity of the Weimar Republic. Many people believed the army had not been defeated and could have fought on, thus, they blamed the Weimar politicians for signing the Treaty which sealed the fate of Germany.
Economic Crisis, Germany was already near bankrupt from the war. The Weimar Government believed that they had almost no chance of being able to meet the payments. The loss of land from the Treaty made it even more difficult. Reparation fee that Germany was forced to pay was a harsher blow as it meant that Germany was unlikely to recover and become an important country again. The loss of resource rich lands and high reparation fee that was set led to high inflation rates in Germany.
D. The Spartacist uprising and the Kapp Putsch The Weimar Republic was unpopular from the start as political groups tried to overthrow it. Political extremists wanted Germany to become a 5
dictatorship again. Communists (extreme LEFT), believe that everyone should be equal and no one should individually own anything. Everything should be shared. They believe that all factories should be own by the workers who should share profits equally. Fascists (extreme RIGHT) believe in the “survival of the fittest”. The best people would end up rich as they deserve what they have because they are naturally better. Weak people should not be helped because the country requires strong people. i.
Causes Right-wing parties. They resented the “November Criminals”;
hated and feared the Communists, wanted to reverse the Treaty of Versailles, reinstate the Kaiser, boost the army and return Germany to its former glory. It had the support of the military, judiciary and civil service.
Left-wing parties. Like the (KPD, Communists), wanted a socialist revolution like in Russia. They thought that Weimar gave too little power to the workers, they wanted a government by Soviet councils, wanted to abolish the land-owning classes and the army.
Unpopularity of the Weimar Government, Between 1918-1923, German people hated the Weimar leader’s decision to admit defeat in 1918. They hated the Treaty of Versailles for its guilt placed on Germany and hated the hardships caused by unemployment and inflation. Everyone blamed the government and looked to more extreme methods to replace it.
Private armies, many political parties had their own private armies which caused political activity to become violent. There were 376 political murders between 1919-1923, mostly of left-wing or moderate politicians. Not a single right-wing murder was convicted, angering the left wing.
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Events of Spartacist Uprising, Kapp Putsch Spartacist Uprising, 6 January 1919. 100,000 Communists demonstrated in Berlin and took over key buildings such as newspaper offices. The Communists were inspired by the Spartacist League led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemberg. Chancellor Ebert and his defence minister persuaded the 250,000 strong
Freikorps (demobilised soldiers who had refused to surrender their weapons) to put down the Spartacist uprisings. Thousands of communists were arrested and killed, mostly in Berlin. Rosa Luxemberg and Karl Liebknecht were arrested on 15 January and were murdered by the Freikorps. The threat from the left-wing was over.
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Kapp Putsch, March 1920. Elements of the Freikorps and military supporters of Dr Wolfgang Kapp marched on Berlin to overthrow the Weimar Republic and bring back the Kaiser. 12 th March, they took over the government quarter of the city. President Ebert and the government fled to Dresden on 13th March, urging German workers to not cooperate and to go on strike. Up to 12 million workers responded and refused to work. The gas, electricity, water and transport all stopped in Berlin, leaving Berlin completely paralysed. Kapp realised he could not govern and fled to Sweden. Consequences, Effects.
Government popularity and authority was weakened. The government had not been able to govern on its own authority. It relied on workers’ strikes and the Freikorps to defeat political opponents. In the following elections on June 6, 1920. The SDP fell by over half compared to the Jan 1919 elections.
Extremist Parties gathered strength. The Two uprisings proved that the government was weak and those who have the most military power could eventually win. This increased unrest throughout Germany leading the Munich Putsch in 1923. The Kapp Putsch and Spartacist uprising exposed the critical weakness of the Weimar government and highlighted Freikorps as a considerable force of political influence.
E. French Occupation of The Ruhr. i.
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Causes In January 1923, Germany couldn’t keep up with reparation payments to France and “defaulted”. German government was bankrupt as its reserves of gold had all been spent in the war. Treaty of Versailles made things worse by depriving Germany of resource-rich areas like coalfields of the Saar and Alsace Loraine. Reparation payments further harmed the German economy. By 1913, naturally, Germany was unable to afford reparation payments.
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Events In retaliation for the failure to repay reparations, the French and Belgians sent 750,000 troops into the German industrial heart, the Ruhr. They confiscated raw materials, manufactured goods and industrial machinery. The Ruhr was Germany’s most important industrial area as it contained over 80% of Germany’s steel production. The French and Belgian invaded the area on purpose to make up for Germany’s missed reparation fees. German government urged passive resistance and workers went on strike. 80% of Germany’s industrial production was based in the Ruhr, French occupation in the Ruhr crippled Germany’s industrial output. The disruption increased Germany’s debts, increased unemployment rates and reduced overall industrial output. Effects INFLATION. Reduction of workers working in industry meant that there will be a drop in output. This meant that there will be shortages of goods in the cities. This increased prices of goods in cities. Government needed money to pay debts but unemployment and failing factories meant that they received less money from taxes. The government decided to print more money in 1923. Printing more money increased inflation rates. More money was printed which reduced value of money and prices skyrocketed. A vicious cycle had been created and hyperinflation ensued. For example, price of bread rose from 1 mark in 1919 to 100,000 marks in 1923. German marks became worthless. Foreign suppliers refused to accept marks for goods, therefore, imports froze and food shortages became increasingly worse. It was difficult to obtain basic necessities. Workers had to be paid twice a day so that they could rush out to shops to buy goods before prices rose even further. Barter system was introduced as people resorted to trading goods instead of money which sends Germany in a backwards direction in terms of modernisation. Savings were wiped out, those with insurance policies, savings, and pensions were hit the worst as savings became worthless.
F. Causes and Effects of Hyperinflation. i.
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Causes The French Occupation in the Ruhr meant that Germany’s economy would suffer. 80% of Germany’s industrial production was carried out in the Ruhr, Germany’s industrial heart. French and
Belgian troops confiscated and essentially took raw materials and manufactured goods for their own. This drove the workers to urge passive resistance and to go on strike. This meant that less people were working in factories which crippled Germany’s industrial output even further. The combined effects of the French Occupation which caused the passive resistance caused Germany’s industrial output to dramatically decrease. The decrease in industrial output caused less goods to circulate in markets and shortages of food and raw materials would ensue. Lack of food and materials in the market led to a rapid increase of prices. This is what is known as inflation.
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Government printed more money to combat the fact that less taxes were coming through as there were less workers working in factories and less products being produced. Excess money circulating in the market caused hyperinflation as value for money turned worthless. Soon, people stopped using money altogether and reverted into the barter system. Effects Workers who had few savings were not badly affected. Jobs stayed mostly secure. However, they lost faith in the government. Middle class men were the most badly affected. Their savings were made worthless by hyperinflation. Businessmen could no longer buy goods from abroad as German money was worthless and people would not accept them as form of money. They lose faith in the government and started supporting extremists like the Nazis. Pensioners were badly affected as well as their pensions and savings were made worthless. They could no work as they are old, which caused them to literally wait for death. Rich upper class men were the least affected as they kept their money in property or overseas. They see the Government as incompetent. Hatred on Jews as Jews kept their money in foreign banks, and therefore they are unaffected by the hyperinflation. This led to the hatred of Jews that Hitler seized on. This helped built unrest for the Munich Putsch. People blamed the Weimar government for these problems. Hitler saw this as a chance to manipulate the political unrest in Germany to launch the Munich Putsch in November 1923.
2. THE RECOVERY OF GERMANY, 1924 – 1929 A. The Work of Stresemann i.
Gustav Stresemann was made Chancellor of Germany in 1923. He was one of the ablest politicians in Weimar Republic. He faced several problems as Germany was on the brink of collapsing, and extremist groups like the Nazi’s seeing this as a chance to take over. People were forced to reverse to old ways like the barter system because money is worthless.
B. Rentenmark (October 1923), Dawes (1924) and Young Plan (1929), US loans and the recovery of the German economy. i.
Rentenmark (October 1923) The biggest problem Germany faced in 1923 was hyperinflation caused by the French occupation in the Ruhr. The introduction of new currency by Stresemann was an attempt to stabilise the economy. Old currency was abolished and a new, temporary currency was introduced. New notes were trusted because the government promised to exchange them for shares in land or industry if the currency failed. In August 1924, the Rentenmark was replaced by permanent currency called the Reichsmark. A new independent national bank, Reichsbank was created to control the currency. Confidence in the currency and banking system was restored. Deposits in German banks rose from 900 million marks in 1924 to 4,900 million marks in 1926.
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Dawes Plan (1924) Reparation payments were set so high that Germany had been unable to pay in 1923, leading to the French Occupation in the Ruhr. The Allies needed to be persuaded to reduce payments to a sensible level. French and Belgian troops who were occupying the Ruhr were removed. Stresemann and Allies agreed to reduce annual payments to an affordable level, USA promised to loan $800 million to German Industry to promote economic growth, French and Belgian troops were evacuated from the Ruhr as soon as reparation payments begun. The German economy recovered and received an increase of foreign investments and loans. Coal ouput rose from 75 million tonnes in 1924 to 300 million tonnes in 1929. Manufactured goods sales doubled in the years 1923-1929. Unemployment rates fell to its lowest in 1928. However, the Dawes Plan made Germany reliant and dependent on US
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economy which would have its setbacks during the Great Depression in 1929. iii.
Young Plan (1929) Success in foreign policy eventually led to a success in economic policy. The Young Plan cut reparation payments from £6.6 billion to £2 billion and an extension of 59 more years to pay. The Young Plan strengthened the Weimar Republic by easing the burden of reparation payments. However, Hitler criticized Stresemann for “passing penalty to the unborn children”.
C. Successes abroad – League of Nations (1926), Locarno Treaties (1925) and Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928) i.
League of Nations (1926) Germany was excluded from joining the League of Nations when it was created by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. The Locarno Pact paved the way for Germany’s remittance. Stresemann persuaded the League to accept Germany as a member in 1926 and Germany even gained a place on the League’s council. Hitler would eventually leave the League in 1933. Germany was trusted again and treated as an equal in world affairs, helping Germany’s ability to gain financial and diplomatic help from Allied powers.
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Locarno Treaty (1925) Germany was treated unfairly by the Allies and Stresemann needed some success in international diplomacy to appease German demands. Germany signed the Locarno agreement with Britain, France, Italy and Belgium. Germany agreed to keep to its new 1919 border with France and Belgium. In return, the Allies agreed to remove their troops from the Ruhr and discuss German entry to the League of Nations. Germany was now treated as an equal in international standards. The “spirit of Locarno” improved relations in Europe in the years of 1925-1930, encouraging foreign investments in Germany.
