HOMA VIDHI

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PRINCIPLES OF YAJNA-VIDHI Prof. S.K. Ramachandra Rao

Chapter I THE VEDIC BACKGROUND The term 'Veda' in the traditional understanding, does not refer only to the three (or four) books generally called Vedas (trayi-Veda, viz. Rig, Yajus and Såman, to which Atharva is added), but to a hoary tradition that is at once continuous and ubiquitous in India. This Tradition was and is transmitted through the medium of the Sanskrit Language and was the sole franchise of the Brahmins. This tradition has been more effectively presented to the people through the medium of folk ballads and legends, which combine history with mythology. Hence the ancient dictum that Vedic wisdom must be interpreted through the medium of folk history/myth and the Epics (itihåsa-purå±åbhyåm vedam samupab®hmayet') Manu and the other authorities on Dharma (individual as well as social), hold that good conduct should be based not only on the Vedic injunctions, but on the conduct of the respected elders in the community (çiß†åcåra) as well. The Veda is the wisdom which provides the background for Dharma — the way of life. It is important to recognise that when we speak of the Vedic foundation of Indian culture, it is this ancient and persistent holistic tradition that is referred to. This tradition, which is oral and very much germane to the lives of the people in India, goes back to a period prior to the composition of the actual texts known as the Vedas, and is also much wider in scope than the texts themselves.

Definition of "Veda" The word 'Veda' (cognate with 'video' in Latin, 'Vede' in old Slavic and 'Wessen' in German) is derived variously from the roots, 'vid' meaning 'to know', and 'vidl®' - 'to obtain'. The obtainment referred to is the pursuit and fulfilment of the three values in life, righteousness (dharma), material well-being (artha) and enjoyment of sensual pleasures (kåma), together known as the 'trivarga' or the three objectives of human aspiration (purußårtha). To this group of three was later added 'Liberation' (Mokßa), which in effect was the other polarity of the group of three, and hence was described as 'apa-varga' ("outside the group").

Definition of "Dharma" Dharma (from the root dh®, which means 'to support', 'to prop up') is the individual and collective conduct that is regarded by common consensus as ideal and imperative. It provides direction to our actions, framework for the values we must adopt and nurture, and goals to be achieved within the limits set by the society. This is what is meant by the Pûrva-Mimåmsa definition of dharma as 'codanålakßa±ortha'; and by the explanation that it contributes to social welfare as well as Liberation ('yatobhyudaya-nihçreyasa-siddhi¿).

2 The celebrated ancient authority on Vedic studies, Kumårila Bha††a, holds that Dharma is the proper objective of the Vedic tradition and not the purport of the Vedic books. tasmåddharma ityeva çåstra vißayo na vedårtha iti (Çåstra-dîpika of Pårthasårathi) And Prabhåkara-miçra, another authority, claims that Dharma is what the Vedic texts are about dharma-çabdaç ca vedårha-parah' (B®hati-®ju-vimalå of Çålikanåtha) Thus the Vedic tradition aims at instructing the people about the proper conduct (dharma)

Mimåmsa The Vedic texts do not contain direct or explicit instructions concerning Dharma or the aims of human life (purußårthas). Mimåmsa or Hermeneutics (the science of exegesis) is an attempt to interpret the textual tradition of the Vedas in the light of the more fundamental oral Vedic tradition. In its search for action-prompting (codana) in favour of Dharma in the Vedic books, whether in the nature of 'promptings' (vidhi, as 'kriya-pravartaka-våkya' — statements which prompt to action) or in the form of 'mandates' (niyoga), it was found expedient and necessary to enlarge the scope of the hymnal collections of the textual tradition (Saµhita) to include instructions and prescriptions for the performance of religious actions (viz. the Bråhma±a texts). According to the Mimåmsa the Vedic texts can be divided into two major categories known as;(1) Mantra. The Pûrva-Mimåmsa-Sûtra (2, 1, 38) does not attempt to provide a formal definition of what the 'mantra' portion of the Veda is, but accepts whatever is by common consent included in the Vedic lore as 'mantra'; (2) Bråhma±as. These are all those texts which do not contain mantras. Their subject matter is classified as vidhi - injunctions, and artha-våda - explanations. There is also another distinction the Mimåmsakas make between 'purußårtha' (general human objectives) and 'kratvårtha' (injunctions about the sacrificial ritual). Kratvårtha is more limited in scope and pertains solely to the performance of a sacrificial act. The expression 'Purußårtha' is explained in the Pûrva-Mimåmsa-sûtra (4,1,2) as referring to all the needs and goals of an individual that may be realised by the performance of appropriate rituals and sacrifices. Yajûr Veda provides the practical, specific and ritualistic application (viniyoga) for a large number of mantras in the Rigvedic collection. The claim that the Veda comprehends both the Mantra and the Bråhma±a is especially justified in the case of Yajûr Veda. which is devoted almost exclusively to sacrifices and rituals ('yajûr yajanåt).

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Rta — The Universal Law The 'mahåyåna' or 'Great' Vedic tradition — the oral Vedic tradition as wisdom and way of life, was thus accommodated within the 'hînayåna' or 'lesser' tradition of the Mantras and Bråhma±as. The ideology of '®ta' which dominated the greater tradition was now presented as yajña in the lesser tradition. Rta (cognate with Greek 'arti', Latin 'artus', and German 'Recht' and the English 'right') signifies the eternal and immutable, universal and existential order and law, which needs to be reflected in each individual life as well as in the community. Sin is defined as violation of '®ta' (enas, an®ta, durita). Rta is the underlying foundation of life, for leading a life in conformity with '®ta' would be the way to overcome suffering and rebirth. The '®ta' as the 'right' way of life was accomplished by yajña. The yajña was the way to purify not only the individual but the environement as well, it includes prayers and purifications, consecrations and empowerment. The yajña as the '®ta' in action was a human responsibility: it was meant to unfold the spiritual potential in the human being and also to secure wealth and welfare. The Rig Veda speaks of the 'path of ®ta' ('®tasya pantha¿', 7, 66, 3) which we must tread. It also distinguishes between the ideal and perfect world where '®ta' is firmly established and which we must aspire for ('sadanam ®tasya', 4,21, 3) and the actual and imperfect world in which we live and which is characterised by the absence of '®ta' ('an®tasya bhureh', 7, 60~ 5). The movement from the real world to the ideal is spoken of as the 'path of ®ta', ie. the path facilitating the realisation of '®ta'. Rig Veda suggests that one of the most valuable components of this path is the praising of the gods and goddesses that represent and illustrate '®ta'. The Yajûr Veda however, substituted rituals and sacrifices for the praises, because actual performance was deemed more meritorious than mere verbal formulations or mental constructions. Even in the early stages of our civilisation, Vedic tradition (the Mahåyåna) was approached by some in terms of the way of life that ensures wealth and welfare (karma) and by others in terms of the wisdom that liberates (jñåna). During the medieval period, the textual Vedic tradition (the Hînayåna) was looked upon as either prescribing ritualistic conduct (karma-kå±¥a) or the liberating wisdom (jñåna-kå±¥a). This dual approach to the textual Vedic tradition appears to have been crystallised during the days of Saºkara- (about the 7th Century). And subsequently there was a clear-cut parting of the ways; those who advocated the ritualistic portion of the Vedas (viz. the Mimåmsakas) preferred the Bråhma±a portions of the textual tradition, while those who stressed the wisdom concerning Brahman as the final objective of the texts (viz. the Vedåntins) chose to rely on the Upanißads. The Bråhma±a-texts projected the karma-kå±¥a, and the Upanißads the Brahma-kå±¥a (otherwise called jñåna-kå±¥a). The well-known Vedic commentator, Såyana, illustrates the medieval outlook which espoused the cause of ritualistic action. He not only redefined the Veda but altered also the priorities. In his prologue to Taittiriya-Saµhita-bhåßya, he wrote that:—

