A10: Superpower Relations 1945-1962: Key Events Knowing and understanding the key events from each topic is obviously essential. For Section A topics like Superpower Relations, you need to be able to describe or explain the causes, key features and consequences of each event. Make sure you study the following list of key events as part of your revision:
#
1.) The Yalta Conference – February 4th-11th 1945 Who?
Causes
What happened?
Consequences
War situation
Stalin agreed to declare war on Japan
The talk of ‘democracy’ and ‘free
had changed: Germany was close to defeat. USA led by President Roosevelt UK led by Prime Minister Winston
Discussions over the post-war world were needed. USA & UK wanted USSR to declare war
within three months of the defeat of Germany. Compromise over Poland. All agreed to form a Polish government pledged to hold ‘free elections’. Borders of Poland also changed – USSR gained land from Eastern Poland whilst Poland would gain land from East Germany. The ‘Declaration on Liberated Europe’. USA, USSR & UK commit to work for
Churchill
on Japan.
democracy in Europe.
USSR led
Needed to
Allies agree to form the United Nations.
by Joseph Stalin
agree a political solution for liberated countries, especially Germany and Poland.
Germany and Berlin to be divided into four zones of occupation between Britain, France, USA and USSR. Big Three restate their agreement that the USSR should have a ‘sphere of influence’ in Eastern Europe.
elections’ was interpreted differently by USA and USSR. American free speech vs. Stalin’s idea that communism represented the people so no opposition allowed. Yalta raised false expectations in the USA that Stalin would allow westernstyle governments in Eastern Europe. Stalin paid only lip service to idea of ‘free elections’ in Poland. In March, 16 leaders of the Polish resistance were arrested by Stalin and never seen again. Further talks over Poland achieved nothing. USSR refused to allow prowestern Poles into new government. Soviet troops had captured most of Eastern Europe. Stalin’s demand for a ‘sphere of influence’ had to be taken seriously.
2.) The Potsdam Conference – July 17th - Aug 2nd 1945 Who?
Causes
What happened? A compromise was reached over war
USA represented by President Harry S. Truman
reparations. Each ally would take
Nazi Germany was
reparations from the zone they
over. Hitler was
occupied. USSR was also given industrial
dead. The Allies
equipment from Western zones in
needed to decide
return for raw materials.
Europe. Both superpowers
Agreed to prosecute Nazi war
their half of Europe.
how to disarm and punish Germany.
had to be reached represented by Prime Minister Winston Churchill &
The conference ended
The war against
A political solution UK
Consequences
over the liberated countries. The Western Allies now occupied the whole of western Europe. The Soviet
criminals.
without agreement on what would happen to the newly liberated states across were determined to keep
Truman’s attempt to assert
Statement of aims of the occupation of
his authority by declaring a
Germany by the Allies: demilitarisation,
‘powerful new weapon’ at the
denazification, democratisation,
conference only made Stalin
decentralisation and decartelisation.
more determined to protect
Details of the German-Polish border were finally agreed.
the USSR. He saw this as a threat from the USA. He therefore wanted to create a
Red Army occupied
The communist dominated Polish
‘buffer zone’ in Eastern
the whole of
Provisional Government of National
Europe.
Clement
eastern Europe.
Unity was recognized by all three
Attlee
Roosevelt had
Prime Minister
powers.
The USA and UK became aware of their need to
died and Truman
Was confirmed that the Polish
confront communism in
was keen to meet
Provisional Government of National
Europe. Truman approved
USSR
Stalin. He wanted
Unity would hold ‘free and fair
Churchill’s 1946 ‘Iron Curtain’
represented
to be tougher with
elections’ as soon as possible.
speech, in which he said that
by Joseph
Stalin over issues
Stalin
like Poland.
The terms of the surrender of Japan were agreed. Japan had to agree unconditional surrender or face ‘prompt and utter destruction’.
countries in the West were free and countries in the East were under communist control behind an ‘Iron Curtain’.
3.) Churchill’s ‘Iron Curtain’ Speech – March 1946 Who?
Causes
What happened?
By 1946 it became
Former UK Prime Minister Winston Churchill who lost power in the 1945 general election
clear that Europe
Churchill gave a speech in the
had been divided.
presence of President Truman at
From 1945-1948,
Westminster College, Fulton,
Stalin rigged
th
elections to establish communist governments in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, East Germany & Czechoslovakia.