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Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928) Stresemann was keen to prove Germany’s commitment to international peace or to persuade the Allies to drop the terms of the Treaty of Versailles as some would speculate. Germany was one of the 65 countries to sign the Kellogg-Briand Pact, an international agreement by which states promised not to use war to achieve their foreign policy aims. This also showed that Germany had
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become a respectable member of the international community which led to the international community’s willingness to cut reparation fees in the Young Plan, 1929.
3. THE RISE OF HITLER AND THE NAZIS A. Hitler and the German Worker’s Party. i.
The German Worker’s Party (DAP) is a Right-Wing group found by Drexler in 1919. DAP members were angry about : Communists and Socialists who brought down the Kaiser as they wanted a dictator regime, Weimar politicians who agreed to the Treaty of Versailles, the weakness of democracy as a means of government, the Jews who were blamed for weakening the country (anti-Semitism). Hitler attended his first meeting in 1919, where there were only 29 members. Hitler found out the entire party was only funded by 7 marks. Hitler had been sent to the DAP to spy for the army but later realised that he agreed with the party. September 1919, Hitler formally joined the DAP.
B. Changes to the party 1920-1922 i.
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25 Point Programme The main points of the 25 Point Programme is to : scrap the Treaty of Versailles, expand Germany’s borders to give people Lebensraum (living space), deprive Jews of rights and citizenship, destroying communism, to make Germany great again. DAP used force and violence to achieve this. Hitler’s public speaking skills and confidence attracted large numbers of people to DAP meetings. Many people were dissatisfied with the Weimar Republic in 1923. Hitler’s excellent and convincing oratory skills attracted support from the army, police and small businesses. As a result, membership skills grew rapidly to 1,100 people in 1920 compared to 23 people in 1919. The Growth of Hitler’s role in DAP during the 1920s
In 1920, Hitler changed the name of the party from DAP to NSDAP. Members of NSDAP was known as Nazis. The party adopted the swastika as its emblem. Members began to use the arm salute as a Nazi characteristic. Members of the NSDAP increased to 3,000. Increased membership boosted party funds which enabled party to buy newspaper Beobatcher for 180,000 marks. This meant that the party was able to spread propaganda and Nazi views more 12
efficiently. In 1921, Hitler pushed Drexler aside and became party leader. He gathered influential and powerful party members such as ; Ernst Rohm (founder of SA), Goering (leader of SS, hero of Luftwaffe), Rudolf Hess (Hitler’s deputy) and Julius Streicher (founder of Nazi newspaper, Der Strumer). He was also close friends with General Ludendorf (leader of German army in WW1, very respectable). iii.
The Sturmabteilung, (SA) They were also known as Stormtroopers or Brown shirts. They were created in 1921. They were composed of demobilised soldiers from 1919 due to the Treaty of Versailles. They were also the Nazis private army. They provided security at Nazi meetings, acted as bodyguards for Nazi leaders, broke up meetings of oppositional groups, spread Nazi propaganda, gave Nazis appearance of strength and order.
C. Causes, Events and Results of Munich Putsch, 1923. i.
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Causes Hitler believed that the Weimar Government was crumbling and that people would support a party like his, taking over. There was heavy political unrest in 1923 as it was the height of the hyperinflation crisis affecting the Germans. The French occupation in the Ruhr that caused it was a source of great anger and shame amongst the Germans. Hitler exploited this discontent to his own use. By November 1923, Hitler felt like the NSDAP was strong enough to make a challenge nationally as membership had grown to 55,000. Hitler sensed that the new Chancellor, Stresemann would solve the economic problems soon. This meant that time was running out before unrest died down. If unrest died down, there would be nothing for Hitler to exploit to gain power. NSDAP meetings were banned from taking place in 1923. Hitler felt like he was being controlled and was under pressure to act and assert his leadership. Hitler believed that he had support of local council in Bavaria. Gustav Kahr, had been heard plotting against the Government himself. Hitler believed that he had the support of the army. An important ex-General, Ludendorff, supported Hitler’s plans. It was thought that the army would support the Putsch if Ludendorff was involved as he was very well respected amongst the barracks.
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During the crisis of 1923, Hitler plotted with Lossow and Kahr to take over Munich in revolution. Hitler told the SA to be prepared for a rebellion. 4 October, Kahr and Lossow called off the revolution which made it difficult for Hitler as he already mobilised 3,000 troops who were ready for battle.
8 November, Hitler and 600 SA burst into a meeting of 3,000 officials of the Bavarian Government held by Kahr and Lossow in the Beer Hall. Hitler released a gun shot to the ceiling and announced that he would be taking control of the Government. He claimed that he would be taking control of Munich and would march to the German government. He was supported by famous General Ludendorff. Kahr, Seisser and Lossow were taken off into a side room where they relunctantly agreed to support the uprising. Hitler left the hall and Ludendorff allowed Kahr and his associates to leave which proved ot be a huge mistake as they changed their minds and now opposed Hitler. The 2,000 strong SA members were now outnumbered by Bavarian police and army.
9 November, Hitler sent 3000 supporters and the SA to capture key government buildings in Munich such as newspaper offices and army headquarters. Hitler marched into Munich on what they thought was a triumphant march to take power. However, they were met with 100 state police soldiers who opened fire on them despite the fact that Ludendorff was on the Nazi’s side, killing 16 Nazis and injured Hitler and Goering. Hitler’s insurance plan backfired which eventually led to Ludendorff’s arrest on the spot and Hitler’s arrest 2 days later.
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Events
Effects
Bad Hitler and three other leaders (Rohm, Ludendorff and Dr Wilhelm) stood trial. Hitler was found guilty of treason and was sentenced to 5 years in prison. Ludendorff was acquitted and others were released. Nazi Party was banned until 1925.
Good Hitler used the trial to get national publicity. The failure of the Munich Putsch brought recognition to Hitler. He was able to further develop Nazi propaganda. Every word he spoke was reported in national papers the next day. He turned his trial into a platform of propaganda. Hitler manipulated the publicity he was receiving to promote Nazi ideology. As a result of the publicity, the NSDAP won
its first seats in the Reichstag, 32 seats in 1924 elections. This was propaganda victory for the NSDAP.
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Hitler used his time in jail to write Mein Kampf. He formed his political ideas which became a guide for the party. It focused on the need for one all-powerful leader to guide the party – the Fuhrer Principle. By doing so, Hitler realised that direct action would not work and decided to win power through the ballot box – the Reichstag principle. Why did the Munich Putsch fail?
Too much trust on General Ludendorff Hitler placed too much trust on Ludendorff. He believed that the army and police would not retaliate against Ludendorff due to respect and social ranking. However, Ludendorff himself was a disorganised individual. He was always late to meetings and was never punctual. Hitler’s insurance plan of using Ludendorff to protect himself and the NSDAP backfired as state police opened fire despite the fact Ludendorff was present. In addition to that, the only reason why the SA was outnumbered by Bavarian police was because Ludendorff allowed Kahr, Seisser and Lossow to leave the Beerhall.
Timing The Munich Putsch took place in November 1923. By 1923, Germany has recovered slightly from the hyperinflation due to Stresemann’s efforts as Chancellor. Stresemann introduced a new temporary system of currency called the Rentenmark in October 1923. The rentenmark became so successful that it was replaced with a permanent currency called the Reichsmark. Reichsbanks were created to control the new currency of Reichsmark. Hitler carried out the Munich Putsch too late as German discontent died down. By the time of Munich Putsch in November 1923, political unrest had died down and there would therefore, be less hatred towards the Weimar Government for Hitler to exploit.
D. Reorganisation of the Party 1924-1928 i.
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Administration and Funding Hitler left prison in 1924 and re-launched the Nazi Party in February 1925. Hitler re-launched the Nazi Party with a focus of winning power through elections, not violence. This meant that he needed better organisation and funding of the Nazi Party. Hitler
appointed two efficient administrators to run Nazi HQ. Hitler also divided party into regions, appointing gauleiters who ran the party in each region. To fund this, Hitler befriended wealthy businessmen who shared his hatred of communism. They hoped Hitler could limit the power of trade unions. By the early 1930s, the party was receiving big donations from Thyssen, Krupp and Bosch. ii.
Extra funding was used to strengthen the SA which expanded to 400,000 members by 1930. They were used to provide security at Nazi meetings, as bodyguards for important Nazi members, break up meetings of opposition groups, spread Nazi propaganda and to intimidate opponents. They gave the appearance of strength, order and unity to the party.
Hitler also set up the SS (Schutzstaffel) protection squad in 1925 as his own private bodyguard. He was worried about the SA who were difficult to control and who swore loyalty to Ernst Rohm, the commander. The SS was run at first by Schreck but was replaced by Himmler. They were known for their ruthlessness and black uniform.
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SS and SA
Propaganda The use of propaganda became important as the party hoped to increase its share of the vote. Goebbels was the Nazi Party gauleiter for Berlin and was a brilliant propagandist. He worked with Hitler to improve the party message. They created scapegoats for Germany’s problems. The Jews, Communists and leaders of the Weimar Republic were made scapegoats for Germany’s problems. The SDPs were hit especially hard as they were the ones who signed the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler was promoted in propaganda as the voice of the Nazi Party. By the 1930s, there were 120 Nazi daily or weekly newspapers, reporting Hitler’s speeches across the whole country. The Nazi Party also pioneered the use of radio, films and gramophone records to keep Hitler in the public eye. Hitler was famous, he essentially went on “tour” speaking up to five times a day in some cases, he uses aeroplanes to travel from city to city. Propaganda created the image of strength for the party. It focused on Hitler’s passion, the spectacle of mass Nazi rallies and the impressive power of the SA and SS. Progress by 1928
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By 1928, the Nazi Party was well organised and had over 100,000 members. Hitler became the national figure. However, there are some problems. Since 1923, the economy had recovered, employment hand increased and inflation had eased. People were better off and did not want to vote for extremist parties. There were less political unrest for the Nazi Party to exploit as Germany was going through its “Golden Age”. Hitler failed to win over working class as they voted for Communist or left wing parties. People were put off by Nazi’s extreme views such as hatred of Jews and re-arming Germany became embarrassing to people in Germany who were doing well. Stresemann seemed to be regaining status of Germany in the international community. In 1925, Paul Von Hindenburg, had become president. His reputation was a boost to the Weimar Republic as he was an ex-field Marshal of the German Army. This increased votes for moderate parties such as the SPD. In the elections of May 1928, the Nazis only won 12 seats and were the 9th biggest party.