4 The book known as the Veda tells us the means of securing what we desire and of avoiding (or getting rid of) what is undesirable. This is precisely what the Veda is about, and the purpose served by the Veda is knowledge concerning such means. But the framework thus provided for the Veda obviously does not suit the nature and content of Rig Veda (the mantra portion). Såyana had therefore to reject the claims of priority for the Rig Veda. For him, Yajûr-Veda is all important, because it teaches the means of securing what we desire and escaping from what we do not desire. His effort was directed towards emphasising the karma-kå±¥a and towards presenting ritualistic conduct as the theme of the Veda. And Yajûr Veda served this purpose excellently. Såyana further undertook to prepare his first Vedic commentary on Yajûr Veda (Taittiriya-Saµhita) and not on Rig Veda. He looked upon Rig Veda as only the text from which the hot®-priest selected the hymns that he had to recite during the course of a sacrifice. The book had no more relevance for Såyana! He did not even recognise the fact that Yajûr Veda contained a large number of hymns borrowed from Rig Veda, and that it was therefore only second in importance to Rig Veda. Indeed, the 'Maitråya±îya-Saµhita' of K®ß±aYajûr Veda, which has 2144 mantras, has taken 1701 mantras from Rig Veda. Such being the case, it is curious that Såyana even goes further and compares Yajûr Veda in his Kå±va-Saµhita-bhåßya (upakrama±ikå), to the canvas or wall and the other two Vedas (Rig and Såma) to the paintings mounted on that canvas or wall. Såyana however speaks for the ritualists (yåjñikas), who look at the three Vedas only in terms of the hymns to be recited in several sequences of the ritual by different priests. A sacrificial ritual will have four major priests called '®tvijas', with their attendants; and the four priests are distinguished by their specialisation. The hot® is the priest who is proficient in Rig Veda; during the sacrifice his function is to invoke (hence the name 'hot®' from the root meaning 'to call', 'to invite') the gods for the sacrifice by reciting the mantras from Rig Veda (puronuvåkya) and to recite other hymns from the same Veda while oblations for the invoked gods are being offered in the fire (yåjyå). But he does not go near the fire or offer oblations himself. Similarly, another priest, udgåt®, is to sing. But the priest who actually offers the oblations and attends to all the particulars of the ritual is the adhvaryu, whose special equipment is Yajûr Veda. He is called adhvaryu, because he accomplishes the sacrifice in all its details with precision and correctly ('adhvaram yunakti, sampådayati ity adhvaryu¿'). Brahma is the fourth priest who is the master of ceremonies, and who only supervises and guides when occasion demands; he must be proficient in all the three Vedas or according to some authorities he must be a specialist in Atharva-Veda. He, however, neither recites the hymns like the hot® and the udgåt®, nor offers oblations in the fire like the adhvaryu, despite the important role that is assigned to him. The foremost among the priests, therefore, is the adhvaryu, who is directly and intimately concerned with the sacrificial ritual. He is described as the leader ('adhvarasya netå iti tat-påryårtha-hi), as the first in rank among the priests. This importance is derived from the Veda that he specialises, viz. Yajûr-Veda. He is able

5 not only to determine the exact nature of the sacrifice that is to be performed, but to accomplish the sacrifice in all its details ('yajñasya måtram svarûpam vimimîte viçeßena nißpådayati')- because of his knowledge of Yajûr Veda. This is a case of reciprocal dependence (anyonyåçraya); the adhvaryu in a sacrifice is important because he is the custodian of Yajûr Veda which is the book of sacrifice, and Yajûr Veda is important because the actual officiant in the sacrifice, adhvaryu, uses it. In the sacrificial context, Yajûr Veda which gives elaborate accounts of several sacrifices, major and minor, is of course of primary significance, and Rig Veda is only of auxiliary interest. According to Såyana, the hymns of the Rig-Veda, called '®ks' are merely eulogies or adorations of the deities or of particular acts, or of the specific means of those ritualistic acts. ('arcyate praçasyate anaya deva-viçeßa¿ kriyaviçeßa¿, tat-sådhana viçeßo vå iti ®k-çabda-vyutpatteh'). Along with this shift of emphasis, the idea of 'yajña' became more important than that of ®ta. Indeed, '®ta' was now interpreted in terms of yajña. Yajur Veda-Saµhita has survived principally in two forms: 'çukla' ('pure', because the Bråhma±a portions are not mixed up with the mantra portion) and 'k®ß±a' ('dark' in the sense of mantra being mixed up with the Bråhma±a sections). Çukla-Yajur Veda-Saµhita is now extant in two recensions: 'Kå±va' and 'Mådhyandina'; and has Çatapatha-Bråhma±a as its supplement, The forty sections of this Saµhita deal elaborately with sacrifices like Darça-paur±a-måsa, Agniß†oma, Våjapeya, Råjasûya, Sautråma±i, Açva-medha and Purußa-medha. The last section is the famous îçåvåsya-upanißad, which is therefore described as a saµhitopanißad. The K®ß±a Yajur Veda has four recensions — Taittiriya, (in 7 sections, elaborately dealing with sacrificial matter), Maitråya±îya (4 kå±¥as, all dealing with sacrifices), Katha (5 kå±¥as dealing mostly with matters of sacrificial interest) and Kapish†hala (6 aß†akas, available only in fragments).

The Vedåºgas The six great divisions of Vedic study (Vedåºgas) are based on the understanding that the Vedas are meant for the performance of sacrifices. They therefore set out to expatiate on the different aspects of Vedic knowledge in so far as they pertain to sacrifices. 1. The division known as Kalpa is so called because it seeks to justify the performance of sacrificial rites mentioned in the Vedas. The sûtras of Apastamba and Bodhåyana are illustrations of the Kalpa literature. They presume that the Vedas are meant to prescribe the best conduct, and that the yajña is the best of all conducts (Aitareya-Bråhma±a, 3, 2, 3). 2. Jyotißa is devoted to astronomical calculations for determining the most suitable and propitious time for initiation (dîkßa) and the performance of sacrifices. The Vedic sacrifices are prescribed to be performed at specific periods, and therefore whoever knows this science of determining the proper time may be said to know the yajña itself. 3. çîkßa is the science of pronunciation of letters and intonations.

6 4. Nirukta deals with etymological derivation of Vedic words. 5. Chhandas are the rules of prosody and hymnal compositions and are not directly concerned with sacrifices. 6. Vyåkara±a is the study of grammar which becomes indirectly relevant, because during the occasion of a sacrifice, the employment of improper words constitutes a breach of propriety, and merits expiatory rites known as Sårasvateß†i.

CHAPTER II Terms

Yajña - Symbol & Rite

The expression 'yajña' is derived from the root 'yaja' and has several closely related meanings:— adoration, worship, prayer, praise, offering, presentation, oblation, consecration and sacrifice. It is synonymous with another word 'yåga', The word 'yajña' has a wider and more profound connotation than the word 'yåga' which came to mean nothing more than a sacrificial rite where offerings are made ('ijyate havir dîyate atra'). Among other synonymous expressions which emphasise the aspect of offering are sava, makha, iß†i, savana and homa; and expressions emphasising invocation of the gods ('ijyante devata atra') include åhava, and havana; the word 'adhvara' means a sacrifice, where violence is avoided (a-dhvara, hiµsåkarma). 'Yajña' is a word which evokes many images, and is rich in symbolic associations. It suggests the role of divinity not only in human affairs but in the very creation of the world. It is an expedient invented by the gods themselves for projecting all things and beings in the world, and adopted by human beings for securing their wealth and welfare. It is a sacred 'rite' inherent in all creation, and natural to man. And it is not merely a rite; it is also an attitude, a resolve, a device, an initiation, an instrument and an act. It involves the whole being of the person who is engaged in the act, and transforms his psycho-physical form into a vehicle of divinity.

