29th May 2016
IGCSE HISTOR HISTORY Y RUSSIA : AUTOCRACY AND REVOLT IN RUSSIA, 1881 - 191
1! THE REIGN REIGN O" ALE#AN ALE#ANDER DER III III A! I$%a& I$%a&tt '( a))a)) a))a))*+at *+at*'+ *'+ '( A. A.a+/ a+/ II *!
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+'+ a) 3T)a L*4at'5!
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A))a))*+at/ Ma&h 1881! 1881!
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I$%a I$ %a&t &t '( a) a)) )a) a)) )*+ *+a at* t*' '+ A.a+/ III )&&// th th'+! A.a+/ a) a+ at'&at*& T)a, h &'+&// that a+y *4a ('$) ))) a) A.a+/ III /*/ a) a )t '( *4a ('$)! H a) /t$*+/ t' 7) a *4a ('$) a+/ )%%)) th 7't*'+a*)! H att$%t/ t' )t' R))*a;) %-1861 )*tat*'+ '( a+ at'&at*& *$ h +'4) )ha/ %' *th th T)a!
&at*'+! Alexander III unexpectedly unexpectedly came to the the throne after his father’s death. Alexander III blamed blamed democracy and and the Jews for for this father’s father’s assassination. assassina tion. As a result, he decided to reverse all of his father’s reforms and introduced repression of opponents. *! •
R)t'at*'+ '( At'&at*& T)a t''? %))*7 T)a %))*7 $a)) t' %h'/ th th at'&at*& ! ! H %a))/ th Temporary Regulations t' /a *th th 3@* '( Th ='%5! ='%*)t), %'())*'+a 7't*'+a*), a+/ )%%'t) '( %'*t*&a %at*) )t +/ th at'&at*& ! A+y4'/y h' that+/ %4*& '/ a)t/ 4y th %'*&! Ha)h )&*ty $a)) *+t'/&/! A) a )t, %'*t*&a '%%')*t*'+ *$*+at/, '+y ( 7't*'+a*) $a*+/! A&t*7*t*) '( t'*)$ a+/ 3@* '( Th ='%5 /*/ /'+!
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E/&at*'+ I+ 188, T)a %a))/ a + University Statue. Th*) )tat a4'*)h/ +*7)*ty at'+'$y a+/ 4a++/ )t/+t;) %'*t*&a a&t*7*t*)! S&'+/ay )&h'') 3a/7*)/5 t' *7 $' att+t*'+ t' ta&h*+ '( &a))*&a a+a)! T*t*'+ () a*)/ '+ %%') t' $a? /&at*'+ a %)t**') &*t*a a) ' &a))) +a4 t' a'/ () t' '4ta*+ /&at*'+! @'?*+ &a)) a+/ %a)a+t &h*/+ %'h*4*t/ t' )t/y *+ )&h'')! Th*) $a+t that '+y th %% &a)) '/ 4 /&at/ (th tha+ th &' /&at*'+! Th &'+'$*& a% *+ R))*a that .*)t) 4t+ th %'' a+/ th *&h *) $a/ ')! R))*a;) **ta&y at +t % t' B9 a) th %a)a+t) a&&'+t (' 80 '( th R))*a+ %'%at*'+! La+/ C' C'$$a+/a+t) La+/ C'$$a+/a+t) *+t'/&/ a+/ ha/ t' 4 ('$ +'4**ty! I+&a)/ %)+tat*'+ '( %% &a)) $a+t that th +'4**ty '7/ th $)t7a a) th La+/ C'$$a+/a+t) +&'a) th */a '( )'&*a h*a&hy a) thy a ('$ th %% &a))+'4**ty a+/ '/ .&*) th* '$+*%'t+t a/$*+*)tat*7 %') a+/ F/*&*a ath'*ty ath'*ty *+ th th R))*a+ R))*a+ &'+ty)*/! &'+ty)*/! $)t7a /&*)*'+) /&*)*'+) )4F&t t' 7* 4y %'7*+&*a '7+') h*&h +/) th$ *th't ath'*ty! U4a+ a))$4*) /&/ h*&h $a+t that th */a '( /$'&a&y 4y A.a+/ II a) /*$*+*)h/! Th La+/ C'$$a+/a+t) h/ a ath'*ty '7 th %a)a+t), thy '/ *+&a) ta. h+7 thy a+t/ ' /*)$*)) th $)t7a! Th*) a ath'*tat*7 %' La+/ C'$$a+/a+t) h/ '7 %a)a+t) *+&a)/ %a)a+t (a! =a)a+t /at) a+/ )t+*)/ *+t&ta) /&/! R))*>&at*'+ A.a+/ III 4*7) )t'+y *+ th R))*a+ Oth'/'. Ch&h a) h 4*7/ *t a) )%*'! Th R))*a+ Oth'/'. Ch&h *) a Ch*)t*a+ /+'$*+at*'+ h *t 4*7) that th T)a a+/ (' a/) )+t a+/ a%%'*+t/ 4y G'/ h*$)(! Th */a '( R))*>&at*'+ a) /*&t/ at th ) a) thy 4a$/ (' A.a+/ II;) a))a))*+at*'+! Th ) %at*&ay hat/ 4&a) '( th* )t'+ **') 4*() that th $')t /*&t t' ))*(y h*&h