Impact of Wall Street Crash (October 1929) i.
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Causes In October, share prices began to fall rapidly on the Wall Street stock exchange. Falling shares meant people’s investments fell in value. Worried about losing money, people rushed to sell shares before they fell further. On 24th October 1929, 13 million shares were sold. Panic selling sent prices even lower. $20,000 in the morning were worth $1000 by the end of the day. Within a week, investors lost $4000 million. American banks were headed for bankruptcy so they began to recall all foreign loans. Consequences in Germany Poverty Germany recalled heavily on American loans. When America recalled its loans, Germany became poor overnight as she only had 90 days to repay the Dawes Plan and Young Plan. Farmers quickly slipped into debt. Farmers were taxed heavily due to increase of global agricultural rates. 18,000 farmers went bankrupt in the years 1930-1932. Farmers had to produce more products for less money. Farmers were left stumped as more money was required to produce more products. Workers wages reduced by 40%.
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Drop in production levels Banks ran out of cash quickly as people withdrew all their savings. To make the money back, German banks recalled all their loans to German businesses. However, German businesses needed the money to operate. As a result, many German businesses closed which reduced industrial output. Worldwide depression meant that there was no market for German exports. Americans stopped buying European goods in order to encourage domestic goods.
Mass unemployment rates High unemployment rates meant that there was no domestic demand for goods within Germany as productivity decreases, less goods were produced. The Ruhr declared bankruptcy which meant the laying off of many workers. In 1928, 650,000 were unemployed. By 1933, 6 million were unemployed. Unemployed workers further increased welfare bill for the German governments as they have to afford unemployment benefits.
Social and Political effects Closing businesses creates a drop in productivity level which then creates more unemployment and decreases trade which then results in government loosing tax revenue. Government appeared powerless and incompetent. This feeds on the unpopularity of the Weimar Government especially after the hyperinflation in 1921 that lasted 3 years. Germans are unsatisfied and blamed the Weimar Government. This weakened the Weimar Government gravely. Chancellor Bruning responded by raising taxes and reduced unemployment benefits to make payments more affordable. This meant that people received less money but are taxed heavily and expected to pay more. This pleased no one, as right-wing parties opposed higher taxes and left-wing parties opposed lower benefits. Bruning’s coalition government collapses and loses his grip which forced him to rule by Presidential decree (Article 48) to govern. There were 44 decrees in 1931 but 66 in 1932. Decrees undermined confidence in Weimar Republic. Confidence placed on the Weimar government was lost.
Weakness in German Economy
Wall Street Crash
America Recalled Loans
Decline in world trade
Fall in German businesses and consumer confidence
Less production = less consumption
Businesses close and reduced
Higher unemployment rates, less money flowing in economy
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Fall in demand
F. Nazis Methods to Win Support i.
May 1928 – Nazis won 12 seats, Communists won 54 seats September 1930 – Nazis won 107 seats, Communists won 77 seats July 1932 – Nazis won 230 seats, Communists won 89 seats November 1932 – Nazis won 196 seats, Communists won 121 seats.
ii.
Working Class Many working people were attracted by Nazi support for traditional German values and a strong Germany. Nazis promised “Work and Bread” on posters which appealed economically to the working class. The Nazis used posters which gave the impression that many workers already supported them however they never really dominated the working class vote. When times were hard, most workers supported the communists.
iii.
Middle-class support Many lost their companies, savings and pensions. Hitler was immediately seen as a strong leader and were hopeful that Hitler could revive their businesses. The middle class were afraid of growing KPD which wanted to abolish private ownership of land and businesses. The middle class saw the Nazis as a strong party which could protect them from this. Moral decline after the war under Weimar Republic that included drinking and sexual openness. The Nazis represented a return to traditional German values. This went down well with the middle class.
iv.
Farmers The Farmers supported the Nazis as they were perceived as protection from the KPD which would have confiscated all land and abolish private ownership. The Nazi policy of confiscating all private land in the original 25 point programme was changed in 1928 to a new policy that said that all private land would only be confiscated to protect farmers from KPD.
v.
Big businesses Big businesses saw Hitler as their protection from KPD. Their support was a boost to Nazi funds and networking. The Nazi party was able to get help from powerful newspaper owners like Alfred Hugenberg to bring them electoral success.
vi. 20
Youth and Women
The youth were attracted by Hitler’s passionate speeches, ambitions for the future and atmosphere of Nazi rallies. Women did not support Hitler at first as his policies limited their role to the home. However, Nazi propaganda focused on women, saying NSDAP was best for the country and their families. The youth and women were a captive audience of the Nazi Party. G. Goebbels and propaganda and the work of the SA i.
Nazi Propaganda Propaganda is the “brainwash” of the public, convincing them of an ideological viewpoint. Most of the propaganda by the Nazis were directed towards the Jews. Jews were portrayed as Untermenschen and scapegoats for Germany’s defeat in WW1. Continual of propaganda encouraged German people to hate Jews. This encourages anti-Semitism within the Germans.
ii.
Methods of Propaganda The Press Anti-Nazi newspapers were shut down. Jews were banned from owning or working for newspapers. Goebbels’ ministry of propaganda sent out daily instructions telling them what to print and what sort of pictures to include to be published for general viewing. Display boards were set up in public places so everyone could read the newspapers. The Nazi Party themselves purchased a newspaper business in the 1920s which allowed them to publish whatever pro-Nazi view they liked. In addition to that, the Nazis had influential people like Alfred Hugenberg who owned newspaper businesses which helped spread more Nazi propaganda. Rallies Goebbels stage managed these events to give an overwhelming sense of unity amongst the Germans. Germans would automatically join these rallies as it gives them a sense of belonging. German’s commitment to the rallies increased as they wanted to be a part of something big and impressive. Radio Goebbels took over radio broadcasting. Regular programs on the radios were Hitler’s speeches. Foreign programmes cannot be picked up by the radios. This helped intensify the Nazi ideology as Germans would not be swayed by outsider opinions. All factory owners, departmental stores, offices, shops, pubs and flats were
21
made compulsory to have speakers installed an hour before the broadcast so that the whole population can participate fully in the broadcast. Films Anti-Semitic and pro-Nazi films were produced and showed in cinemas. Books Nazis frequently organised book burnings. They took place in public places such as town squares or city squares to attract attention of the masses. They would burn books written by Jews, Communists or Socialists. They burn any book that contained any ideas that the Nazi ideology would disprove. This further intensified Nazi ideology on the Germans as it was the only thing they are surrounded by. Other opinions or ideologies were annihilated.
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H. Events of 1932 to January 1933 including the role of von Papen, von Schleicher and von Hindenburg. i.
Events 1932
Date
Causes
March - April
Hindenburg’s seven year term as President was up. Elections took place against a backdrop of turmoil caused by the Wall Street Crash. Voters were willing to consider more extreme candidates in order to end unemployment and unrest. Schleicher persuades Hindenburg to replace Bruning because of proposed land reforms.
May
The socialist Chancellor Bruning used a Presidential decree to ban the SA & SS in April to calm unrest. This angered right-wing parties. Schleicher decided to remove Bruning. He organised a coalition of right-wing parties and persuaded Hindenburg that they had a majority in the Reichstag. Bruning was sacked and replaced with von Papen who Schleicher hoped to control. Von Papen becomes Chancellor with no Reichstag support at 23
Chanc ellor Brunin g
von Papen
Elections & Government
Significance
Hitler stood for President and lost to Hindenburg. In the March elections, Hindenburg polled 18 million votes, Hitler 11 million and Communist leader 5 million. As no candidate achieved 50% (not more than majority) of the vote, elections were held again in April. This time, Hindenburg won 19 million, Hitler 13 million and Communist leader, 4 million. Nazis asked to join government coalition. Schleicher invited the NSDAP to join the new right-wing coalition he had formed in removing Bruning. Schleicher needed NSDAP support as they were a big party. He believed that he could control the Nazis, seeing them as “merely children who had to be led by hand”.
Hilter became a major political figure during the elections. People were willing to consider him as President. He was second only to Hindenburg in the public’s eye.
For the first time, the Nazi Party was now part of the government of Germany. This led many to view the Nazis as a credible party who could govern sensibly and work with others for the good of Germany.
July
Novem ber
all, just because he was close with Hindeburg. The publicity from the Presidential campaign combined with a successful election campaign to give the Nazis, 230 seats in the Reichstag, up from 107 in the September 1930 election. Any government coalition now needed Nazi support as they were the biggest party. This made Hitler confident enough to demand the Chancellorship from Hindenberg.
The Nazis responded to Hindenburg’s refusal by refusing to cooperate with von Papen’s government and walking out of Parliament during meetings. This left von Papen’s coalition in shambles, its biggest party was refusing to cooperate so government had no choice but to grind to a halt, paralysed.
24
von Papen
von Papen
Reichstag Elections : Nazis now biggest party with 230 seats. Communists won 89 seats. This makes the Nazis the largest party but they still did not have majority of the votes due to proportional representation. Hitler demanded that Hindenburg replaced von Papen and announced him as Chancellor, seeing as the Nazis were now the biggest party. Hindenburg rebuffed his offer, viewing Hitler as a “jumped up corporal”. Reichstag Elections : Nazis still the biggest party with 190 seats. Communists won 121 seats. Von Papen hoped that if he called fresh elections, Nazi support would decline and they would gain less seats in the Reichstag. He was wrong, whilst their seats did drop to 190, they were still the biggest party.
Becoming the largest party in the Reichstag brought tremendous power to Hitler as it meant that the Nazis could bring government to a halt by refusing to cooperate.
Von Papen had lost his last gamble – Nazis were still the biggest party in the Reichstag and would continue with no cooperation. Von Papen became powerless to control events and Hindenburg could not indefinitely refuse Chancellorship to Hitler.
Decem ber
Januar y
39 business leaders tried to break the political deadlock by writing a letter to Hindenburg, asking him to appoint Hitler as Chancellor. They believed that they could control Hitler as the Nazis relied on them for donations. Hindenburg still opposed the idea and appointed Schleicher as Chancellor and Hitler as vice-Chancellor.
Von Papen had actually been plotting with Hindeburg against Schleicher for a while. With his downfall, von Papen believed his moment had returned. He persuaded Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as Chancellor and himself as viceChancellor, still thinking that Hitler could be controlled. Hindenburg relunctantly agreed.
25
von Schleic her
New Chancellor, von Schleicher as Chancellor was confident that the Nazi vote would drop. However, his main pronlem was that he consistently failed to get a majority coalition to work in the Reichstag. In desperation, Schleicher pleaded Hindenburg to suspend the constitution and declare Schleicher as head of military dictatorship. Hindenburg refused. News of this leaked out ad Schleicher lost remaining support in the Reichstag.