The Symbolism We read in Rig-Veda (10, 90, 16, the celebrated Purußa-sûkta) that the gods (viz. the beings of light — devå¿) who were first created performed a sacrifice (through their will and contemplation) and worshipped the sacrifice itself (viz. Viß±u in the form of yajña). They offered the Supreme Person himself as an oblation and thus performed the first of the sacrifices ('yat purußena havißa deva yajñam atanvata'). The sacrifice was for them an instrument as well as their objective (yajñena yajñam ayajanta devah'); and out of this primordial sacrifice, the first principles of life were formed ('tåni dharmåni prathamånyåsan).

7 Çatapatha-Bråhma±a (11:1:8:3) has a related imagery; the gods offered sacrifice to secure the favour of Prajåpati, the creator; and Prajåpati, pleased with their devotion offered himself as a sacrifice to them. This is how Prajåpati became the yajña, creating a model of himself. The concept of sacrifice is based upon self-sacrifice; giving oneself up, but for purposes of more effective re-generation. We have in the same text another account (3;9;4;23) explaining the significance of yajña; — they (the priests) kill during the sequence of crushing (abhiçava), and create again during the subsequent sequence. While it is being destroyed, it is born again, and this is yajña.

There is a story in Kålika-Purå±a (chapter 30), which describes the creation of the world from the body of Viß±u as Yajña-varåha (the primeval boar symbolising sacrifice). After the earth was recovered from the depths of the waters by Varåha incarnation of Viß±u, the gigantic body of the divine rescuer had to be disposed of. Çiva assumed the form of Çarabha and undertook to strike at it, cutting it into pieces. Yajña emerged from the body of the Bhû-varåha. As soon as Siva tore the body of Varåha, the gods Brahma, Viß±u, Siva and others with all their attendants, carried the body (which had fallen into the waters) into the sky, and there Viß±u cut the body into pieces by his discus. From the joints of the organs of the body, separate yajñas flashed forth. Jyotiß†oma emerged from the joint between the eyebrows and the snout, Agniß†oma from the joint between the jaws and the ears; Vråtyaß†oma from the meeting place between the eyes and eyebrows; Paunarbhavaß†oma from the spot where the snout meets the lips; V®ddhaß†oma and Brhaß†oma from the root of the tongue; Atiråtra from under the tongue; the five great yajñas of the householder (pañca-mahå-yajña) from the neck-joint; Açvamedha, Mahå-medha, Purußa-medha and all other sacrifices which involve violence from the foot-joints; Råjasûya, Kåriça, Våjapeya and the Graha-yajñas — from the hind parts; Pratiß†arga-yajña, Dåna-çråddha and Såvitriyajña from the joints in the area of the heart; Pråyaçcitta-yajña from the joints in the penis region; Råkßasa-satra, Sarpa-satra, Go-medha and all the abhicårika (infernal) rites from the hooves of the feet; Mayeß†i, Parameß†i and all other annual and occasional yajñas from the tail-joint; and so on. In all, one thousand and eight yajñas- were thus produced. Not only the different yajñas, but the various vessels and implements, articles of oblation and structural details were also produced from the dismembered carcass of Varåha; the ladle known as sruk from the snout, another variety of ladle known as sruva from the nostrils, Prågvaµsa from the neck region, the sacrificial stake (yûpa) from the tusks, the kuça-grass from the hair, the Puro¥åça-cake from the brain, Karßu from the two eyes, and yajña-ketu from the hoof. The middle portion of the animal's body became the sacrificial altar (vedi); the back of Varåha changed into the shed for the performance of sacrifice (yajñålaya); the penis got converted into the fire-pit (ku±¥a); and from the heart of Varåha issued forth the yajña ('h®tpadmåd yajña eva ca'). The story continues to narrate that on the same occasion, three associates of Varåha were also killed: Suv®tta, Ka±aka and Ghora. Brahma the Creator produced the fire

8 known as Dakßinågni from the body of Suv®tta, Viß±u the preserver the fire called Gårhapatyågni from Ka±aka's body, and Siva the destroyer the fire åhavanîyågni from the body of Ghora. These three fires fill the entire universe (etais tribhi¿ jagat vyåptam); all the worlds come out of them (trimûlam sakalam jagat); and where the three fires are tended, all the gods abide ('yatra trayam etat nityam, tiß§anti samasta devatås tatra'). An important detail of the legend is that the sacrifice was an act of self-immolation on the part of Viß±u, who is the creator as well as the preserver. After the Goddess Earth (Bhûdevî) was recovered from the clutches of the demons of the waters. Varåha in his beastly nature began enjoying her, thus causing untold harm to all creation. Viß±u thereupon resolved to give up this incarnation ('varåham kåyam tyaktum icchåmi'). As a preparation for winding up the Varåha incarnation, Viß±u engaged himself in deep contemplation, as a result of which the radiance and might of Varåha began to be withdrawn in slow measure. Viß±u had thus to prevail over one of his own incarnations and invite Siva the destroyer to smite his own body (as Varåha incarnation). Further, he dismembered his own body into fragments by his own discus, as a result of which act of primal sacrifice the other sacrifices which human beings perform came into being. This account of how Varåha's body was transformed into a yajña ('yajña-varåhasya çarîram yajñatåm agåt') has been introduced by the claim that all the gods abide in yajña, that all things in the world are founded upon yajña, and that it is by yajña that the firmament is borne and the people are preserved. Ancient texts pertaining to Vedic culture contain several such suggestive legends and a variety of imagery. Atharva-Veda, for instance, speaks of yajña as the chariot of the gods (deva-ratha); the four directions are the mules yoked to it; the puro¥åça offerings are the hooves of the mules; the mid-region is the body of the chariot; the sky and the earth are the side-wings; the seasons are the reins that regulate the mules; voice is the hood of the chariot; and the inter-spaces are the grooms that go with the chariot (8 9. 22). It also describes the yajña which was created by Prajåpati or the creator ('prajåpatir yajñam atanuta', 18, 3, 41) as the first to come into existence and as continuing for all time ('sa yajña prathamo bhuto bhavyo ajåyata', 13, 2, 55), and as the source for all things in the universe. The entire earth was the sacrificial altar, and the directions were the boundary stickss ('urvîr åsan paridhayo vedir bhûmir akalpayat', 13, 1). The priest who sacrifices must think of the earth itself as the first faggot that is put into the fire, the heavens as the second faggot, and the mid-regions as the third; with these faggots, girdle, toil and austerity he sustains the worlds (9, 5, 4). The yajña that the human beings are required to perform is the re-enactment of the cosmic creation and regeneration by self-sacrifice and dismemberment of ones own constitution. It assumes the form of a rite which is highly symbolic. While yajña is described as a method of worshipping the gods, yajña is itself regarded as a god in Yajur Veda (16;1;31); it eliminates all sins and purifies the performer of the yajña; it bestows on him strength, vigour and agility by sanctifying the food that he eats and the water that he drinks (ibid, 1, 20); it causes health, happiness and wealth.

9 The yajña is where all the gods reside; the pavilion in which the yajña is conducted represents the empire of Indra and the golden throne of Agni, the pleasure-grove of Soma and the place of rest for Varuna. It is the nave of the earth. The altar on which the sacrifice is conducted is known as the 'vedi'. It is consecrated ground, where ritualistic cleaning, digging and other details of construction are carried out. When the yajña-vedi is well established, everything becomes well established: wealth, welfare, energy, health and divinity become accomplished. This is what the K®ß±a-Yajur Veda Saµhita proclaims. The body of the yajña (yajña-çarîra) is brought into being by the role of the adhvaryu-priest during the rite; and thereby longevity, vitality and other benefits flow out (Yajur-VedaSaµhita 9. 21).