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Settlement h*&h th /)*+at/ aa h ) )*// *+ ='a+/! 'ta) (' ) *+ )&h'') a+/ +*7)*t*) +7 ') a4'7 10! A) a )t, th Zionist Movement 4a+ *+ 189B, *th th a*$ '( $a?*+ a h'$a+/ (' ) h*&h *) ?+'+ a) I)a +' + '!! The Bund h*&h *) a *)h R7't*'+ay =aty a) ('$/ a) a )%'+) t' th a+t*-S$*t*& %'*&*) that A.a+/ III *+t'/&/! 7! •
='4/'+')t)7 Th Ch&h Ch&h a) )/ )/ t' .t+/ th th %' '( th th T)a T)a!! "'$ "'$ 1881190J, th Procurator of the Holy Synod a) ='4'/'+')t)7! Th %'&at' %'& at' '( th H'y Sy+'/ a) th $')t *$%'ta+t > a) *t )7) t' 4 th $')t *$%'ta+t (+&t*'+ t' %a&h %a&h '4/*+& t' th T)a! Th*) '4/*+& a) $a+t t' 4 ta+)$*tt/ ('$ 4*)h'%) t' &y *+ 7*a)! Ta/*t*'+ay, hat a) )a*/ at &'+())*'+ a) +7 /*7/ t' a th*/ %aty! ='4/'+')t)7 &ha+/ th*) a+/ *+('$at*'+ %a))/ t' a $$4 '( &h&h /*+ &'+())*'+ a) (K+ty %a))/ '+t' th %'*& a+/ )/ a) 7*/+& aa*+)t a+ '+/! A4)/ ath'*ty '( R))*a+ Oth'/'. Ch&h a) *t 7*'at) %*7a&y '( R))*a+)! H'7, *t *+&a)/ &+)')h*% a+/ th(', /&/ '%%')*t*'+ t' th T)a*)t *$!
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2! =RO
V* * / / a) a) 3)' 3)'((t5 4y h* h*) ) "at "ath h!
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S&&))) 3@*tt Sy)t$5, '? a) )%'+)'/, a+/ '7)+ 4y th '7+$+t! Government placed emphasis on capital goods )&h a) *'+, &'a, )t a+/ $a&h*+y! !ploitation of natural resources )&h a) $*+a) *+ S*4*a! Th*) )t*$at/ (th *+/)t*a 'th!
+a+&/ ('$ 'a+) a4'a/ ('$ "a+&! #verseas loans and investments a*// *+/)t*a 'th! Tari$s" ta!es" interest rates *+&a)/ t' *+&a) &a%*ta! %imit on imported goods t' +&'a R))*a+) t' 4y R))*a+ %'/&t)! Th*) h%) $'+y &*&at *+ th &'+ty! !pansion of the Trans&Si'erian Rail(ay *+ 1902! R))*a ha/ )*"+++ ,m of rail(ay 'uilt. Ra%*/ e!pansion in cities a) F'4 '%%'t+*t*) *+&a)/! Ta+)%'tat*'+ a/7a+&$+t) +&'a/ %a)a+t) *+ th &'+ty)*/ t' '?! La )&a $a+(a&t attracted people see,ing employment. Ur'an population gro(th ('$ 1 t' 2 $**'+! "a*) I+/)t*a .%a+)*'+ .%a+)*'+ a) a '4a %h+'$+'+ 4t *t a) +'t F)t th '? '( S* @*tt! It a) too dependent on foreign investments h+ *t *) aa/y ha7*y *+ /4t . L*ht ty% '( *+/)ty a) neglected , less emphasis placed on agriculture. #vercro(ding *+ &*t*), / t' %'' *7*+ &'+/*t*'+) a+/ a /*))+t trade unions (ere *+ 'th! Poor (or,ing conditions
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oncentrated d e$ort Th +/ (' *+/)t*a *+/)t*a*)at*'+ *)at*'+ a) /)%at! /)%at! oncentrate a) +// t' *+/)t*a*) R))*a! H'7, R))*a;) 4a&?a/ &'+'$y &at/ $a+y 'th %'4$) )&h a) ('$at*'+ '( %'*t*&a %at*), %a)a+t a+/ '?) /*)&'+t+t h*&h $a/ *t &'+&+tat/ 't /*&t!