1932 Hitler New Chancellor. 30th January 1933, Hitler was legally and democratically appointed Chancellor of Germany.
Schleicher’s failure to command the majority in the Reichstag without Nazi support (190 seats) meant that he was always doomed to be a powerless leader. With his downfall, the only remaining popular and credible leader was Hitler. Hindenburg could no longer hold out. Appointing Hitler as Chancellor just proved how naïve the German rightwing was. They underestimated Hitler due to his ex-corporal past and lack of government expertise. Hitler’s power was still limited as Chancellor but he was now in a position to manipulate events to his own advantage.
ii.
26
Roles of von Papen, Schleicher and Hindeburg
Bruning Chancellor 1930-1932, He failed to deal with unemployment and made Weimar Government look incompetent. This in turn helped Hitler’s popularity as political unrest increased while Hitler was offering protection from the KPD and promises like “Work and Bread” to appeal to Germans. He was replaced by von Papen because Schleicher persuaded Hindenburg. He increased taxes to and reduced unemployment benefits to make payments more affordable. Right wing parties are angered by the increase in taxes while the left wing are angered by the reduction in unemployment benefits. This collapses the coalition government in Weimar and Bruning was forced to rule by decree, Article 48 as a sign of weakness. Ruling by decree undermines the confidence people have for the government. There was 44 decrees in 1931 but 66 decrees in 1932.
Von Papen Chancellor July 1932-November 1932. He failed to deal with unemployment but also failed to control the Nazis. Von Papen was initially installed as Chancellor so that Schleicher could control him like a puppet from behind the scenes. Von Papen became Chancellor with no Reichstag support at all. He only became Chancellor because of his relation to Hindenburg.
Schleicher Power crazy and failed to solve unemployment or control the Nazis. Pissed off von Papen who plotted to get rid of him. He could not get the coalition government to cooperate which complicated matters. He then persuaded Hindenburg to suspend the constitution and declared military dictatorship. News of this leaked out and Schleicher immediately lost all Reichstag support.
Hindenburg Wanted anyone but Hitler to be Chancellor. When these governments failed as well, Hindenburg finally listens to von Papen’s advise to appoint Hitler as Chancellor and von Papen as vice-Chancellor to control Nazi activity. The Nazi Party was the largest party but did not have the majority due to proportional representation. Von Papen thinks that, therefore, the majority of the government were non-Nazi since the NSDAP did not have majority of the votes, that Nazi actions could be limited and/or prevented.
Since the NSDAP were popular amongst the Germans, the Weimar constitution assumed that they could manipulate the NSDAP’s popularity to reinstate confidence and support for the Weimar Government.
LIFE IN NAZI GERMANY I.
Setting up the Nazi dictatorship through the Reichstag Fire, Enabling Act, Night of the Long Knives, the police state, censorship and propaganda. i.
ii.
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Reichstag Fire (27th Feb 1933) Whilst Hitler was Chancellor, he was still operating in a democratic system. He needed a way to persuade Hindenburg to give him more power. On the 27th February 1933, the Reichstag building was suddenly destroyed with a fire. A young Dutch communist, van der Lubbe was caught on sight, red handed with explosives and matches. He confessed, was put on trial and found guilty which he was beheaded for. Hitler used the confusion and unease generated by the fire to consolidate power. Hitler manipulated the Reichstag Fire to eliminate his opponents by instructing the SA to round up communists. 4,000 communists were caught that night. Hitler persuaded Hindenburg to declare a state of emergency and to pass the “Law for the Protection of People and State” which ended freedom of speech, association and press. Hitler could now legally use decrees to govern Germany and supress opposition groups which helped him eliminate the communists as he could put the Communists in indefinite custody. March Elections (5th March 1933) Hitler hoped to gain more seats in the Reichstag and his strong handling of the “communist conspiracy” boosted his popularity. Now it was the time to capitalise on that support. The general election was the Germans giving Hitler the clear instruction to rule. Hitler used his new powers of able to govern by decrees legally and the law for protection to supress opposition. This prevented publication of opposition newspapers and opposition groups from spreading propaganda. However, only 44% of people voted for the Nazis, securing 288 seats whilst the Communists secured 81 seats. This meant that the NSDAP was the largest party but did not have the support of the majority. Hitler used the SA to round up and arrest communist deputies which then gave Hitler the majority.
Goering quotes the elections to be a “masterpiece of propaganda”. iii.
iv.
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The Enabling Act (24th March 1933) Hitler has consolidated and centralised enough power to change the constitution. He required 75% of the Reichstag to vote in favour of the Act. The Act changed the constitution of the Weimar Republic as it enabled Hitler to avoid and bypass the Reichstag in passing laws. Hitler required the majority of Reichstag support to pass a law that allows him to bypass the Reichstag in passing future laws. The Enabling Act was passed on 24th March 1933 by 444 votes to 94 votes. Communist members were banned and not allowed to attend the session. Hitler posted members of the SA and SS threaten and intimidated into voting for the Act. This marked the end of Democracy and the end of Weimar Republic. Effectively, the Enabling Act gave him dictatorial powers as he is able to pass any law at any time making Germany a totalitarian state. Capture of Local Government (26th April 1933), Banning of Trade Unions (2nd May 1933) and Banning of Political Parties (14 th July 1933) ^ Effects of the Enabling Act ^
As a result of the Enabling Act, 26th April 1933, Nazi’s took over local government and the police. Nazis replaced anti-Nazi teachers and University professors to indoctrinate youths in schools to be loyal Nazis. Hitler set up the gestapo to report opponents and “grumblers”. Tens of thousands of Jews, Communists, Protestants, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Gypsies, Homosexuals, Alcoholics and Prostitutes were arrested and sent to concentration camps for trivial “crimes” like saying business was bad or making anti-Nazi jokes. Everything was brought under tighter control.
As a result of the Enabling Act, Hitler immediately used his powers to pass lows which turned Germany into a totalitarian state. To stop the threat of a nationwide strike, on 2nd May 1933, Hitler banned trade unions and made strikes illegal. Money was confiscated and leaders were put into prison. The trade unions were replaced with the German Labour Front which reduced worker’s pay and revoked the right to strike which renders the working class harmless as they are unable to retaliate. The abolishment of the Trade Unions helped the Nazis eliminate opponents as the working class supported the Communists.
v.
vi.
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As a result of the Enabling Act, on 14th July 1933, Hitler issued the “Law against the Establishment of Parties” which singlehandedly removed all opposition and declared that NSDAP as the only legal party. All other parties were banned and their leaders were put in prison. It was this day that Germany became a one party state. The Night of Long Knives (30th June 1934) The SA were people Hitler turned to and used to help him consolidate and centralise power. Hitler feared Rohm as he opposed Hitler’s policies particularly his links to big businesses as he was more left-wing (a socialist). Hitler was afraid of a Socialist revolution. On 30th June 1934, Hitler arranged for Rohm and other seniors of the SA, to be arrested, imprisoned and shot. Rohm was taken jail. 1st July, Rohm and 6 other SA leaders were shot to death. Over 4 days, 400 people including 150 senior members of the SA were shot. The Night of the Long Knives proved Hitler was now acting illegally by murdering his rivals for power. He claimed to be doing this in the interest of Germany. Germans objected to violence but were grateful that the SA, hated for their brutality, had been restrained. SA continued after 1934, but was limited to giving muscle to the Nazi Party and was now firmly under Hitler’s control. Death of Hindenburg (2nd August 1934) The only opposition left in Hitler lied in the President Hindenburg. On the 2nd August 1934, President Hindenburg died, aged 87. Hitler moved in to take over supreme power. He declared himself Germany’s Fuhrer, took all of the president’s power and forced on oath of loyalty to him from every soldier in the Army. A plebiscite was organised to confirm and add legitimacy to his role of Fuhrer. Bombarded by pro-Nazi propaganda, 90% of votes decided in his favour. Hitler now had supreme power. The Third Reich had begun.
vii.
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Nazi Police State 1933-1945
The SS, military group set up in 1925 as personal bodyguards for Hitler. From 1929, it was run by Himmler. Main role was as the Nazis private police force. They were totally loyal to Hitler. Hitler used the SS officers to murder SA officers in the Night of The Long Knives. During 1930s, the SS expanded to over 50,000 men and were in charge of all other state security services. Another of the SS was to carry out Nazi policy of racial purification. The SS ran concentration camps, SS members had to be “racially pure” and could only marry “racially pure” wives. The SS was a significant organisation as it helped Nazi control the SA and served regular army. SS officers were often the most ideologically fanatical Nazis and would carry out Hitler’s orders without hesitation. It was the loyalty of the SS that enabled Hitler to efficiently carry out the Final Solution.
The Gestapo was Hitler’s non-uniformed secret police. Set up in 1933, by Goering, and placed under the control of the SS in 1936. Gestapo was led by Heydrich. They arrested people who acted againt or spoke out against the Nazi ideology. Offenders were imprisoned without trial. By 1939, 150,000 people were “under protective arrest” in prison and few would ever see release. The Gestapo used various methods to monitor the population such as phone tapping, spying and the use of informers. The Gestapo was a significant element of the Nazi Police State as the Gestapo could act outside the law and was only responsible to its commanders and Hitler. The Gestapo consolidated control of German society through fear and worked to eliminate any opposition to Hitler.
Prison camps or concentration camps was first opened in Dachau, 1933. Camps were located in isolated areas outside the city, outskirts, away from public. They were controlled by SS. At first, most inmates were political prisoners and “undesirables” like prostitutes and minority groups, such as Jews and Gypsies. From 1938, the SS used camp inmates as slave labour for business enterprises. By 1939, there were 6 camps holding 20,000 people. After 1939, their size grew in numbers and were used for the mass murder of minority groups. The use of concentration camps was significant as it boosted German economy during the war. It was efficient, but morally reprehensible, way for Hitler to deal with
opposition and his control on society – undesirables were simply sent to camps and never seen again, often murdered or worked to death.
viii.