All types of yajña involve the installation, invocation, and worship of Agni, the fire god who is lauded in Rig-Veda in a large number of hymns and whose cult has had an unbroken continuity till our own day. The relevance of Agni is based on the assumption of his being the leader of all the gods ('agnir vai devånåm mukham'), the fore-runner ('agranir bhavati', Nirukta, 7;14;4) and the first divinity to arrive in sacrifices ('agram yajñeßu pra±îyate'). The very first mantra in Rig-Veda is in adoration of Agni, who is described as 'the god of the sacrifice' ('yajñasya devam') and as one who readily secures the welfare of all of us ('puro-hitam'). All the gods come to the place of sacrifice only in the form of Agni; hence the saying that Agni is all the gods ('agnis sarva devatå¿'). Agni is all-pervading and ever present; he has three forms, according to Rig-Veda (1, 95, 3, 'trîni jånå pari-bhußaty asya'): as ba¥avånala in the centre of the earth, as åditya (the Sun) in the heavenly firmament and as vidyutagni (lightning) in the midregion. He was brought from the high heavens to the earth, and he is hidden in the earth; he is the inner controller of all things; and indeed he becomes the visible god when the sacred fire (yåjakågni) is set up on the sacrificial platform (vedi). We read in Rig-Veda (2;3;1) Well kindled is the sacred fire, the ancient god; he is firmly founded upon the earth (as the sacrificial altar), attending to each and every creature. He is indeed the purifier and knower of all things. He invokes all the gods (hota), and may he minister unto the needs of all the luminous beings. He is invoked by the human sacrificers to be a sacrificer himself even prior to themselves (ibid, 3, 'devan yakshi manushat purvah').

Agni is not only the god for whom the sacrifice is meant (yajñasya- deva) but he is himself the sacrificer (hota) (RV;1;1;1). In the sacrificial rite, the four types of priests (®tviks) themselves represent Agni. There is an interesting narration in RigVeda (2;5;3), where Agni is compared to the rim of the wheel (nemi) which surrounds the wheel; Agni pervades all the acts performed by the priests, even as the rim pervades the wheel ('nemis cakram iva'). "Whatever the offerings are made in this sacrifice, and whatever the praises that are recited, Agni knows them all; and he pervades fully all the priestly acts, even as the rim pervades the wheel".

10 It is therefore that Agni is identified with yajña. If the yajña is referred to as the birth-place of Agni ('yonim agnaye', Rig Veda, 1;140;1), the yajña is also described as Agni himself (cf. Aitareya-Bråhma±a, 1.16, 'yonir yad agnir agneh'). In the sacrifice, it is said that the Agni kindles the Agni (Rig-Veda;1;12;6, 'agninågnis samiddhyate'), which is symbolically enacted in kindling the åhavanîyafire from the gårhapatya-fire. In the sacrificial rites three hearths are generally set apart; the first one (in the west) for the gårhapatya-fire which is established by the friction of the fire-sticks from the açvattha or çami trees: the second one (in the east) for the åhavaniya-fire, which is kindled from the gårhapatya-fire; and the third one (in the south) for the dakßinågni, which is also kindled from the gårhapatya- fire (according to Sankhayåna-sûtra). The gårhapatya-fire (the household fire) is regarded as the foremost (pûrovarti), representing human beings on earth. The åhavanîya- fire is symbolic of the sun (sûrya) in the astral plane where gods reside ('etad vai devånåm åyatanam yad åhavanîyam' Taittiriya-Saµhita, 1;6;7;1). The dakßinågni represents the manes (pit®) and elementals who dwell in the mid-region ('anvåhårya-pachana¿ pit®±åm', ibid); it also represents the wind-god (Våyu — cosmic life force), for 'when man dies he departs from here to the realm of the Våyu' (Çatapatha-Bråhma±a. 14;8;12;1) Thus the three fires, which are employed in agni-hotra, represent the earthly Agni (p®thivi), Sûrya (the Agni in the celestial regions — dyau¿) and Våyu (the Agni in the mid-region — antarikßa) or Moon (as the light of the manes, cf. ÇatapathaBråhma±a 2;4;2;2). Taittiriya-Bråhma±a (1;l;8;1) declares that the three fires are the three worlds ('ime va ete lokå agnaya¿'). According to the prescription of the çulbasûtra , the ku±¥a for the gårhapatya-fire must be circular in shape, the åvahanîya — square, and the dakßinågni — half-moon shaped (ardha-chandra, or of the form of the bow, dhanuråk®ti) or of the shape of a winnow-basket (çûrpa). The person who maintains the three fires is called Vaitånika, the person who tends two additional fires — sabhya - placed in an assembly or sabha (only in the case of a kßatriya) and åvasathya placed in a rest-house, (avasatha) is known as pañcågni.

Samidhas — Faggots Among the trees that are permitted for the purpose of providing faggots (samidha) for maintaining the fire are khadira, palåça, açvattha, nygrodha, çami and åmra (mango) Some medicinal herbs (oßadhi) are also used.

Ara±is The fire for the sacrificial purpose is always produced by churning the fire sticks (ara±i) from trees like çami and açvattha. (Taittiriya Bråhma±a, 1;1;9;1 ) For the ara±is the açvattha which has grown on a çami-tree is considered the best.

11 Texts like Aitareya-Bråhma±a (3;5) provide detailed accounts of the ceremonial purifications (saµskåras) that are necessary for producing the fire from the ara±is and the mantras that must be recited while churning. The sequence of establishing the sacred fire is known as 'agnyådhåna' or 'agnyådheya'). One ara±i is placed above the other, and churned by using a rope (rasanå). The lower ara±i (ådhåra-ara±i) is called Urvaçî and the stick which is on top (uttara-ara±i) is called Purûravas (Indra). The female-male symbolism in the birth of Agni is suggested by the names (cf. also K®ß±a-Yajur Veda-Saµhita, chapter 5, which gives details of the Agni-mathana rite).

Offerings Yajña as a rite is defined as offering oblations in the name of gods ('devatoddeçena havis-tyaga¿') while specific mantras are being recited (samantraka-dravya-tyåga). Jaiminiya-sûtra (4;2;;27) explains that it is an act which is of the nature of giving up of articles for the sake of pleasing the gods (devatoddeçyaka-dravya-tyåga-rûpakriyå'). The important sequence in a yajña is the offering of oblations into the fire ('havi¿-prakßepåtmaka vyåpåra¿) as indicated by injunctions like agnihotraµ juhoti. Among the approved articles that may be offered to the fire are milk (kßîra), curds (sarpi), clarified butter (åjya), cakes made of rice or wheat flour (puro¥åsa), boiled rice, barley or pulse (caru), the juice from the crushed soma shoots and twigs (soma-rasa), and products of an animal sacrificed (eg. vapa or fat of paçu). The offering of milk and milk products into the fire are said to bestow on the sacrificer lustre, strength, vigour, good eyesight and intelligence, while the offering of soma is calculated to produce vigour, power of endurance, agility of the sense-organs and violent temper (krodha, against the enemies) (cf. K®ß±a-yajur-veda-saµhita, 19;9 and 7;30) In rituals like cåturmåsya, the transformation of milk called våjina is used ('vajibhyo vajinam iti). When curds are added to hot milk it changes to a solid state, when it is called amikßa, or into a liquid state then it is called 'våjina'. In a sequence in the ritual paçu-yåga, the puro¥åça known as paçu-puro¥åça is offered. According to the substances offered, sacrifices are sometimes divided into vegetable and animal sacrifices. Vegetable Substances Animal Substances ta±¥ûla¿ paya¿ raw rice milk piß†åni dadhi flour yoghurt phalîkara±å¿ åjyam husk Ghee (goat’s) puro¥åça¿ Gh®tam cakes Ghee (cow’s) odana¿ åmikßå cooked rice curd yavågû¿ vapå rice gruel omentum p®thukå¿ rice boild and pressed tvaca¿ skin låjå¿ måµsam popped rice flesh dhånå¿ lohitam parched barley blood aktava¿ våjinam whey