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C! = ='4 '4$) $) "a&*+ "a&*+ N*&h'a) N*&h'a) II *! •
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/%o(0 %ife e!pectancy (' %a)a+t) a) +/ 0 ya) '/! %o( literacy rate, )) tha+ 1 '( %a)a+t) &'/ a/ a+/ *t! %o( prices of 'read $a+t that thy a+/ )) a) that &at) lo( income! L*7*+ &'+/*t*'+) )7y %''! I+&a) *+ %'%at*'+ $a+t that $' a+/ ha/ t' 4 )/ t' h') R))*a+)! Th*) $a+t that that )) R))*a+ R))*a+ a+/ a+/ a) )/ (' (' a*&t! a*&t! A) *t *), *t a) aa/y /*&t t' $a.*$*) th %'t+t*a '( R))*a;) (t* a+/ / t' old&fashioned machinery a+/ ine1cient farming methods (hich produced lo( yield ! Th a+/ )h'ta / t' *+&a) *+ %'%at*'+ / t' th /&a) *+ a*&ta 't%t! A) a )t, '&&+& '( (a$*+) a +'$ *+ th &'+ty)*/ . %and ommandants h*&h *) aay) a+ a*)t'&at /&*// a4't '&a a), ta.), a+/ %+*)h/ h'7 thy %a)/ (t th %a)a+t) )%))/! D*)& D* )&'+ '+t t+t +t '( T' '+ + @' @'? ? ) )
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***!! *** •
D*)&' D*) &'+t +t+t +t '( '( S4F S4F&t &t Nat* Nat*'+a '+a*t *t*) *) t th+ h+*& *& $*+' $*+'*t *t*) *) Ma+y +at*'+a $*+'*t*) *+ th 'tay*+ /*)t*&t) )&h a) th ='), "*++), G$a+), E)t'+*a+), U?a*+*a+), a+/ )' ('th hat/ th R))*>&at*'+ %'*&y that A.a+/ III a+/ N*&h'a) II 4'ht! Thy )'&*ay, &'+'$*&ay, %'*t*&ay a+/ &tay tat/ +(a*y! Thy /$a+// '&a at'+'$y! Thy )''+ ('$/ )47)*7 '%) t' +/$*+ th %' '( th '7+$+t 4y )%a/*+ a+t*-R))*a+ %'%aa+/a! S'$ '( th )%%))/ $*+'*t*) F'*+/ th S'&*a D$'&at*& =aty a+/ S'&*a R7't*'+ay =at*)! Th*) )''+ gave rise to oppositional groups! Social Revolutionarie Revolutionaries4 s4 a%%a/ t' %a)a+t) a) th* $a*+ a*$ a) t' /*)t*4t a+/ t' %a)a+t)! Social 3emocrats atta&t/ t' Ma.*)$ a+/ th C'$$+*)t $a+*()t'! $a+*()t'! Thy 4*7/ that &ha+ '/ $ ('$ th %'ta %'ta*at *at 4&a) %a)a+t) )h'/ *tt *+t)t! Th) '%) '/ a )'t*'+ a+/ a )+) '( 4'+*+ '( th') h' a )%%))/!