Missouri on 5 March 1946: ‘From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic an "Iron Curtain" has descended across the continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade,
The West
Bucharest and Sofia; all these famous
responded to this
cities and the populations around
division with a war
them lie in what I must call the
of words, designed
Soviet sphere, and all are subject, in
to portray Stalin as a
one form or another, not only to
power-hungry
Soviet influence but to a very high
dictator. Truman had
and in some cases increasing measure
even compared Stalin
of control from Moscow.’
to Hitler.
Consequences The speech showed that both sides now clearly viewed each other as opponents. Stalin responded by saying: ‘…Mr Churchill now adopts the position of the warmonger, and in this Mr Churchill is not alone. He has friends not only in Britain but in the USA as well. A point to be noted in this respect is that Mr. Churchill and his friends bear a striking resemblance to Hitler and his friends.’ This war of words led to both sides initiating spying and assessment reports on each other to determine the thinking of their opponents. This resulted in the Long Telegram and Novikov’s Telegram.
4.) The Long Telegram & Novikov’s Telegram – 1946 Who?
Causes
What happened?
Consequences
Kennan responded to Truman with a telegram on 22nd
The telegrams made
February 1946 that reported: US ambassador to Moscow, George F. Kennan Soviet ambassador to Washington, Nikolai Novikov
Truman and Stalin were both keen to understand
There could be no peace with the USSR while it was opposed to capitalism.
intentions and they both
facing the imminent
capitalism.
each other’s threats so
feel that they were
The USSR perceived itself to be at war with
th
September that reported:
commissioned
reports to be written by
America wanted to dominate the world. The USA was no longer interested in cooperation.
embassy staff.
The American public was being prepared for war with the USSR by ‘capitalist elites’.
possibility of war. The USA now believed that the
The USSR was rebuilding its military.
Novikov responded to Stalin with a telegram on 27
both governments
USSR was planning world domination whilst the USSR believed the same about the USA. These fears led the USA to form the ‘Truman Doctrine’.
5.) The Truman Doctrine – March 1947 Who?
Causes
George Kennan advised Truman that the USA’s best hope was to ‘contain’ communism rather than
What happened? The Truman Doctrine stated that:
fight it on the battlefield. Much of Europe was devastated after the war and communism was President Truman of the USA
appealing. Truman was worried
neighbouring countries were next in line to be threatened. In Feb 1947 the UK announced it could no longer afford to pay for troops in Greece and Turkey. The US feared communism would spread to these countries.
because it suggested that America had the responsibility to protect the world, not the
democratic freedom.
UN which marked an end to
America had a responsibility to
USA’s traditional policy of
America would send troops and money help governments against communism.
The doctrine was significant
communist tyranny and
fight for liberty.
about the Domino Theory: if communism took over one country,
The world had choice between
Consequences
Communism should not be allowed to grow and spread and should be ‘contained’. Over the course of the Cold War,
the Truman doctrine provided arms and money to defend Greece, Korea, Cuba, Vietnam, Afghanistan and South America.
‘isolationism’. The doctrine assumed that Capitalism and Communism were incompatible = the unofficial start of the Cold War. Truman was now committed to a policy of ‘containment’. US military aid to Greece meant that the communists were defeated in the Greek Civil War in 1949.
6.) The Marshall Plan – June 1947 Who?
Causes Economic crisis in Europe: food shortages, unemployment, food rationing and
President
starvation. Communist
Truman of
party support was
the USA
growing, especially in
George C. Marshall, US
France and Italy where riots broke out.
Secretary
Truman knew that to
of State
weaken the attraction of communism, he needed to rebuild and encourage prosperity in Europe.
What happened?
The USA decided to offer economic aid to Europe, organised by US Secretary of State General George Marshall. Committed $13 billion USD to rebuild the ruined economies of Europe. Countries had to agree free trade agreements with the USA in order to receive money. This would benefit the American economy as the US would provide the money and goods needed to rebuild. American money was made available to eastern Europe and the USSR as well. Stalin ordered Poland & Czechoslovakia not to accept it.