12

Soma Soma, the juice of which is one of the principle things offered in many yajñas is a creeper (valli), the precise identity of which is uncertain; it is usually taken to be Sarcostemma viminale or intermedium, and its Vedic description is that it is dark in colour (syåmalåbha), leafless (nißpatra), milky (kßîri±î) fleshy on surface (måµsula) and sour to taste. It as a twisting semi-shrub with a series of leafless shoots which contain an acidulous milky juice. It symbolises the nectar in the moon (celestial moon, in contradistinction to the terrestrial moon, which provides youth, health and strength. It is also described as the 'dew of the dawn ' ('Soma moves at the head of the dawns'). The Vedas contain legends about the celestial origin of soma, and about how it was brought to earth. Indra is said to have drunk it during his fight with V®tra; it was a source of vigour. It is an hallucinogen, which is said to inspire the sages to compose hymns and provide stimulation generally. But the Vedic references regard it as a god in its own right, and as the monarch (råja). Preparation of soma during the sacrifice is an elaborate ritual. The sequence begins with the initial act of procuring the soma-creepers from the vendors who bring it from mountains and forests — known as soma-vikraya±a. This is followed by the ceremonial bringing of soma to the yåga-çåla (soma-pra±ayana). The juice is then extracted from the plant with elaborate rituals and chants and then offered into the sacred fire, the remainder is drunk by the priests, first by the hotri and then by the others. It is usual for puro¥åça cakes and caru to be offered as oblation along with soma. In some sacrifices, another intoxicating drink called sura is used. It is usual for most sacrifices to involve the offering as oblation and subsequent partaking by the priests of the puro¥åça cakes (puro¥åça-bhakßa±a) and soma-juice (soma-påna), and the ceremonial sacrifice of an animal (paçvålambhana). Such public sacrifices became in due course less popular and fell into desuetude, giving way to the domestic sacrifices which were much simpler, being little more than a simple fire-sacrifice (Agni-hotra). All sacrifices have three aspects:  uddeça (intention or direction), viz. the god for whom the sacrifice is meant;  tyåga (what is given up); viz. the offerings or the havis; and  prakßepa (the prescribed spot or particular fire where the offerings are delivered).

The Five Great Sacrifices There are five daily 'great' sacrifices (pañca-mahå-yajña) prescribed for a householder; 1. brahma-yajña (studying and teaching the Scriptures), 2. pitr-yajña (libations for the manes), 3. deva-yajña (fire-ritual),

13 4. bhûta-yajña (feeding animals and birds) and 5. manußya-yajña (honouring the guests and visitors). (Garu¥a-purå±a, Chap. 115) The concept of yajña was widened in scope, and the sacrificial ritual of the Vedic times survived in the form of a 'homa' or 'havan' that the householder performed as a part of the daily deva-yajña. Very few of the elaborate and expensive sacrifices prescribed in Yajur Veda were performed even in the medieval period; and fewer still are performed in our day. Manu himself (4, 21, 22) has felt that the performance even of the five 'yajñas' meant for the householder are not easily performed; hence his plea that one must carry them out according to one's ability, instead of giving them up altogether. -

CHAPTER III

Yajña: Principles and Varieties The Purpose of Yajña In K®ß±a-Yajur Veda-Saµhita (chapter 18;1;2 and 6) there is a detailed account of the various benefits that result from the performance of a sacrifice (yajñena kalpantåm). Among such benefits are abundance of food (våja), wealth (prasava), efficiency in work (prayati), mental application (dhiti), light of knowledge (jyoti), bodily vigour (ojas), longevity (dirghåyu), health (anåmaya), happiness (çarma), fearlessness (abhaya), friendship (anamitram), and sound sleep (sukham çayanam). The sacrificer prays that his life may become fulfilled by the sacrifice that he performs (ibid 9, 21 'ayur yajñena kalpatam'). The ostensible goal of the yajña is the attainment of 'svarga' (heavens, bliss), by means of the unprecedented meritorious potency (apûrva - 'never-before') that is acquired through the performance of the yajña. In the injunction darçapûr±amåsåbhyåµ svargakåmo yajeta the expression 'one must offer sacrifices' (yajeta) is meant to convey the sense of actualising something (yajate tyatra åkhyåtena bhåvanå abhidhîyate). The 'heaven' (svarga) is something that must be 'actualised' (sådhya). Further the expression 'yajeta' is an injunction (vidhi); it prompts the person to engage himself in the yajña-activity (chodana, prerayati) in order to obtain the goal, 'heaven' (svargam eva bhavyatayå vidhir upådatte). And the word 'svarga' signifies supreme happiness. Bha††a-Kumårila's commentary — Tup-†îkå (6,1,1) explains that svarga is that which an individual likes most ardently —('ekasya prîti¿ svarga-çabda-våcyå'). It

14 does not, however, refer to the things that cause happiness or liking (prîtimaddravya) but to beatitude itself. And this supreme, uninterrupted, unalloyed beatitude is not to be had in this life; but only in another life as a result of meritorious potency (apûrva) acquired by yajñas performed in this life: The proper recitation of the selected mantras from Rig-Veda, Yajur-Veda and Såma-Veda, and the correct acts done exactly as prescribed in the Bråhma±a texts without the slightest lapse or deviation are of greatest importance in the actualisation of the goals of a sacrifice.

The Officiating Priests Specialists of the three (and later four) Vedic Saµhitas function as officiating priests, called ®tviks because they propitiate the gods ceremonially (®tau yajati) and are experts in setting up the sacred-fire (agnyådheya) and in the conduct of other forms of sacrifice; and they are chosen by the person who sponsors the sacrifice (yajamåna). (Manu, 2;143) The priests who are engaged to conduct the sacrifice on behalf of the yajamåna are paid in cash or kind (dakßina) at the end; they are in this sense, and in this sense alone, hired. But their decision on all major and minor details are supreme and unquestioned. They act independently, although each one of them has his traditionbound role to play and co-operates with others, so that the ritual progresses in the prescribed manner. The conduct of a sacrifice is compared in Rig-Veda (2, 5, 4) to the natural growth of tree with branches appearing one after another according to a pre-ordained order ('vaya ivånurohate').

The four classes of priests (®tviks): 1. The adhvaryu is the chief priest who is directly responsible for the conduct of the sacrifice ('adhvaram yunakti'). He belongs to the Yajur Veda and attends to all details of the sacrifice. He is the priest who actually offers oblations in the fire. He prompts the hot® and the udgåt® to recite or chant their portions by means of the praiça mantras, His assistants are known as prati-prasthåt®, neß†® and unnet®. 2. The hot® (the "invoker") who chants hymns (called Çatras) from the Rig-Vedic Saµhitas suitable to the occasion (like pråtar-anuvåka, yåjyå-puronuvåkya etc.), when called upon to do so by the chief priest, adhvaryu. He has three assistant priests known as maitra-varu±a, acchåvåka and gråvastut. These priests are required only to recite the necessary mantras, which should accompany the acts of the chief priest, adhvaryu; they do not offer oblations into the fire themselves. 3. The udgåt® (the priest who raises his voice and sings) is a specialist in SåmaVeda, whose function is to chant the Såman hymns (called Stotras) during the sacrifice when gods have to be invoked. There can be no sacrifice without the singing of Såma hymns ('ayajño vå eßa yo-asåma').