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! THE 190J REV REVOL OLUTION UTION A! Th R))' R))' a%a+) a%a+) @a @a a+/ "ath "ath Ga%'+ a+/ <''/y S+/ay S+/ay a+ay 190J *! •
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R))' - a%a+) @a N*&h'a) II th'ht a 7*&t'y *+ a )h't a *th a%a+ '/ )t'% %'% &*t*&*)*+ h*) '7+$+t! H +/$*+/ a%a+ a) a )$a +at*'+ a+/ a))$/ that th a '/ 4 )h't! R))*a ')t 4&a) '( )7a a)'+)! Thy +/)t*$at/ a%a+ a) a+ 3A)*a+5 &'+ty a+/ ''?/ /'+ %'+ th$! R))*a a) )t* &'+'$*&ay 4a&?a/ a+/ '+y )tat*+ t' a*+ &'+'$*& )ta4**ty, thy )t* +/%%a/ *+ t$) '( *+(a)t&t a+/ t&h+''y (' a! G'a%h*&ay /*&t t' &*+ty $'7 t''%) a) R))*a a) a &'+ty '( 7a)t a+/)! La&? '( a%'+y, a$$+*t*'+ a+/ K*%$+t )%%*/ t' t''%) a) R))*a a) )t* a 4a&?a/ &'+ty, +'t a/y a/y (' a a! a! @a $a/ &'+/*t*'+) '). D t' th a, 7yth*+ %'/&/ *+ th &'+ty a) *7+ %*'*ty t' th t''%)! A) a )t, %'% +a4 t' $t K'ta) )t, th), lac, of industrial materials caused factories to close do(n. Th*) /&/ /&/ F'4 '%%'t+*t*) '%%'t+*t*) a+/ a+/ unemployment rates pea,ed. "''/ a+/ 'th ''/) )+t t' t''%), &a)*+ a shortage of food in cities. Th a&? '( ''/) ''/) &*&at*+ a) )'& a) )&a& *+ th &'+ty / t' increase in prices. A) th a %'))/, R))*a %+/ *+t' /% &'+'$*& &*)*)! R))*a+ Na7y fought 5 ma6or 'attles t' *7 ='t Ath
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G$a+y;) (t %a+) t' ' t' a *th "a+& a+/ S4*a;) (t %a+) t' ' t' a *th A)t*a-H+ay!
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**!! ** •
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"at ath h Ga% Ga%'+ '+ a+ a+/ / <' <''/ '/y y S+ S+/a /ay y "ath Ga%'+ a+/ th '?) '( =t'a/ (a&*+ %'4$) *+ th '? %a&! @'?) a+t/ /&t*'+ '( '?*+ h') a+/ *+&a) *+ a) a) a) )a+*tay *$%'7$+t) *+ '?*+ aa)! D*ty '?*+ aa) &a)) /*)a)) h*&h $a?) '?) )*&? a+/ &'/ &a) /ath! A) a )t, :ather Gapon dre( up a petition , 't*+*+ %'*t*&a a+/ &'+'$*& /$a+/) *+ h'% t' /*)&)) th$ *th th T)a a) th %'% 4*7 that thy a th T)a;) T )a;) 3&h*/+5 3&h*/+5 / t' th 4*() 4*() '( th R))*a+ R))*a+ Oth'/'. Oth'/'. Ch&h! Ch&h! ='*t*&a /$a+/) &a/ (' a+ &t/ /$a, (/'$ '( )%&h a+/ &*7* *ht)! E&'+'$*& /$a+/) &a/ (' a a4' *)at*'+ (' a 8-h' '?*+ /ay, *+&a) *+ a) a+/ a /&t*'+ *+ ta.)! Thy *+t+// *t t' 4 a %a&( %a&( .&ha+ .&ha+ '( 7*) 't*+*+ th* th* *7a+&)! O+ S+/ay, 22+/ a+ay 190J, 200,000 %'% a+/ "ath Ga%'+ $a&h/ t' th @*+t =aa& t' /*7 th %t*t*'+ t' th T)a! H'7, th $a&h) )''+ $t *th t''%) a) thy a*7/! U+('t+aty, th T)a a) +'t *+ th %aa& at that $'$+t, th(' +' ath'*tat*7 */*+) *7+, th), th t''%) 4a+ )h''t*+ a) th 3%a&(5 %'t)t a) %&*7/ a) a that!