Consequences European leaders met at the Paris Conference of 1948 to discuss Marshall Aid. The USSR walked out of the conference as they believed the US was trying to split Europe into two camps. Stalin claimed that Marshall Aid had tricked western Europe into an economic reliance on the US. Led to the creation of Soviet rivals: COMINFORM and COMECON. West European economies experienced an economic boom and had returned to prewar levels of growth when the plan ended in 1952. Divided Germany as the military governors of western Germany agreed to accept money. Divide in Europe was now economic, not just ideological.
7.) Creation of COMINFORM – Sep 1947 Who?
Causes
Stalin was concerned that eastern European countries would be tempted by the Communist Party General Secretary Joseph Stalin
Marshall Plan. He wanted to prevent this by forcing Eastern European countries to become ‘satellite states’, controlled by the USSR. Stalin wanted satellite states on his European borders to trade with, and for military defence.
What happened?
Consequences
At an international conference, the USSR created the Communist Information Bureau (COMINFORM) which represented Communist Parties across Europe and brought them under the control and manipulation of the USSR. COMINFORM encouraged Communist Parties in Western Europe to organise demonstrations and strikes in order to wreck the Marshall Plan. 2 million workers went on strike in France in 1947 calling for their government to reject Marshall Aid. COMINFORM was also used to stamp out opposition and ensure the loyalty of Eastern European governments. 5% of population was imprisoned in Hungary by 1953.
COMINFORM organised strikes in Western Europe did not work as growing prosperity weakened the attraction of communism. COMINFORM strengthened Stalin’s hold on Eastern Europe. He could use COMINFORM to investigate government ministers and employees, and remove or imprison those who were not loyal.
8.) Creation of COMECON - Jan 1949 Who?
Causes The failure of COMINFORM to destroy Marshall Plan through political
Communist Party General Secretary Joseph Stalin
opposition forced the USSR to consider an economic rival. Stalin wanted to minimise the influence of the USA. Stalin wanted to prevent Eastern Europe from benefiting economical from the West.
What happened?
Consequences
The Council for Mutual
Was not very successful as the Soviet
Economic Aid (COMECON) was designed as a trading organisation of communist countries. Aims was to economically develop Eastern Europe and prevent trade
Union had little spare cash to inject into the economies of Eastern Europe. Meant that Eastern Europe did not develop as fast as Western Europe. The USSR used COMECON to help
with Western Europe.
rebuild itself first – not its satellite
USSR, Bulgaria,
encouraged COMECON members to
Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland and Romania were all members in first year. Albania and Eastern Germany joined in 1950.
states. The USSR eventually specialise in different products. Stalin’s wish of a sphere of influence over Eastern Europe was now made an economic reality.
9.) The Berlin Blockade and Airlift – June 1948 Who?
Causes Stalin didn’t want a divided Germany. Germany’s main
Communist Party General Secretary of the USSR, Joseph Stalin US President Harry Truman
economic resources were in the west and he wanted to prevent the USA from having further influence in Germany. He feared they were rebuilding Germany as an ally against the USSR. He viewed the merging of the Allied zones of Germany in 1947, along with the introduction of the Deutschmark in June 1948 as an attempt to divide Germany. He expected the western powers to make a humiliating retreat.
What happened?
Consequences
Stalin set up a military blockade around West Berlin on 23
rd
June
1948. He planned to cut western Germany off from its capital: Berlin. This would prove that a divided Germany could not work. All roads and railways to Berlin were blocked by the Soviets. Stalin assumed the West would give in as 2 million Berliner’s were starving. Truman responded with the Berlin Airlift. It was the first major test of the Truman Doctrine. Allied planes would supply West Berlin from the air. The first flight was on the 26th and by Sep, a US aircraft was leaving every 3 minutes. 70 large cargo planes airlifted 600-700 tonnes of food and supplies every day. This increased to 1000 tonnes within weeks. At its height, the airlift provided over 170,000 tonnes of supplies, flying along 3 ‘air corridors’ during January 1949.
Stalin backed down on 12th May 1949. Stalin seemed like the aggressor as the attack on Berlin looked like the first step in a march westwards. This was a propaganda success for the USA. Blockade seemed to prove to the West that the USSR wanted to take over Europe. This led to the creation of the NATO alliance in April 1949 and the creation of West Germany (FDR) as an independent state in Sep 1949. This in turn forced the USSR to establish East Germany (GDR) as an independent nation one month later. Stalin ordered the speeding up of atomic testing as he realised that without an atomic bomb, he could not win confrontations with the USA. The USSR test their first atomic bomb in 1949, starting the arms race.