15 His assistants are prastot®, prati-hart® and subrahma±ya. 4. The fourth priest is known as Brahmå, and his role is as the master of ceremonies. Authorities are not unanimous about the function of this priest. Some (eg. Çatapatha-Bråhma±a 11;5;5;8) hold that he must be well versed in all the three Vedas, and ensure that everything is done correctly. Others view him as a specialist in Atharva-Veda. While the others perform the sacrifice in actuality; he performs the sacrifice mentally. His responsibility is to see that no commissions, omissions or errors occur in the chanting (mantra) or in the performance of rituals (tantra). He corrects the mistakes whenever they are made and suggests the rites of expiation (pråyaçcitta) immediately. He is helped by three other priests, agnît (or agnîdra whose job is to tend the sacrificial fire and keep them continually burning), pot® (who attends to the errors and to their absolution) and Bråhma±åcchaµsi (who takes care of the sacrificial vessels & implements).

Rtvig-vara±a The selection of the priests for the sacrifice (rtvig-vara±a) is itself an important preliminary sequence. Åpastamba lays down that pious Bråhma±as who are descendants of respected sages and who are knowledgeable with regard to the sacrifice must be chosen (çrauta-sûtra, 10;1;1 'Bråhma±ån årsheyån ®tvijo v®±îta'). Further, they must be experts in their respective Vedas, and must be able to recite or sing the hymns clearly and correctly; their voice must be pleasant and vigorous. They must neither be youngsters nor very old. They must be free from physical defects and diseases. Four or sixteen such ®tviks are selected. And the yajamåna in the soma-yåga sends a messenger (called soma-pravåka) to bring them to the place of sacrifice, and as soon as they arrive they are honoured with madhuparka (a mixture of honey, yoghurt and ghee). The yajamåna should mentally chant a hymn in which the hot® is identified with Agni (Fire god), the adhvaryu with åditya (Sun god), the udgåt® with Parjanya (Rain god) and the brahmå with Candrama Moon god), before he recites the mantra beginning with 'asau-månußah'. agnirme hotå'dityo me'dhvaryuçcandramå me bråhmå parjanyo ma udgåtå ||

Types of Yajñas The yajña is of many kinds, depending upon the varieties of details like the purpose for which it is done, the complexity of the rituals, the number of priests who officiate, the caste and status of the yajamåna, the duration, the type of oblations offered and the deities who are invoked and propitiated. Yajñas are divided into two categories; the g®hya-yajñas (also called påka-yajñas). and çrauta-yajñas.

16

G®hya-yajñas These are quite simple and involve oblations of boiled caru offered into the household fire (g®hyågni). According to Apastamba-Paribhåßa-sûtra the varieties of g®hya-yajñas are; aupåsana-homa, vaiçvadeva, pårvana, aß†aka, måsi-çråddha, sarpabali and îçåna-bali. Other texts (like Gautama-Dharma-sûtra, 1;8;10) mention aß†aka, pårvana, måsi-çråddha, çråvani, ågrahåya±î, caitrî and açvayuji as the seven saµsthås (or kinds) of this yajña. The darvi-homas are minor varieties where the offerings are made with mantras ending with 'svåhå', without employing the invocations and eulogies of gods (known as yåjya—puronuvåkya)

Çrauta-yajñas The Çrauta-yajñas are of two major kinds: havir-yajñas and soma-yajñas In havir-yajñas the oblations are clarified butter (åjya), boiled preparations of rice, barley or wheat (caru), the faggots of selected trees (samidha) etc., In the soma-yajñas the oblation is the soma-juice, which is also drunk later by the yajamåna and the ®tviks. These påkayajñas, Haviryajñas or Gautama as follows: g®hya yajñas påka-samsthas 1 Aß†aka 2 Pårvanam 3 çråddham 4 çråva±î 5 ågrahåya±î 6 Caitrî 7 Açvayujî

iß†is, and Soma sacrifices are enumerated by çrauta yajñas Havir-yajña-saµsthas Soma-samsthas: Agnyådheyam Agniß†oma¿ Agnihotram Atyagniß†oma¿ darça-pûr±amåsau Ukthya¿ Cåtur-måsyåni ßo¥açî ågrayaneß†ih Våjapeya¿ Nirû¥a-paçu-bandha¿ Atiråtra¿ Sautråma±i Aptoryåma¿

In a commentary on Dhûrtasvåmin's Apastamba sûtra bhåßya another list is given:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

g®hya yajñas påka-yajñas Aupåsana-homa¿ Vaiçva-devam Pårvanam Aß†akå Måsi-çråddham Sarpabali¿ îçånabali¿

çrauta yajñas Havir-yajñas Soma-yajñas Agni-hotram Agniß†omah darça-pûr±amåsau Atyagniß†omah ågraya±am Ukthyah Cåtumasyåni ßo¥açî Nirû¥a-paçu-bandha¿ Våjapeya¿ Sautråma±î Atiråtra¿ Pi±¥a-pitri-yajña¿ Aptoryåma¿

This list is nearly the same as one given by Satyavrata Såmåçrami in the Ushaså He gives, however, another list, which is:

17

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

g®hya yajñas påka-saµsthås Såyaµ-homa¿ Pråtar-homa¿ Sthålî-påka, Nava-yajña¿ Vaiçva-devam Pitri-yajña¿ Aß†akå

Havi¿-saµsthås Agnyådheyam Agni-hotram darça Paur±amåsau ågraya±a cåtur-måsyåni paçu-bandha¿

çrauta yajñas Soma-saµsthås Agniß†oma¿ Atyagniß†oma¿ Ukthya¿ ßo¥açî Våjapeya¿ Atiråtra¿ Aptoryåma¿

Primary (prak®ti) and Secondary (vik®ti) yågas Another method of classifying sacrifices is to divide them into primary (prak®tiyåga) and secondary (vik®ti-yåga).The 'prototype' or 'model' sacrifices in each of the groups mentioned above, gives rise to derived and elaborated or adapted forms. Såya±a's prologue (upakrama±ika) for his Kå±va-Saµhita-bhåßya defines the prak®tiyåga as that for which the texts provide injunctions regarding all the aspects and sequences, keeping in mind the entirety of the sacrifice. All the aºgas of a sacrifice are here clearly described. In the derived variety only the special aºgas (viçeßåºgas) for specific rituals are mentioned, leaving the other details to be borrowed from the prak®ti-yåga on the principle of extended application (atideça). Agniß†oma, for instance, is the 'primary 'or 'model' sacrifice for all soma-yågas. It is an 'ekåha' (lasting for one day). In this sacrifice the udgåt® and his three associate priests sing in all twelve 'Stotras' (viz. the Såman chants); after each Strotra singing, the hot® and his three associates recite a Çastra-mantra (viz. the ®ks). The oblations are offered three times: morning (pråtas-savana), with the chanting of the bahißpavamåna-stotra, at noon (madhyåndina-savana) with the four prastha-Stotras and the arbha-pavamåna-stator and in the evening (trtîya-savana), when the agniß†oma-Såma is chanted. The last Såma gives the sacrifice its name. Thus a total of twelve Stotras will be chanted during the three savanas. If, in addition to the above twelve three uktha-Stotras (as also the Çastra- mantras) are chanted the sacrifice becomes a 'derived one' (vik®ti), known as Ukthya. And when another stotra-mantra is added to the ukthya. the sacrifice which is also a 'derived one' will be known as 'ßo¥asî' (ie. having sixteen stator-Çastras) In another 'derived' sacrifice called 'ati-råtra', these sixteen stotra-Çåstras will be supplemented with an additional twelve stotra-Çåstras, thus totalling twenty-eight (according to the Aitareya recension, however, the total would be thirty) The sacrifice is called 'atiråtra' because the rituals are continued throughout the night. With agniß†oma as the prototype, we have ukthya, atyagni-ß†oma, ßo¥açi, våjapeya, atiråtra and åptoryåma as 'derived' or alternate forms (vik®ti). Among them atyagniß†oma, våjapeya and åptoryåma have not been performed for a long time. Some other sacrifices which are well-known are açva-medha, råja-sûya, pau±¥arîka, mahå-vrata, sarvatomukha, brhaspati-sava, abhijit and åºgirasa.