The Law Courts, “the National Socialist League for the Maintenance of the Law” were set up by Hitler to take control of judiciary. All judges had to be members. It enabled the Nazis to monitor the decisions of judges, to ensure they followed Nazi Party priorities. Hitler also gave judges the freedom to punish people even if they had not broken the law. Secondly, Hitler set up a new “People’s Court”, to hear all treason cases – offenses against the state. Judges were hand-picked for loyalty and Hitler would intervene in cases. The Law Courts were significant because it meant that Hitler has control of all elements in the judiciary system. The Judiciary system now had to follow Nazi party priorities and judgements. It also strengthened their control of society by punishing people for their non-Nazi political views. Censorship and Propaganda (1933-1945) Censorship was used to restrict and ban information whilst propaganda was used to publicise information. Joseph Goebbels was in charge of Nazi propaganda and was appointed Reich Minister of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda on 13 th March 1933. His role was to centralise Nazi control over all aspects of German culture and intellectual life. This was called the Gleischaltung. Campaigning Censorship Before 1933, the Nazi Party used the SA to disrupt opposition meetings, tear down their propaganda posters and violently intimidate their speakers. This attempt at censoring their message was never 100% successful. The July 1933, “Law Against the Establishment of Parties” enabled Hitler to ban all other political parties- in effect this made campaigning by other political parties illegal. Propaganda After 1933, Goebbels was in charge of government propaganda. He could use government resources to publicise Hitler and his views. Propaganda methods included : German posters advertising Nazi views and policies, expanding the use of rallies and parades
31
to intimidate the public such as torchlight parades, brass bands and choirs were all used to great effect. The Nuremberg Rallies were held annually to create a sense of spectacle, Nazi strength and German unity. They targeted women because they are considered the minority. They brought colour and excitement into people’s lives. Gave people a sense of belonging to a great movement.
Radio Censorship Goebbels placed all radio stations under Nazi control. He made it a treasonable offense to listen to foreign radio broadcasts like the BBC. In 1939, over 1500 Germans were arrested for listening to London-based broadcasts. Propaganda Hitler made frequent broadcasts on radio. Cheap mass-produced radios were sold or placed in cafes, factories and schools. Speakers were placed in streets to spread the Nazi message. The Nazi introduced two cheap radios called “people’s receivers” costing 32 marks. By 1930, there were more radios per person in Germany than anywhere else in Europe. Regular broadcasts included Hitler’s speeches, German music and history.
Cinema Censorship In 1934, film makers had to sent the plot of every new film to Goebbels for approval before publishing. Goebbels had strict control of the scripts in movies. Propaganda In 1933, German cinema had audiences of over 250 million per year. Films were shown alongside a 45-minute official government newsreel, publishing Nazi achievements. Propaganda feature films were made like The Eternal Jew that tried to spread message of Nazi Party through mass entertainment. Anti-Semitism was also promoted. Over 1000 films made by Nazis. Goebbels wanted people to be entertained – this was how propaganda worked best.
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The Press Censorship Newspaper had to print views which the Ministry agreed with or face the consequences. If they didn’t, newspapers could be banned, forcing owners into bankruptcy. Reich Press Law of 4th October 1933 banned all Jewish or liberal editors from working. Anti-Nazi newspapers were banned. Propaganda Journalists were given briefings with information the government wanted to publicise. Volkischer Beobachter (Racial Observer) was the primary newspaper of the Nazi Party as they purchased this in Munich back in the 1920s. Der Angriff (The Assault) was founded by Goebbels in 1927 that operates in Berlin. Der Strumer (The Attacker) was owned by anti-Semite Julius Streicher to spread antiSemitic views. People encouraged to buy Nazi newspapers- could be threatened if you cancel a subscription.
Universities Censorship University academics had to support Nazi views or face dismissal. Between 1933-1938, 3000 academics were dismissed. Anyone appointed to a university had to be approved by government and had to complete a 6-week training course at National Socialist Lectures Alliance Camp. Propaganda Nazis realised the powerful role university staff have in shaping young minds. They were also fearful of allowing too much independence for academics. Therefore, senior professors and lecturers were therefore handpicked by Nazis to ensure loyalty. German history was re-written completely to favour the Nazi’s success and future.
The Arts Censorship Goebbels controlled the arts through the Reich Chamber of Culture. All writers, musicians, artists and actors had to be members or they are barred from working. However, most artists practised self-censorship. Nazis decided what books would be available. Millions of
33
books were banned and burnt on huge public bonfires as a method of Goebbel’s propaganda, book burnings (mentioned earlier). Authors could only write about 4 topics, frontline experience, world view, regional novels and racial doctrine. By 1939, 2500 authors left Germany. Music was censored. Jazz music was banned as it was seen as black music and inferior. Composers like Mendelssohn was banned because he was Jewish. Degenerate Art was banned. Modern art was entirely banned. Expressionism, Cubism and Impressionism were all banned. All artists had to join Reich Chamber of Visual Arts. 42,000 artists were given approval. Propaganda Art was used as a form propaganda by the Nazis. Nazi art was based on “Classical Realism”. It emphasised strength, unity and German folk tales. Hitler wanted art to display the “true German spirit”. The Nazis put on “degenerate art” displays in 1936. People were encouraged to criticise it and appreciate its “foreignness”. Lots of simple, stark words and images put on propaganda posters, so that even the uneducated could understand them.
Sport Censorship Minority groups were not allowed to compete for the German national teams during the Olympics. All athletes had to be “Aryan”. Hitler used it to show the superiority of the Aryan race. Propaganda Hitler and Goebbels used the 1936 Berlin Olympics to show Nazi Germany in good light. The film maker Leni Riefenstahl was employed to produce a feature film of the event. The Nazis built an Olympic Stadium seating 110,000 people to reflect Germany’s power. All events were organised faultlessly, showing German efficiency and Germany won the most medals, 33 golds.
34
Key feature of Hitler as Fuhrer was his image being used to personify the Nazi Party and unify the nation. He was shown as strong and decisive.
J.
Policies to towards women, the young, the Churches and the Jews. i.
Women
Women in the 1920s In Weimar Government, women over 20 years were given the vote and there were about 20 female members in the Reichstag. Women became more likely to go out to work and more likely to work in the professions, often being paid equal to men. There were over 100,000 teachers in Germany by 1933. Women also started to enjoy more freedom in social activities outside the family, such as drinking and going to nightclubs. Women also dressed differently, being influenced by the American “flapper” style.
Nazi views on Women The Nazi Party believed that women should fit into society in a traditional way and the best way women could do this was to be mothers. Women should stay healthy, learn housecraft like cookery and needlework, marry and make their husbands happy so that they became good workers, bear children and bring them up to be good Germans, stay at home and concentrate on domestic matters, not work or politics, prohibited from wearing makeup or trousers, or to dye/perm hair.
Nazi Policies towards women “German Women’s Enterprise” was formed to arrange classes and radio broadcasts teaching good motherhood. Women were encouraged to leave work and concentrate on the 3Ks, Kinder, Kuche, Kirche (Children, Kitchen and Church). Some professional women were forced to leave their jobs as doctors, lawyers or teachers in order to free up jobs for men and reduce unemployment. “Law for the Encouragement for Marriage” in 1933 was introduced to increase birth rate. It provided loans of 1000 marks (9 months worth of wages) to young couples to marry as long as the wife left work. For each of their first four children, the couple could keep a quarter of their loan. “The Mother’s Cross” was awarded to women based on the number of children they had to encourage them to have more children. Bronze for 4-5 children. Silver for 6-7 children. Gold for
35
8 or more. Each year on Hitler’s mother’s birthday (12th April), medals were distributed. “The Lebensborn Programme” (fountain of life), was another policy to encourage childbirth. Started in 1935 by SS Leader, Himmler, with the attempt to encourage the creation of “ideologically pure” children for adoption. It made single women available for fertilisation by SS men. It one home alone, 540 mothers gave birth. Moral decline was evident as single women were having babies out of wedlock to increase birth rate. Women with hereditary illnesses were forced to be sterilised. Women were encouraged to abort or euthanise handicapped babies. This is to ensure that the idea of a “ideologically pure” generation to be maintained.
-
By the end of the 1930s, German industry was expanding so quickly that women were needed to work so some of the early policies were scaled back or reversed. With men going to war, women were suddenly needed in the workplace again. Women manned the arm factories, industry and farms. This was heavy, physical work that women were not used to. Having to work meant women could not stay at home with their children and teach them Nazi values.
Better Off Marriage loans
Worse off Educated or career women much worse off
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Women who wanted to stay at home benefitted.
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Sterilisation for women with inherited weakness, such as colour blindness or mental illnesses.
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“Motherly” women were given high status
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Medals for lots of children
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Higher rate of marriage
-
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Looked after by state – if married
Encouraged abortion if baby was not “ideologically pure”
-
Fashion and individuality broken down and taken away.
-
Seen as “baby factories”
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ii.
Youth
All children attended school until they were 14. Boys and girls went to separate schools. Nazis controlled all elements of the school curriculum. Mein Kampf became a compulsory school text. Swastika were placed in classes as a constant reminder of Nazism. Hiring only pro-Nazi staff to ensure the youth were taught “correctly” and only Nazi ideology would be passed down. Jewish teachers were sacked. Obedience and discipline achieved by the indoctrination of youth breaks down individuality and originality in order for unity to play through from the youth to prepare them as loyal soldiers for WW2.
Youth organisations were promoted in a way that schools who surpassed 90% membership obtained a special banner. This serves as an incentive for schools to look “prestigious”. Over 1 million in membership in 1932, 2 million in membership in 1933, 6 million in membership in 1934. Was made compulsory in 1937, 76% of all youths joined.
Nazi youth organisations : Age 6-10 10-14 14-18
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Boys Young Fellows Young Germans Hitler Youth
Girls Young Maidens Leaaue of German Maidens
Boys -
Basic military training, close combat competitions
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Bravery tests – jumping out of buildings
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Extreme fitness and cross country running
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Incentives were given when they pass their tests, rewarded with Nazi badges and knives
Girls -
Taught domestic sciences including needlework and cookery.
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Advanced cooking and child development training on how to raise a child
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Learnt domestic mathematics, helped girls measure ingredients.
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Did cooking, setting up camps and motherhood activities.
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Mainly did marching drills, map readings and rifle shooting.
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Race studies and Racial Science (Eugenics) taught children that Aryans were superior and they should not marry Jews in order to keep the lineage of being “ideologically pure” alive.
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History was rewritten in favour of the Nazis and criticised communism and the Treaty of Versailles
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Geography centred on areas Hitler wishes to invade.
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Given political training – oaths of loyalty, singing Nazi anthems and learning Nazi ideologies.
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PE took up 1/6 of school time, to emphasise good health.
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Activities encouraged good health, good citizenship and support for the Nazis.
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Sports, camping and hiking were popular activities. Group activities often encouraged co-operation and comradeship.
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After 1939, Hitler Youth was used to help with war effort on the home front, helping air raid wardens and fire brigades during bombing.