#ver ;++ (or,ers ,illed" *++ (ounded. St*+ '( )t*?) t''? %a& a&')) R))*a *+7'7*+ 00,000 %'%! =a)a+t 4*'+ *+ th &'+ty)*/ h thy atta&?/ h'$) '( th* a+/'/)! Ta+)-S*4*a T a+)-S*4*a+ + a*ay *+// *+// t' a hat, hat, th*) &a)/ &a)/ &'+'$y t' %aay)! St/+t) )ta/ a 4'y&'tt '( th /&at*'+ )y)t$ a) thy &'$%a*+/ a4't &*7* *ht)! U+*7)*t*) 4a+ t' &') /'+! Lay), /'&t'), +*+), a+/ $*// &a)) '?) )ta4*)h/ th Union of Unions a+/ /$a+// a constituent assem'ly.
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7!
O&t' O& t'4 4 Ma+* Ma+*( ()t )t' ' O& O&t' t'4 4 190 190J J
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C! Th ='t$? ='t$?*+ *+ Mt*+y Mt*+y a+/ )tt*+ )tt*+ % '( th S'7*t S'7*t)! )! *! •
**!! ** •
<''/y S+/ay Th 190J 7't*'+ 7't*'+ (as spar,ed o$ the peaceful protest" Bloody Sunday Sunday.. Th*) a) th th t+*+ %'*+t *+ th th at*'+)h*% at*'+)h*% 4t+ th T)a a+/ h*) %'%! Th *+t+t*'+ '( "ath Ga%'+ a+/ th '?) +'th*+ 4t *++'&+t! Thy /*/ +'t *+t+/ (' a %'*t*&a %'t)t +' th a*$ t' '7th' th '7+$+t 4t F)t t' )*$%y 't*+ th +)a+*tay a+/ /$a+/*+ *()ty *+ th (a&t'*)! ='t 't$ $? ?*+ M Mtt*+y + 19 190J 0J S'/*) %'t)t/ aa*+)t 4*+ )7/ 'tt+ $at (' $a)! It a) +F)t (' th$ a) thy ha/ t' >ht (' th &'+ty 4t a tat/ *th *+(*' Ka*ty '( *7*+! Ca%ta*+) '( )h*% '// *+a/) *+a/ ) '( $t*+y t' 4 )h't! Th >*+-)Ka/ ()/ t' )h''t, *+)ta/ F'*+/ th *+a/) a+/ 3$t*+*/5 4y th'*+ th &a%ta*+) '74'a/! Th ='t$?*+ Mt*+y )''+ &at/ a /'$*+' &t a) *t +&'a/ 'th a$*) a+/ +a7y 4a)) t' /' th )a$!
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&a*/ 't th Ma+*()t' +'t 4&a) *t a) th 4)t (' R))*a 4t a) a )*+ '( a?+))! The #cto'er Manifesto a+t/ civil rights, freedom of speech , %'$*) '( democracy 4y *+t'/&*+ a duma, ( &+)')h*% '( %))! **!! ** •
•
Ra a)' )'+) +) hy N* N*&h &h' 'a) a) ) )7 7*7 *7/ / O&t'4 Ma+*()t' $a+a/ t' %a) $aF'*ty '( th '%%')*t*'+ '%)! @*th th %'$*) '( a D$a, th T)a &t*7y %'$*)/ th %'% /$'&a&y! Th %i'erals (ere pleased a) th* a*$ a) t' ha7 a &'+)t*tt*'+a $'+a&hy! Oth '%%')*t*'+a '%) *? th
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R7't*'+a*) a/7t*)/ th +at*'+a*)at*'+ '( a+/ 4t th %a)a+t) '+y a+t/ a (a* /*7*)*'+ '( a+/ (' th$)7) +'t th )tat!
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! THE DUMAS DUMAS AND STOL STOLY=IN A! Th Att*t Att*t/ / '( N*&h'a) N*&h'a) t' th >)t >)t (' D$a) D$a) *! •
**! •
"+/a$+ta La La) N*&h'a) II a)/ th :undamental %a(s h*&h a))t/ $')t '( th '/ %*+&*%) '( th T)a*)t *$ ath tha+ &t*+ */a) '( th O&t'4 Ma+*()t' *? $a+y 'th) a+t*&*%at/! Th*) $a+t that th Tsar alone possessed constitutional and le!islative power , '+y th Tsar could alter or modify the constitution , th Tsar retained authority to initiate or amend the le!islative with or without the presence of the &uma, a+/ !overnment ministers were appointed by the Tsar a'+! a'+! Th :undamental %a(s &t*7y 4tay/ a th %'$*)) h ha/ $a/ /*+ th #cto'er Manifesto. "*)t D$a 1906 "'$/ a) %'$*)/ 4y th O&t'4 Ma+*()t'! Ma+*()t' ! E&t*'+) (' th D$a 4a+ *+ 1906, *th a $a &*t*+) a4'7 2J a'/ t' 7't, %'7*// *( thy +'t +*)t/ *+ th $**tay ' ha/ +'
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%)+tat*'+ t' th +'4**ty a+/ a7 at %' t' a+/'+),, t' th /t*$+t '( th %a)a+t)! I$%'ta+t a+/ a+/'+) ('$) 4y St'y%*+ a) %a))/!