18

Royal Sacrifices There are sacrifices which only the ruling princes (råjanyas or kßatriyas) may perform; açva-medha — performed by an emperor to attain absolution of his sins and achieve sovereignty,  råja-sûya — performed by the ruler to assert his superiority in the realm,  sarva-medha — performed by one who is the sole monarch or eka-rå†, and who gives away in gift all his accumulated wealth,  purußa-medha — involving symbolic human sacrifice (there is no evidence that actual human sacrifice was ever performed as a part of Vedic sacrifices.)  aindra-mahåbhisheka — for obtaining special energy and extraordinary qualities and  våjapeya — which is meant to confer upon the performer superior strength and divinity. The last mentioned sacrifice is permitted for Bråhma±as also.

Description of Yajñas (from çukla yajur veda) Darça-pûr±amåsa — Chapters 1 and 2: The Darça-pûr±amåsa is the prototype for all 'iß†is' (brief and simple sacrifices) and where the oblations offered are puro¥åça-cakes, milk, curds and butter. Agni and Soma are the divinities principally worshipped (Agni-çomiya) and the new-moon and full-moon days are prescribed for this ritual. The Darça-pûr±amåsa begins on the previous day when 'agnyådhåna' (setting up of the sacred fire) is conducted by feeding the three sacred fires (gårhapatya, åhavanîya and dakßina) with one faggot from açvattha or palåça tree) each. The man who is the sacrificer (yajamåna) has his head, face and the arm-pits shaved in the morning and has a ceremonial bath. At noon (on the previous day) he approaches the three sacred fires and undertakes the vows (vrata-graha±a). He spends that night in the sacrificial hall (yåga-çåla). tending the fire. The ritual proper begins with agnihotra in the morning, and the officiating priests are ceremonially selected (®tvig-vara±a). Then follow the 'prayågas' as part of the main ritual. Oblations of clarified butter (åjya-homa) are offered to Agni and Soma separately. The main ritual consists of offering puro¥åça cakes (rice-powder or wheat-flour boiled in milk and baked as cakes on clay saucers called kapålas), first to Agni (eight kapålas), and then to Agni and Soma together (eleven kapålas). In between these two oblations, an upåµsu-yåga is performed, where mantras for Agni-ßomiya are chanted inaudibly and offerings of clarified butter are made.

19 The remainder of the puro¥åça-cakes is put into the fire in a sequence called sviß†ik®t and anuyåja as the homa for three divinities follows. The entire ritual begins with the establishment of the sacred fire in the sacrificial hall (agnyådhåna) and concludes with the final oblations (pûr±åhuti).

Cåturmåsya Yajñå — Chapter 3 The cåturmåsya is a four monthly sacrifice of the iß†i type having four 'parvas' or 'sections'. Parva 1. vaiçvadeva (prak®t) 2. varu±a-praghåsa 3. çåka-medha 4. çunå-sîrîya

Time — the Full-Moon of the spring season (vasanta- caitra)

Principle Deva Maruts

the rainy season (varsha - åsåßa) Varuna the winter season (çarat - Kårttika) Rudra-tryambaka on the 5th pûr±imå after såka-medha Indra (phålgu±a)

Soma-yåga — Chapters 4 to 8 § Chap 4. Deals with the fire ritual known as agnihotra, which includes three savanas (morning, noon, and evening) and the chanting of twelve stotra-çastras (Såman chants and Riks); this is regarded as the prototype (prak®ti) for all somasacrifices. § Chap. 5. Preparation of the altar for the sacred fire (vedi); ceremonial reception (atithya), and fixing of the sacrificial stake (yûpa) § Chap. 6. Consecration of the stake (yûpa-saµskåra) and the extraction of the soma-juice (somåbhiçava) by crushing the soma shoots and twigs placed upon a flat stone (d®ßat) by using a round stone (upala). The soma-creepers, obtained by buying them ceremoniously (soma-vikraya±a), are brought to the sacrificial hall (somapra±ayana) and placed upon the tawny bull's hide that is spread out (adhiçavanacarma). The creepers are also inserted between the two wooden planks (adhiçavanaphalaka) and crushed. The juice that comes out is stored in a large wooden vessel (dro±a-kalaça), and strained in a piece of cloth (¥åça- pavitra). § Chap. 7. Deals with the vessesl known as the upåµsu-graha etc. § Chap. 8. Describes the third savana and the offering of the soma-juice as oblation (soma-yajña); and the drinking of soma by the yajamåna and the officiating priests.

Våjapeya — Chapter 9 The Våjapeya (or vijaya-pasa), which is one of the soma-yajñas and which is performed for the sake of several benefits including longevity, health, and efficiency of sense-organs. It belongs to the ahina variety of sacrifices (duration of which are two to twelve days). This is prescribed for a prince or kßatriya who aspires to be ruler, although Bråhma±as also may perform it. A chariot-race, in which the sacrificer (yajamåna) must win, is a feature of this sacrifice. There is also a

20 prescription that seventeen 'animals' should be offered to the god Prajåpati on the occasion.

Råjasûya — Chapter 10 The Råjasûya is one of the more important among the sacrifices prescribed for a kßatriya and is also an 'ahina' sacrifice, and is performed by rulers who desire to assert their sovereignty. During the liturgy, the king sits upon the tiger-skin seat spread upon a throne made of udumbara wood, and the officiating priests and the representatives of the people sprinkle water, butter, clarified butter and so on over the king in order to consecrate him. An important detail in this sacrifice is a game of dice between the king and the chief priest (adhvaryu) . During the ceremony, the king is identified with Prajåpati, and after a sequence of offerings known as 'ratna-havis', eleven officers of the state are formally invested with the title of 'jewels' (ratni±ah): commander in chief of the army (senåni), adviser (purohita), the queen (mahishî) court-minstrel and secretary (sûta), minister for towns or villages (gråma±i), chamberlain (kßattri), treasurer (saµgråhit®), tax collector (bhåga-dugha), minsiter of gambling (akßåvåpa), minister for the environment (govikart®) and minister of communications (palagala). These are regarded as the persons who make the king (råjak®t).

Agni-Cayana — Chapters 11-18 Agni-cayana is the setting up of the sacred fires, including the architectural details of building the sacrificial platforms (chitis) with bricks and the mystical significance of several kinds of platforms (like syena-chit in the form of a flying hawk with 10800 bricks). Chapter 16 gives an account of çatarudnya-homa, and chapter 18 prescribes the vasordhåra-mantras. The important deities here are Rudra and Vaiçvånara besides Agni.

Sautråma±i — Chapters 19 and 20: This is principally an expiatory rite (prayaschitta-karma) in which Indra, Sarasvati and the Açvins are invoked. Indra (who is called Sutråma because he protects all beings well) once became sick by an excessive ingestion of the soma-juice; and the Açvins and Sarasvati are said to have cured him through this rite. One of the features of this sacrifice is the drinking of the intoxicating liquor called sura in a copper vessel by the sacrificer (yajamåna). The king who has lost his kingdom, the kßatriya who aspires to be king, or a person who desires wealth of cattle, and one who is unable to perform the soma-yåga may undertake this ritual.