10.) Creation of NATO – April 1949 Who?
1949 – USA, UK, Canada, Iceland, France, Portugal, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Denmark and Norway. 1952 – Greece and Turkey. 1955 – West Germany. 1982 – Spain.
Causes The Berlin Blockade raised the possibility of war in Europe as it was the first military confrontation of the Cold War. European countries were keen to establish a military alliance in order to ‘keep the USA in, the USSR out and the Germans down.’
What happened? The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) was established as a military alliance between the USA and Western Europe. An attack on one member would be considered as an attack on all members. It was in effect a military alliance with the aim of defending the West against communism. It wasn’t just a promise either. Five divisions of US troops were based in Germany. West Germany joined NATO in 1955, adding millions more troops.
Consequences The creation of NATO significantly heightened tensions in the Cold War. The creation of NATO now added a clear military divide to Europe. The USSR felt threatened by the creation of NATO and especially when West German troops joined. The USSR responded by creating the Warsaw Pact in 1955 which was a military alliance of Eastern European countries. The build-up of military alliances turned into an arms race when the USSR tested its own nuclear bomb in 1949. But paradoxically, the threat of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) prevented war in Europe.
11.) The Korean War – June 1950 – July 1953 Who? North Korea, led by Kim Il Sung South Korea led by Syngman Rhee China led by Mao Zedong USA led by President Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 US/UN Forces led by General Douglas MacArthur
Causes Truman believed the Russians were behind the attack and it was a test of his policy of containment. China had become communists in 1949 providing further proof that containment was
What happened?
Korea was divided after the Second World War. On 25th June 1950, North Korea led by Kim Il Sung invaded the South in an attempt to re-unite the country by force.
in Korea. The Security Council approved the use of force to defeat the
In Sep 1949 the USSR
In Sep 1950, US troops led by
atomic bomb. Truman became convinced that communism wanted to take over the world. UN vote gave the USA greater ‘legitimacy’ to invade
in the world. Proved that containment could work to prevent the Domino Theory – would later
War led to rearmament throughout the western world. The Involvement of USSR and China persuaded the US to increase defence spending, up to 400% after
General Douglas MacArthur led a successful counter-attack and by 1st Oct, US troops had reached the 38
to containing communism anywhere
Vietnam.
Council to back the use of US troops
Northern invasion.
Demonstrated the US commitment
influence decision making in
Truman asked the UN Security
needed.
had developed an
Consequences
th
parallel. When MacArthur invaded North Korea, the Chinese intervened, pushing US led forces back to Seoul. For the rest of the war, stalemate ensued. Ceasefire was agreed on 27th July 1953. Korea remained divided.
the war. Marshall Aid money also was diverted to defence spending in Western Europe. Dangers of nuclear war, proposed by General MacArthur scared the world and put pressure on the superpowers to negotiate. After the death of Stalin in 1953, this led to a thaw in relations.
12.) Creation of the Warsaw Pact – May 1955 Who?
Causes
What happened?
Consequences
The USSR responded to NATO by creating the
USSR, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Albania and East Germany.
The formation of NATO in 1949
Warsaw Pact which was a
altered the balance of power in
military alliance of
Europe in the West’s favour.
Eastern European
Stalin needed his own rival alliance
countries. The countries
to ensure parity with the west.
agreed to respect each
The addition of West Germany to NATO in 1955 along with over a million extra German soldiers
other’s independence and to defend each other in the event of war.
accelerated the need for the
Unlike NATO, the Warsaw
USSR to create a military alliance.
Pact countries were strictly dominated by the USSR.
The creation of a communist military alliance cemented the control of the USSR over Eastern Europe. It also contributed to the increasing competition of the arms race. The Warsaw Pact had poor technology and relied on conscription, therefore the USSR focused on developing nuclear weapons as a means of deterrence.
13.) The Hungarian Uprising – Feb-Nov 1956 Who?