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Group
Why the opposed the Nazis
Edelweiss Pirates
Young people who do not want their lives mapped out by Nazis and wanted to rebel. Many opposed the Nazi’s racial policies as friends were singled out as “superior” or “inferior”.
The White Rose Group
Sophie Scholl, her brother Hans and their friend formed the White Rose. It is a group dedicated to showing people the truth about what the Nazis were doing in the war to minority groups. They were appalled by the Nazi’s method of lying and propaganda .
iii.
How the Nazis dealt with them The Pirates had no intention of overthrowing Hitler. They were teenagers who wanted to rebel against a controlling government. They survived until 1944, when the Nazis clamped down and arrested many of them. In December 1942, the Gestapo broke up 28 groups containing 739 adolescents. All three members were tried and executed for printing the leaflets.
Churches Churches were a problem because :
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How they opposed the Nazis Defiance. Drinking, smoking, dancing in groups to Jazz, drugs, telling anti-Nazi stories and jokes, beating up Hitler Youth members, having sex. They were not an organised movement, therefore it was difficult for the Nazis to hunt them down individually to punish them. They distributed a set of leaflets at the university and printed more to be sent by post. Under interrogation, Sophie refused to pledge allegiance to the Nazis.
Strong movement as they are the only movement capable of evoke a revolution.
90% of Germans are Christians.
The Church had the control over hearts and minds that Hitler needed.
Religious beliefs were powerful. People believed in God and are therefore less likely to worship Hitler completely as he wishes. They take priority of the Church over Nazi oath.
Church are very likely to spread anti-Nazi messages as they oppose Nazi policies.
Catholic Church Catholic Churches swear loyalty to God and follow the instructions of the Pope in Rome. Hitler disliked this as his totalitarian state, he believed all Germans should look to him as their Fuhrer for instructions and devotion. Christianity was also treated with suspicion as it preached forgiveness, tolerance and peace – completely different to the Nazi message of strength, violence and survival of the fittest. 1/3 of all German Christians were Catholic and they also had their own schools which would teach children Christian instead of Nazi ethics. At first, Hitler tried to reach an agreement with the Catholic Church. In July 1933, signed the “Concordat” with the Pope. Hitler agreed to respect freedom of worship for Catholics and to not interfere with Catholic schools in Germany. The Roman Catholic Church agreed to instruct it’s priests to not interfere with politics and ordered German bishops to swear loyalty to the Nationalist Socialist regime. By the end of 1930s, Hitler changed his mind and began to persecute the Catholic Church, Catholic priests were harassed and arrested with many ending up in concentration camps, Catholic schools were closed or brought in line with state schools and curriculums, Catholic youth groups were banned. In 1937, Pope realised that Concordat was worthless and he issued a criticism of the Nazi Regime. The signing of the Concordat actually worked to reduce opposition to Hitler’s policies from Catholic Christians. It seemed as if the Nazi regime was one that respected Christian traditions and ethics. It explains why there was little opposition to Hitler’s policies at first. The breaking of the Concordat in 1937 did encourage Catholics to oppose Nazi policies. However, state control of society was too strong by this point. The repression
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of the Catholic Church by Hitler weakened opposition and served to strengthen his control of society.
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Protestant Church The relationship between Nazis and Protestant Churches were good at first. Many protestant churches supported the Nazis as they feared the anti-Christian Communists. Hitler was seen as the protector of German social and religious traditions. This respect broke down over time as Nazi social policies and control of society instead.
Some Protestants formed the German Christian Revolution led by Muller. Hitler made Muller the Reich bishop of Germany in September 1933. This movement tried to fuse Nazi ethics and ideas into traditional Christianity. For instance, Nazi flags were displayed inside Churches and Hitler was portrayed as the protector of the Church from Judaism. Other Protestant churches did oppose Hitler’s policies and spoke out against him. Pastor Niemoller set up the Pastor’s Emergency League (PEL) in 1933 to campaign against Nazi actions. In 1937, Niemoller was sent to a concentration camp and the PEL was banned. Although the Nazi Party could not completely control the German Christians, Hitler successfully managed to weaken the potential opposition to his policies. The Concordat with the Catholic Church and German Christian Movement in 1933 gave legitimacy to Hitler’s regime. By 1930s it was too late for any sizable Christian opposition to form, Hitler had complete control of judiciary, legislature and executive.
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Reich Church Integration of all Protestant Churches into one Reich Church. Spearheaded by pro-Nazi Bishop, Muller as Hitler made him Reich Bishop in 1933. Priests and Bishops wore Nazi uniforms. Hitler used biblical languages to convey Nazi ideas by referring himself to Jesus. The Swastika replaced the cross. Most Germans still felt that their allegiance lie with their original churches rather than the stateapproved Churches. Hitler wanted Nazism to be worshipped and followed like a religion, making it difficult for people to support the Church. Disobedience carrying out baptisms and marriages against Nazi law, encouraging people to ignore Nazism and follow the bible made Hitler’s want of controlling the churches into a need as it is proving to be an opposition to his policies. Hitler cannot compete with the promise of god and heaven after deathespecially in war time. Hitler has to turn into a blind eye and compromise with the Church in a Concordat which he later disobeyed.
iv.
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Jews
Anti-Semitism in Germany before Hitler Anti Jewish views (anti-Semitism) had been common in Europe for hundreds of years. This was because their religion, customs and looks made them stand out as “different” in European society; some Christians hated Jews, blaming them for the execution of Christ (blood libel). People often looked for scapegoats when times were hard and Jews were often singled out. Some Germans wrongly blamed defeat in WW1 on the Jews. Jews were criticised for being Communist rebels because Eisner, leader of the communist rising in Munich in 1918 was Jewish. Many Jews were wealthy business people and criticised for being selfish capitalists.
Hitler’s views and Mein Kampf, 1925 In 1925, Hitler published Mein Kampf which contained his racial and political views. He claimed there was a hierarchy of races amongst other things. The Aryan (German) race was the superior race. They were seen as blonde, blue-eyed and athletic. Other races such as the Slavs of Eastern Europe were the “lesser” races. The Untermenschen, or sub-humans included Africans, Gypsies and Jews. Hitler later than called them Lebensunwertes – unworthy of life.
First Nazi Persecutions, 1933 The Nazis boycotted Jewish businesses. Jews were banned from government jobs. Jews were banned from inheriting land. In 1935, Jews were banned from the army and restaurants. Jewish teachers were sacked. Jews with certain hereditary illness such as mental disabilities or physical disabilities that could be passed onto children were sterilised. 350,000 men were forced to be sterilised. 1934, concentration camps were used at first to house political opponents. Hitler then used them to house criminals and drug offenders. Finally, Hitler used the camps to house “undesirables” or Untermenschen, subhumans which Hitler deemed unworthy of life.
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The Nuremberg Laws 1935 On 15th September 1935, the Nuremberg Laws were passed which said Jews were no longer German citizens. They lost the right to vote, hold government office jobs or have passports. They could not marry German citizens. From 1938, Jewish doctors, lawyers, and dentists could not work for Aryan Germans. Jewish identity cards had to carry a large letter “J” that stands for “Jew”. Jews had to register all possessions.
Kristallnacht, 1938 (Night of the Broken Glass) On 7th November 1938, a young Polish Jews went into German embassy in Paris and shot another German. He hated Germans for their persecution of Jews. A wave of anger swept Germany as the young German died on the 9th November 1938. Goebbels announced in the Nazi newspaper, Der Strumer, that the Fuhrer said that the government would not prevent Germans from taking revenge on the Jews. On the 9th and 10th of November, a storm of attacks on Jews and their property took place across Germany. The SA and SS condoned the Germans to take part in the boycotting and arrest of Jews. 814 shops, 171 homes and 191 synagogues were destroyed. At least 100 Jews were killed.
After Kristallnacht, 1939 The Nazi Party blamed the Jews for Kristallnacht. Goebbels announced that the Jews would be fined 1 billion marks for reparation fees. However, the Jews were also banned from running shops, businesses, banned from attending schools and universities. The rounding up of Jews by the SS and SA begins. By 12 th November 1938, 20,000 Jews had been sent to concentration camps. By 1939, persecution increased as In January, the Reich Office for Jewish Emigration were set up to remove the Jews from Germany by enforce emigration. In April 1939, orders were sent that all Jews were evicted from their homes and forced into areas in cities called the ghettos.
K. Policies to reduce unemployment L. The Labour Service, The Labour Front and Strength Through Joy i.
Economic policies to target Unemployment The RAD and DAF created job opportunities as they required many people to build infrastructure. Once infrastructures are built, they would then require people to work in these places, thus, reducing unemployment.
RAD (Reich Labour Service)- Targets the unemployed Hitler believed that unemployment sapped the strength of a nation and unemployed workers were more likely to support the communists. 18-25 year old men had to do 6 months of work service. It was voluntary at first and then made compulsory in 1935. They were used to build autobahns (motorways), hospitals, and schools. By 1937, Germany had built 7000 miles of autobahns. The construction of autobahns created work for 80,000 men. It is unpopular because it is hard labour and provides low wages. Indoctrinates young adults into the Nazi ideology and at the same time, boost economy as the industrial workforce increases. The number of unemployed people decreased after 1933. In 1933, there were 6 million unemployed people, by 1934 it was 3.8 million, finally by 1939, there were 0.3 million. This was great for Nazi propaganda as it made it look like unemployment took a nosedive after Hitler became Chancellor.
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DAF (German Labour Front) – Targets the workers This is the replacement of trade unions to establish an authoritarian dictatorship. Spearheaded by Dr Robert Ley. DAF is a massive organisation to control the workers. DAF creates a mirage of a trade union. Its role was to ensure that workers served the best interests to the Nazi regime. Bosses could no longer sack workers on the spot. Workers could not leave a job without government’s permission. This controls the power of the employers and employees to ensure economy worked smoothly. Workers could no longer bargain for higher wages. Strikes were made illegal. Limitations on the working hours were abolished. By 1939, Germans were working 60-72 hours per week which is almost 10 hours a day.