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*7! •
7! •
Th*/ D$a 190B Th Th*/ Th*/ D$a a+ *t) ( t$ t$ '( J ya)! Th Th revised lectoral System $a+t that peasants lost the vote! Th*) $a+t that /%t*) a fairly conservative /'$*+at/ 4y th O&t'4*)t), $' *ht *+! D%t*) $' **+ to (or, (ith government than to challenge it ! O+y !J $**'+ %'% 't '( 1J $**'+ %'% 7't/! '( th !J $**'+ %'% ('$ th +'4 &a))! "'th D$a 1912 St* /'$*+at/ 4y th O&t'4*)t), 7y right&(ing! @'?/ (ith the government +t* th 't4a? '( @@1 *+ 191! S*+*>&a+&
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'( th %a)a+t %'%at*'+ h' )ta4*)h/ a a+/ $' %'/&t*7 (a$)! Oth %a)a+t) h' )'/ th* a+/, +// % *+ th &*t*), h*&h increased industrial (or, force. H a'olished redemption payments h*&h /&/ th 4/+ '( th %a)a+t)! E+&'a*+ %a)a+t) t' '? (' %'>t ath tha+ a+/'/) ' 7*a &'$$+) '/ 7*ta*) th &'+'$y h*&h '/ a/ t' *$%'7$+t) *+ (a$*+ $th'/), %'/&t*7*ty a+/ a*&ta 't%t!
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*xplain the e+ect of the ena %oldeld #trie on ussia. O+ '( th &t) '( th L+a G'/>/ )t*? *) */)%a/ )t*?) th'h't R))*a! M*+) at th L+a G'/>/ $*+ '?*+ 16 h') a /ay *+ a *)?y +7*'+$+t *th +' %'% )a(ty K*%$+t *th ' a) a+/ a >+/ h+ t*7*a '+&) a &'$$*tt/! A) a )t, 6,000 '?) ('$/ a )t*?*+ &'$$*tt t' /$a+/ (' 4tt '?*+ &'+/*t*'+)! M*+*+ &'$%a+y ta*at/ *th t''%) t' %t /'+ th )t*?) a+/ t' a)t *+a/) '( )t*?*+ &'$$*tt! Th*) / t' a+ *+&a) '( )t*?) a) 2,J00 $*+) $a&h/ % t' th &'$%a+y;) ha/Kat) /$a+/*+ th a) '( th* a/)! M*+) $t *th 4*a/ '( t''%) h*&h (t 2J0 $+ /a/! A) a )t, th*) th+ 4'ht th att+t*'+ '( )t*?) +at*'+*/ h*&h h*ht+) th a$'+t '(
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Revolutionary! Thy 4'th '%at/ 't '( th &'+ty a) thy *a! L(t-@*+ '%at/ *+ <*+! R*ht-@*+ /*)t*4t/ %'%aa+/a ('$ G+7a! *7! •
S'&*a D$'&at) I+ 190, thy )%*t *+t' Menshevi,s a+/ Bolshevi,s ! Menshevi,s men of minority a+/ / 4y Martov. M+)h7*?) %)+t/ th ma6ority of the socialists" thy &'+&+tat/ '+ $a?*+ *( 4tt (' th '?*+ &a))! Bolshevi,s men of ma6ority a+/ / 4y L+*+! L+*+ 4*7) that &'+/*t*'+ *+ R))*a )h'/ +'t 4 *$%'7/ 4&a) *t * ))+ th )%%'t '( th 7't*'+! R7't*'+ * 4 (''/ 4y a %*'/ '( &ha+ *+