Causes Hungarians were dissatisfied with Soviet rule. After 1949, COMINFORM imposed an oppressive regime on Hungary. Hungarian land was given to other countries, resources shipped to
Hungarian Dictator Matyas Rakosi Hungarian Leader Erno Gero Hungarian Leader Imre Nagy Hungarian Leader Janos Kadar USSR led by Nikita Khrushchev
Russia, political parties abolished and Matyas Rakosi was appointed dictator in Aug 1952. Rakosi’s reign was harsh – he used what he called ‘salami tactics’ to deal with opposition ‘one slice at a time’. He imprisoned over 387,000 people and was responsible for over 2000 deaths. The death of Stalin in 1953 led to the end of ‘Stalinism’ and the start of what Khrushchev called ‘peaceful co-existence’ with the west. This was taken to mean that Soviet rule was to be relaxed in Hungary. In June 1956, there were antiSoviet demonstrations in Poland. Khrushchev agreed to allow reforms there. This inspired many Hungarians to demonstrate and protest, hoping to gain reforms in their country.
What happened?
Consequences
After Khrushchev’s ‘secret speech’ in Feb 1956, many students began to riot in Budapest, attacking Soviet troops with petrol bombs and grenades. Police lost control and protests erupted in other cities. By the summer, Khrushchev realised that Rakosi was extremely unpopular & replaced him with Erno Gero in July 1956. This made little difference. On 24th Oct, Khrushchev agreed to calls for a more liberal leader and appointed Imre Nagy. He proposed leaving the Warsaw Pact, making Hungary a democracy with free election, communism should end and Hungary should ask the UN for help against the USSR. Khrushchev worried that to allow this greater freedom and let Hungary leave the Warsaw Pact would mean the end to Soviet control of Eastern Europe. He responded by sending 200,000 Soviet troops and 2500 tanks into Hungary to crush the government. They reached Budapest on 4
th
Nov.
20,000 Hungarians were killed and another 200,000 fled to Austria.
Nagy fled to the Yugoslavian embassy but was arrested by Soviet troops as soon as he left. He was accused of treason by Khrushchev and was hanged in June 1958. The west was accused of ‘abandoning’ the Hungarians. The USA had encouraged the uprising but didn’t want to risk nuclear war. May have actually improved relations as USSR had seen the USA as having no desire to interfere in its sphere of influence. The lack of military help from the USA discouraged other radicals in Eastern Europe from rising up. In that sense, Khrushchev’s show of force worked to strengthen his control on Eastern Europe. Janos Kadar was appointed as the new Hungarian leader who called for: re-establishing communist control and remaining in the Warsaw Pact.
14.) The Berlin Crisis & U2 Incident – 1958-1961 Who?
Causes
What happened?
Consequences
In Nov 1958, Khrushchev issued an Khrushchev was
ultimatum giving Western Powers six months
deeply concerned
to withdraw from Berlin. Eisenhower was
by the growing
unsure how to respond but agreed to hold
refugee problem.
talks on the issue.
Between 1949 and 1961, 2.7 million East Germans USSR led
escaped to West
by Nikita
Germany through
Khrushchev
Berlin. Many were
USA led by
highly skilled.
President
Khrushchev also
Truman
believed that West
and Dwight
Berlin was being
D.
used by the West
Eisenhower
as a base for
from 1953
spying and sabotage. The post-war recovery of West Berlin seemed to remind people of
from escaping to the West, ending the refugee crisis. Allowed the communists to consolidate their hold over East Germany.
Further talks are held in Geneva (May 1959) and at Camp David (Sep 1959) but both talks fail to achieve anything. Further talks are scheduled for 1960. On 1st May 1960, an American U2 spy plane is shot down over USSR. Khrushchev used this to expose the USA’s spying programme at the UN. The Paris Summit on 16th May 1960 breaks down as Khrushchev walks out. Eisenhower refuses to punish the leaders of the U2 programme. At the Vienna Conference on 4
The wall stopped East Germans
Allowed Khrushchev to avoid war with USA whilst appearing strong. Was propaganda victory for the USA as USSR had to ‘wall people in’ to make sure they didn’t run away from communism. Kennedy took advantage of this by touring West Berlin in 1963, saying in a speech: “All free men, wherever they live, are citizens of Berlin and therefore as a free man, I take pride in the words Ich bin ein Berliner.”
th
June 1961,
Khrushchev challenges Kennedy to withdraw US troops from Berlin within 6 months or to declare war. Kennedy refuses.
the benefits of
On morning of 13th Aug 1961, Berliner’s
capitalism. This
awake to find that a fence had been
worried Khrushchev.
erected around the whole of West Berlin. It was eventually reinforced.