Beauty of Labour Persuades employers to improve working conditions in factories. Good ventilation in the workplace. This acts as propaganda to make Germans believe that work is good and that everyone should work if they could. This is to ensure the level of happiness of the workers. The higher the satisfaction of the workers, the less likely the will plan a strike despite the fact it is illegal. The industrial workforce at this point is large enough to cause a spectacle in the Nazi regime. The Nazi regime would have a hard time in controlling and persecuting them as they are required to boost German economy. Strength Through Joy (KDF) To organise leisure time for workers. The Nazis did not want people spending their leisure time outside of Nazi control. KDF arranged holidays, day trips, concerts, sports groups, clubs and etc so workers could enjoy Nazi approved leisure time. This acts as an optical illusion for the workers thinking that the Nazis were looking out for their best interests but rather it is one of the Nazis scheme of manipulation. This was highly successful. Hitler stopped paying reparation fees and invested the money in German companies. He began a huge programme of public works that the RAD and DAF would built. He built an Olympic Stadium for the Berlin Olympics in 1936 to house 110,000 people. Germany so far… Nazi’s devised a scheme to allow workers to buy a Volkswagen Beetle as a car for small weekly payments. The autobahns improved transport and travel. People appreciated the public works (new schools & hospitals). The streets were safe and there was no crime. Germany was strong and successful in world affairs. Nazi rallies provided colour and fun. Nazi youth groups provided activities and holidays for young people. Nazi ideology gave people hope and confidence.
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ii.
Economic policies
3 Major problems faced by German economy : - International Debt - Agricultural stagnation - Industrial unemployment
Four Year Plan Increased production of the raw materials needed for rearmament such as coal, explosives, metal and iron. Persuaded big businesses to produce key synthetic raw materials such as rubber, fuel and textiles. Reduced imports. Tightened controls on prices and wages. Used forced labour if needed. Built new industrial plans such as the Goering Works, huge mining and metal works. Was it successful? The Government invested billions of Reichmarks into this plan. By 1939, Germany still depended on foreign marks. Arms had taken precedence over developing agriculture, “arms not butter” – Goering’s slogan. 1939, Butter was still rationed in Germany. Only way for Germany to achieve autarky fully, it had to trade with countries which could help provide raw materials and food. (THE NEW PLAN)
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Rearmament Nazi economic policy designed to make Germany strong and it needed a strong military to achieve this. In 1936, Hitler issued a secret memo, declaring that the economy must be recognised to make Germany able to wage war within four years. Hitler’s four year plan had several effects on Germany.
o
Government spending on rearmament increased - In 1933, spending on arms was 3.5 billion marks. - In 1939, it was 26 billion marks
o
Army’s requirement for iron and steel increased - German production trebled from 1933-39
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Germany wanted autarky in products like plastic, oil and rubber - Production of plastic increased by 460% in the 1930s
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The growth of German army - 100,000 in 1933 - 500,000 in 1936 - 900,000 in 1939.
o
As the army grew in size, so did the demand for uniforms and equipment. Rearmament was thus a huge boost for the German economy. Unemployment decreased and profits increased as economy boosted.
Agriculture and Industry Problems World food prices had been low. Germany had been importing cheap food from abroad. Because of this, farmers could not sell their food at a price which would enable them to make a good living. Germany would then be importing more than exporting which results in an unhealthy balance and national debt. Dependence on imports was preventing Germany from achieving economic self-sufficiency (autarky). Solutions Trade agreements were made with individual counties to supply raw materials to Germany in exchange for German goods. For example, with Hungary, they exchanged butter, vegetable oil to supply Germany with raw materials in exchange for German goods. In 1934, The New Plan stopped imports and subsidised industry to establish “autarky”. Because, of “arms not guns”, agriculture was neglected in the rearmament process.
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As a result, the New Plan was put into action to solve this problem. This would solve the budget deficit. Production of oil, cars, coals and explosives rose rapidly. Businesses were strictly controlled, they were told to produce specific products and were not allowed to raise wages. Foreign firms reduced imported goods in Germany as an effort to limit imports. Domestic firms encouraged to produce more materials. They were given incentives and subsidies to encourage them to work harder.
Farmers
Food Production
Agriculture in Germany Successes Income increased by 40% between 19281938 as imports were limited. Food production increased by 20%, leaving Germany self-sufficient in bread, grains, meats, vegetables and eggs.
Failures Farmers resented the interference of the Reich Food Estate. Still not at production level that is sufficient to feed German population without the need for imports. It is important to remember that imports are limited not stopped completely.
Limits of success Unemployment 1933, women were no longer included in the unemployment figures as they were all forced to stay home, give birth and be a domestic figure. Jews were sacked from their jobs and no longer hold German citizenship and were removed from the unemployment register. The unemployed were obliged to take any job offered or be classed work-shy and imprisoned. Conscription removed over a million young men from the employment market. Therefore, the authenticity of the unemployment figures of 6 million in 1933, reducing to 3.8 million in 1934 and finally to a 0.8 million in 1939 is questionable.
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Did Germany become self-sufficient? The policy of Autarky was a failure. In 1937, Goering was made Economics Minister, with the job of making Germany selfsufficient in 4 years. However the measures he introduced were unsuccessful. Control were put on imports but if anything, imports of luxuries increased. Scientists tried to make oil from coal and to find substitutes for rubber, petrol, cotton and coffee. Farmers were subsidised to produce more food, and food imports were reduced.
Economy Successes -
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Imports were lower than exports by 1935. Germany successfully rearmed and was strong enough to conquer in 1939. Unemployment was reduced to almost 0. Industrial production almost doubled. Government investment in industry was higher than during the “Golden Era” of Weimar. Wages started to rise which signifies a stable economy.
Failures -
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The Nazis failed to achieve autarky, they still needed more materials from abroad. Decrease in unemployment rates was mostly because of conscription, removal of Jews and forced labour groups. Investment in industry was centred on rearmament, neglecting more vital things like industry which required the Four Year Plan. Wages were only as good as during Weimar Republic, while people actually had less food.
GERMANY GURING THE SECOND WORLD WAR M. Nazi Policies Towards the Jews Including Ghettos, Death Squads and the Final Solution i.
Nazi Policies towards the Jews Ghettos Nazis did this because they wanted a Jewish free population, segregate the Jews from the rest of the population, control of Jewish movement, and to make use of Jewish property for Nazi use. The first ghetto was built in Warsaw, Poland when the Nazis invaded Poland in 1939. They are walled-off guarded parts of cities where Jews are forced to live. Jews from Germany and other occupied countries are sent to live there. In Warsaw, Nazis crushed 380,000 Jews which was 30% of the population into a ghetto 3% the size of the city. By 1942, 50,000 Jews died of hunger, cold and diseases in Warsaw, Poland Forcing Jews into ghettos marked a change in Nazi policy. The Nazis were now using force to remove Jews. This led to high death rates due to facilities that are poor in hygiene, overcrowding and famines. This reinforced Nazi propaganda of Jews being dirty. This led to people perceiving them as sub-humans, Untermensch and thus ignored the way they were being treated.
SS Death Squads By invading Poland and the USSR, Nazis came into contact with many people they considered as “undesirable”. The SS Death Squad was a way to rid themselves of these people. Between 1939 and 1941, they followed the German Army into Poland and the USSR, systematically murdering any civilians regarded as undesirable. The SS Death Squad was deliberately created to murder undesirables. In the village of Lithuania, over 50,000 Jews were shot. By 1945, they had killed 1.5 million Jews, gypsies and communist leaders.
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Final Solution The Final Solution was a plan to exterminate every Jewish person. The Nazis decided that all Jews under German control would be exterminated. After the invasion of USSR in 1941, 4 million Jews came under Nazi control. The Nazi leadership argued over what to do with them. Goering argued they could be used for slave labour. Himmler argued they were to expensive to keep and should all be exterminated. It started in 1942, 6 major camps were set up. They were all run by SS leaders and in the outskirts of Germany, away from general public. Jews were to be transported to areas of Eastern Europe under Nazi control in carts. The sick, the weak, and the handicapped would be sent to gas chambers to be gassed to death whatever they owned would be Nazi possession. The fit people would be housed in labour camps and worked to death. They were sent to gas chambers to slowly let poisonous gas infect their organs and die a painful death. 2000 people were packed into the chambers. Within 30 minutes, everyone would be dead, and their bodies would be burnt in the ovens. On average, 4000 people were killed a day for 3 years. 400,000 Jews were exterminated in 3 months. 90% of Jews in Poland, Germany and Austria were dead. Other prisoners would be experimented as Nazis “science programme”. Most prisoners were tested without anaesthetic in order to experiment with “dried skin”. This was turned into gloves, lamp shades, or even hand bags. The decision called the “Final Solution” marked the final step of the Holocaust. Before the extermination of Jewish people was uncoordinated and haphazard. Now the entirety of Nazi government organised the extermination of the Jews as ethnic cleansing.
Concentration camps The war economy needed extra workers so concentration camps provided an endless supply of slave labour. They also allowed the Nazi to control the Jews more closely, and away from general public. The Nazi built camps as early as 1933 but at first they were camps for political prisoners. Then, it was used to house “undesirables”
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or in Hitler’s words, people unworthy of life such as the homosexuals, gypsies and disabled people. After 1939, the size and number of the camps grew. In 1937, the Buchenwald Camp in Germany was set up for 1,000 prisoners. By 1939, it held 10,000 and by at the end of the war, over 80,000 people. 56,000 Jews died at Buchenwald between 1937 and 1945. In the ghettos, Jews faced tough living conditions but were often left alone. In camps, they were used as slave labour and many died from overworking, starvation and mistreatment. During the war, a deliberate policy to exterminate workers through overworking was introduced.
Death Camps Some existing labour camps were converted into Death Camps, but many death camps were built from scratch. They were a way for Nazis to implement the Final Solution. The first death camp was built in 1942 in Poland. Camps were run by SS officials. Prisoners arrived by train. Their belongings are taken, then herded into gas chambers. By 1944, 90% of Jews in Germany, Poland and Austria had been killed. Death camps were designed purely for the extermination of undesirables. By 1945, 6 million Jews had been exterminated by the Nazis. The mass slaughter became known as the Holocaust.
N. The Changing Role of Women, “total war”, rationing and the effects of Allied Bombing. i.
The Changing Role of Women There were changes in the role of women because they were expected to be domestic figures at home then they were expected to replace men’s jobs as they went for war. Women were not expected to work in Nazi Germany. Professional women were sacked and forced out of work to increase job opportunities for men. Roles of women changed as Nazi ideologies believe that women should be domestic figures to stay at home and look after children. Hitler wanted to prepare Germany for war in
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1939. As a result, he needed a large amount of people as troops for the war. The Nazis implemented policies like the Lebensborn programme and Mother’s Cross to encourage the birth rate. Mothers were awarded medals when they had more than 8 children. The Lebensborn programme led to a change in Germany as there was a moral decline when women were having babies of out of wedlock. The Nazi regime broke down the individuality of these women and they were now perceived as “baby makers”. As economy was recovering, the armed forces was growing. By 1938, there was a shortage of workers in the economy as many of the men were conscripted into the army. As a result, Nazis realised they had to reverse their policies on women. This changed the role of women as a traditional housewife to a working woman. All the women had to take the jobs left by men. By 1939, there were 1.5 million more working women than there have been in 1933. Women were unused to this type of work as it was physically demanding. In 1943, women aged 17-45 were registered to work to gear towards war efforts for “total war”. Women were unable to stay home and teach their children Nazi ideologies and were expected to work. In conclusion, women were encouraged to take on the traditional role as a “homemaker” and then expected to work again as men left their jobs to be conscripted into the army. ii.
Total War Hitler ordered invasion of the USSR as he was hoping for victory. His army became bogged down in a four-year battle for survival which decreased troop morale. By the end of 1942, Germany’s war was going badly. 94,000 German soldiers fighting in the USSR surrendered to the Soviet army. Terrible defeat forced Goebbels to call for “total war”. Harsh reality of war was puncturing Nazi confidence. Goebbels made the longest radio speech calling on all Germans to show Allies that they were not defeated, they could carry on fighting and make sacrifices for Germany. The purpose of this was to boost morale within the Germans. Government began preparations for “total war” with every part of German society geared to the war effort such as producing arms, growing food caring for the sick or fighting. Anything that did not contribute to the war effort was eliminated. In March 1943, professional sport was ended. Non essential businesses were closed
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such as sweet shops. In August 1943, manufacture of civilian clothing was suspended. Exchange centres were opened where people could swap furniture and clothes. June 1943, Goebbels commissioned the film Kolberg, which told of heroic German resistance in Napoleon in 1807 to increase morale. Working hours increased. Women aged 17-50 were registered to work. Age limit for compulsory labour for women was raised to 50. All non German servants to go into armaments factories. All theatres, opera houses, music halls and places of entertainment were closed. iii.
Rationing In 1939-1941, rationing for difficult foods began. As a result, 2/5 Germans ate better than before the war. Extra rationing was introduced for pregnant women, industrial workers, and the ill as they required more nutrition. Soap and hot water was rationed as well. November 1939, clothes were rationed and manufacture of civilian clothing was suspended. Soap was replaced with stew pine needles when soap was insufficient. People used tobacco as substitute for money. From December 1941 to January 1942, Germans produced 1.5 million tonnes of fur and 67 million woollen garments to clothe the German army in Russia. To save fuel, railway and postal services were reduced, and all letter boxes were closed. Effects of Allied Bombing Number of doctors available to treat victims were going down. In Berlin, number of doctors available to civilian population fell from 15 doctors per 10,000 people in 1930s to 1 doctor per 15,000 people in 1941. As air raids worsened, many Germans left the cities and were evacuated into smaller rural villages like Northeim. As a result, population in Northeim doubled. In cities, air raids/allied bombing became increasingly furious. Hamburg attack in 1943 caused a fire storm which wiped out large areas of the city. 30,000 people died. The emergency services tried to supply food and shelter but after three days the services collapsed under the pressure of supplying food and water. The government had to step in and build emergency accommodation for air-raid victims.
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In early 1945, some of the most extreme air raids begun. In 2 nights of bombing, up to 150,000 people were killed in Dresden as Allied bombers destroyed 70% of the properties in the city. Many of them were refuges from the East newly arrived in the city. A raid on the railway yard killed more than thirty thousand women and children. By the end of the war, as many German civilians had been killed by allied bombing as Germans soldiers died in combat.
O. The Growth of Opposition to Hitler including the Edelweiss Pirates, the White Rose Group and the Stauffenberg Plot. i.
Edelweiss Pirates The Edelweiss Pirates was a youth group formed by rebellious youths who resented to join the Nazi youth groups. They found simple ways to rebel such as girls mixing with boys, listening to modern “swing” music and growing long hair. They often daubed anti-Nazi slogans on walls and beat up members of Hitler Youth. There were over 2,000 members of the Pirates by 1939. After the war broke out, groups like the Pirates became more political. Some supported the Allies; helping army deserters or distributing Allied propaganda leaflets dropped by aeroplanes. After 1942, conditions worsened. Youngsters became more daring and smashed factories involved in war production and stealing guns. In 1944, Himmler ordered a crackdown. In December 1942, the Gestapo broke up 28 groups containing 739 adolescents. In Cologne, 13 young activists were arrested and publicly hanged.
ii.
White Rose Group Started at University of Munich in 1941 by students Hans and Sophie Scholl, and a teacher Kurt Huber. Their was politicised by the atrocities they saw carried out by the German army while serving. They believed in opposing the Nazi regime by peaceful means. They begun by mailing leaflets, anonymously to people all over Germany, concentrating on lecturers and owners of bars and restaurants. The leaflets called for democracy and social justice. In 1943, they became confident and left leaflets in public places. On 18th February, Hans and Sophie were reported to the Gestapo. Within two days, they were tried and executed. 80 others were soon arrested.
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iii.
Military Opposition Cause To seize political control of Germany and its armed forces from the Nazi Party in order to obtain peace with Western allies as soon as possible. Underlying desire of high ranking military generals and colonels to show to the world that not all Germans were like the NSDAP and Hitler. The officer class in German society had never been natural supporters of the Nazis and disliked the paramilitary SS and SA. While the war was successful at first, opposition subdued. As soon as the war raged into disaster, opposition and unrests ensued. The July Bomb Plot of 1944 was a planned assassination on Hitler and to remove Nazi Party from power. Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg was one of many senior officers at the War Office in Berlin. He was a key figure of the event as he had actual contact with Hitler on a regular basis. By 1944, he believed that Hitler was leading Germany to an inevitable defeat. On 20th July, he took a bomb inside a briefcase into a meeting with Hitler and placed it under the map-table Hitler was using and blew up 12 minutes after. Unfortunately, it did not kill the Nazi leader who was protected from the blast from the table. Significance Over 5,000 generals were arrested in their suspected part of the plot, 19 generals and 27 colonels including Stauffenberg were executed.
P. Defeat and the Death of Hitler i.
1944-1945, Failure and Defeat Main reasons why the Nazis lost Germany failed to defeat Britain in air and sea war. The failure to defeat Britain early in the war meant that Hitler was forced to fight a two-front war. The Battle of Britain in July – September 1940 was Hitler’s attempt to invade Britain. Georing’s Luftwaffe (German aircrafts) targeted British cities and airfield in an attempt to force Britain to surrender. He failed which meant that Britain could be used as a launch pad for the Allies to build up their military strength against Hitler.
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Hitler decided to invade the Soviet Union The decision to invade the Soviet Union was a massive mistake which drew the Germans into a long, 4 year drawn-out struggle. From June 1941, Hitler invaded the Soviet Union with a force of 3 million and by winder, had reached Moscow. However, the war turned against Hitler after the Battle of Stalingrad ended in February 1943. Over 90,000 German soldiers surrendered. From this point, there was less than 65% of German army fighting the Russians. By April 1945, the Russians had pushed the Germans all the way back into Berlin. Decision to declare war on the USA The decision to declare war on USA after Pearl Harbour in December 1941 was clearly disastrous. Once the United States joined the Allies, the men, machines and munitions available to the Allies far outweighed Germany’s. It became a war of attrition; Germany was worn down by a stronger enemy. By 1944, Germany was losing the war of production. The Allies were producing ; twice as much steel, four times as much planes and tanks, seven times many rifles and machine guns. When the Allies invaded France on 6th June 1944, they had air superiority of 70:1. Hitler made poor decisions It was Hitler’s decision to invade the USSR while Germany’s economy was still weak but Russia was a huge country with a population of over 200 million and a harsh fighting climate. To make matters worse, Hitler interfered with military decisions, refusing to allow the army to withdraw from Stalingrad and not seeing the importance of war in North Africa. He also backed the wrong scientific projects. Whilst the Allies invested in radar, cipher machines and the atomic bomb, Hitler invested in V1 and V2 rockets which played an insignificant role in the war. He only considered and concentrated political support in Berlin and placed less priority on smaller places like Northeim which led to the people in Northeim surrendering the town without a fight to the allies as they opposed the Nazi regime. Nazi philosophy Nazi philosophies slowed down the war effort. Hitler allowed the SS and the German Army too much control of the economy. He started using women in the labour force a tad late. 58
By July 1944, allied armies were pushing the Germans back into the west. Refugees were pouring into Germany from the areas being reconquered by the allies. Goebbels called for “Total War” and prepared to mobilise Germany for one final effort to win the war. He ordered the following : In March 1943, professional sport was ended. Non essential businesses were closed such as sweet shops. In August 1943, manufacture of civilian clothing was suspended. Exchange centres were opened where people could swap furniture and clothes June 1943, Goebbels commissioned the film Kolberg, which told of heroic German resistance in Napoleon in 1807 to increase morale. Working hours increased Women aged 17-50 were registered to work. Age limit for compulsory labour for women was raised to 50. All non German servants to go into armaments factories. All theatres, opera houses, music halls and places of entertainment were closed. In early 1945, some of the most extreme air raids begun. In 2 nights of bombing, up to 150,000 people were killed in Dresden as Allied bombers destroyed 70% of the properties in the city. Many of them were refuges from the East newly arrived in the city. A raid on the railway yard killed more than thirty thousand women and children. By the end of the war, as many German civilians had been killed by allied bombing as Germans soldiers died in combat. The Nazi administration could not cope with destruction on this scale. By early 1945, government plans were in chaos. Ration cards were no longer honoured. Instead people relied on the black market or scavenge for food. Almost anything can be bought on the black market. For example, a complete set of new identity cards could be bought on the market for 80,000 marks. Northeim 1945 As allied and Russian troops advanced into Germany, town after town, they met little resistance from the local people who were drained from the war. As the tanks approached Northeim, Mayor 59
ordered the SA militia to defend the town to death but drove himself away to the hills to get drunk. The SA ignored is instructions and handed over the town without a fight. Leader of socialist, Carl Querfurt was brought in to head a new emergency council for the town. Nazi flags were burnt. 853 Nazi books were removed from the library and pulped. Northeim breathed a sigh of relief and its population busily returned to the mayor and tried to prove that they had opposed the Nazi occupation all along. Berlin 1945 Amid the ruins of their capital city, Hitler, Goebbels and other Nazi leaders committed suicide. The war and the Nazi regime was over, but at an appalling cost in human lives and after years of unimaginable suffering. Death Hitler committed suicide shortly before the Germans surrendered to the allies. He committed suicide shooting himself in the head with a gun. Germany was then surrendered to the Allies on May 7 th, 1945. This marked the end of the famous Nazi regime.
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