86 Germans would die over the next 30 years in trying to cross the wall. Led to a period of calm in Europe as both sides accepted there was no immediate prospect of change so tension went down.
15.) The Cuban Missile Crisis – October 1962 Who?
Causes
What happened?
Consequences
In August 1961, Khrushchev agreed to defend Long-term The continuing arms race forced both sides to find
Cuba by stationing Russian nuclear missiles in Cuba. On 25th September 1962, Khrushchev sent 114 ships to Cuba carrying nuclear warheads and long range missiles.
ways in which to gain military supremacy. The
14th Oct – American U2 spy plane spots a nuclear
launch of Sputnik 1 in
site under construction in Cuba.
1957 had intensified the arms race. In early 1962, the US placed nuclear
16th Oct – Kennedy was shown the photographs proving the missiles were on Cuba. The ExComm committee is established and he spends 6 days
missiles in Turkey. The
secretly discussing how to respond.
USSR decided to retaliate by placing missiles in Cuba. This would allow the USSR to undermine American
20th Oct – Kennedy ignores pressure from ‘hawks’ and decides to impose a naval blockade around Cuba to prevent further missiles reaching Cuba.
nuclear superiority without having to develop expensive inter-continental USA led by President Kennedy USSR led by Nikita Krushchev Cuba led by Fidel Castro
ballistic missiles.
22
pro-US Batista
Khrushchev to recall his ships on route to Cuba. He promised to destroy any ships that passed the ‘quarantine line’. 23rd Oct – Khrushchev states that Soviet ships will break though the blockade.
government in Cuba with a communist government led by Fidel Castro in 1959 intensified fears of
24th Oct – Khrushchev issues a statement saying the USSR is prepared to respond with nuclear weapons if the USA goes to war.
communist expansion in Latin America. Cuba was only 90 miles from Florida. Castro nationalised US
– Kennedy gives a public address officially
declaring the blockade with 100 ships and calls on
Short-term The overthrow of the
nd
25
th
Oct – Kennedy writes a letter to Khrushchev
asking him to withdraw missiles from Cuba. Both armies told to prepare for war. Tension at highest point.
property in Cuba and the USA banned the import
26 Oct – Khrushchev’s first offer: he ignores calls
of Cuban sugar – their
for a nuclear war and responds, saying in a letter he
main export. This forced
will withdraw the missiles in return for a US
Cuba to turn to the USSR
guarantee not to invade Cuba.
for help. The USSR now gave economic aid to Cuba.
th
27th Oct – Khrushchev’s second offer: he sends a second letter now demanding that the US withdraws
The failed Bay of Pigs
its missiles from Turkey in return for the removal
invasion of Cuba in April
of Cuban missiles. Kennedy ignores this letter but
1961 by the CIA left
agrees to the first letter. Robert Kennedy then
Castro fearing another US
meets with Soviet ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin. He
invasion. He asked
agrees to Russian demands to withdraw missiles from
Khrushchev for military
Turkey but insists the deal must be kept secret.
help.
28th Oct – Khrushchev agrees to the secret deal and orders all ‘cargoes’ to return to the USSR.
Short-Term Kennedy and the USA appeared victorious as Khrushchev was seen by the world as the one to publically back down. This propaganda defeat contributed to Khrushchev resigning in 1964. Kennedy had agreed to pull US missiles out of Turkey. In reality, the event did end in compromise. European allies of the US were shocked at how little they were consulted throughout the crisis. French leader Charles de Gaulle pulls France out of NATO in response. NATO is weakened. The Chinese were not impressed with the performance of the USSR so began to pursue a more independent foreign policy. World communism was also weakened. This led to the creation of a ‘hotline’ in June 1963 between Washington and Moscow in order to avoid future ‘misunderstandings’. The Limited Test Ban Treaty was agreed in August 1963. Both sides agreed to ban nuclear testing in space, in the sea and above ground. Long-term Both sides recognised the dangers of direct conflict. The USA and USSR began to search for meaningful ‘peaceful co-existence’ as they realised how close they came to nuclear war. This led to a policy called ‘détente’ – a relaxing of tension in the Cold War which dominated superpower relations in the 1970s.