Açva-Medha — Chapters 21-25 This is a ritual lasting only for three days, but it requires an elaborate preparation taking a year. The king who aspires to be an unrivalled emperor in all the realm (eka-rat or sarvabhauma) is advised to undertake this sacrifice.

21 A horse symbolising the ruler's might and valour is set free to wander followed by the royal entourage. The military guard give battle to anyone who block the horse's wandering and it is only after the horse's uninterrupted and victorious return that the sacrifice may begin. The first day of the yåga is devoted to agniß†oma, the second day to the açva-medha proper, and the third day to the final and purificatory bath (avabh®tha-snåna) The sacrifice of the horse and the offering its fat (or marrow) as oblation are important parts.

Purußa-Medha — Chapters 26-31 This is a mysterious sacrifice, the significance of which is altogether uncertain. Although the title suggests straight forward human sacrifice, an examination of the list of 184 persons who are prescribed to be sacrificed (upalamba or alambhana) indicates that it is mystical in character and highly symbolic. The list of the persons to be 'sacrificed' includes Bråhma±as, heroes, merchants, thieves, murderers, veenaplayers, flautists, singers, prostitutes, actors, blind and deaf-mutes, and bald-men. There is no record or tradition that the sacrifice was ever actually performed anywhere or at any time. It may be purely symbolic since it is to be noted that the purußa-medha is not mentioned in the K®ß±a-Yajur-Veda-Saµhita corpus.

Sarva-Medha — Chapters 32-34 This sacrifice is concluded by gifting away of all that one possesses to the officiating priests, the sacrificer resolving to live as a hermit. He moves out of his home in the town, and spends the rest of his life in a forest retreat. In this ritual, Prajåpati is identified with Purußa, and the next chapter contains a eulogy of the purußa (purußa-sûkta) .

Pit®-Medha — Chapter 35 Pravargya — Chapters 36-39 This ceremony consists of an earthen vessel, representing the sun (sûrya), is heated upon the sacrificial fire, and milk is boiled in it. This milk is then offered as oblation to the Açvins. The ceremony is said to provide the performer with a divine body that will enable him to enter the heavens. This is symbolically carried out in a sequence where the milk-pot is decorated and represented as a human head at the end of the sacrifice. It is classed as an apûrva. Chapter 40 is Upanißad.

non-sacrificial in theme, and it contains the famous Içåvåsya-

Dîkßa — Consecration Whatever the sacrifice, great importance is attached to the preparation period of purity and discipline on the part of the sacrificer and the officiating priests. A

22 person acquires the right to be a sacrificer (yajamåna) only after he is duly consecrated by a ritual known as dikßaniyeß†i. His wife participates in this undertaking and also gets consecrated. This ritual consists of offering six oblations of clarified butter (audgrahana) and eleven kapålas of caru (or cooked rice mixed with clarified butter). The ritual of consecration is an elaborate one, and it is only after this ritual that the person is designated as a dîkßita, and carries the ceremonial staff in hand (da±¥a) and wears a girdle of mañja-grass (mauñji) . After the consecration the yajamåna and his wife have to reside in the sacrificial pavilion, and have no dealings whatsoever with the outside world until the sacrifice is completed. They should also abstain from sexual activities and avoid all talk. The ritual of consecration takes place at noon, and the dîkßita must remain silent till he can see the stars in the sky. Two cows are allotted by the chief priest to provide them with milk: and the dîkßita and his wife must subsist only on this milk. And there is a regulation that milk for the dîkßita is heated on the gårhapatya hearth, while milk for the wife must be heated on the dakßinagni-hearth. If milk is not sufficient, some fruits or curds or a little rice boiled in milk are allowed. The couple eat this after mid-day and after mid-night, and no outsider must see them taking food. There are other regulations for them during the days of the sacrifice. They must keep awake three nights: the day of consecration, the day the soma creeper is procured, and the night prior to the soma-oblation. The dîkßita must not talk with people unconnected with the liturgy. He must not answer the calls of nature during daytime. When laughing he must cover his mouth; his teeth must not be shown. As a dîkßita, he is restrained from himself performing rituals like vaiçvadeva, baliharana and darça-pûr±a-måseß†i; but he may get them done by others. During the nights that he is allowed to sleep, he must lie down on the ground on his right side, to the south of åhavaniya- hearth, and with his head to the east. When moving about in the sacrificial hall, he must take care not to turn his back to the sacrificial fire. For squatting he must always use the deer- skin (k®ß±åjina). He must always carry the ritual staff (da±¥a), except when he answers calls of nature. He must touch no person, nor greet anyone, even a king. He may, however, bless others when they request to be blessed. He must refrain from bowing to any person (elder or teacher) during the days of the sacrifice. No one may address him by his name; consecration symbolises new birth, and his previous identity lapses for the time being. His mind must be full of thoughts of the sacrifice, and his speech must be truthful, gentle and precise. Aitareya-Bråhma±a (11, 11) emphasises that yajña is essentially a mental act; all the chants and physical acts that are involved must really be transformed into thoughts and resolves, for all speech and action are founded on mind.

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CHAPTER IV

Yajñåyudha - Implements of Sacrifice The Bråhma±a texts not only specify the mantras that must be recited and precisely indicate the acts that must be performed in the several sequences, but also prescribe the forms and functions of the furniture, vessels, utensils, implements, and other articles that are used in the sacrifice. Most of them are wooden, and the trees from which wood may be had to make them are also specified (palåça, khadira, uduµbara etc.). These vessels or utensils and implements are collectively called 'yajñåyudha' (lit. 'the weapons used in yajña'). There is a story in Aitareya- Bråhma±a (34, 1) that explains — In the beginning Prajåpati created yajña, and consequently brahma (the priestly functions or spiritual sovereignty) and kßatra (the temporal sovereignty) came into being. (Owing to some reason), the yajña fled from them, but they pursued the yajña, with their own weapons. Now what were the weapons of bråhma (or the priests) ? The utensils and implements used in the yajña. And the weapons of kßatra (or the princes) were horses, chariots, armours, arrows and bows. When the kßatra pursued the yajña with its weapons of warfare, the yajña ran faster, being scared, and the kßatra had to return without catching up with the yajña. But the bråhma pursuing it was successful: it reached the yajña and prevented its further flight. Yajña, however, looked at the 'weapons' that the brahma carried, and recognised them as its own 'weapons'; it consented to stay with the bråhma. This is how the yajña has settled down with the priestly class. The princelings approached the priests and desired also to possess yajña for their own benefit. The priests thereupon counselled them to put aside their weapons of warfare and approach the yajña as priests with its own 'weapons' (viz. the yajñåyudha) The princelings accordingly cast aside their weapons of warfare and assumed the form of priests, carrying the priestly weapons and obtained the yajña.

Taittiriya-Saµhita (1;6;8;2 and 3) enumerates ten yajñåyudhas, and explains that all yajña is accomplished by them:

1. Kapåla — ('havir-adhiçraya±årthåni') Small thin clay saucers round in shape on which the puro¥åça cakes are baked for offering. Puro¥åça is prepared by taking four fist-fulls of paddy which are cleaned in a wicker basket (nirvåpa), it is then pounded (avaghåta), husked, and ground; it is mixed with water and laid flat on the kapåla in the shape of a tortoise (viz circular in shape). The kapåla is placed on the fire, and the puro¥åça is baked. The baked puro¥åça is stored in a container called 'î¥a'. While making oblations, clarified butter (åjya) is poured on the cakes. Different gods are presented with puro¥åça.-offerings separately on kapålas. Texts prescribe the number of kapålas for each god: Varu±a, for example, is eligible for

24 one kapåla, the Açvins two kapålas, Viß±u three, Agni eight, Agna-vaiß±ava (Agni and Viß±u together) eleven, and Agna-çomiya (Agni and Soma together) also eleven.

2. Çûrpa Flat winnowing basket square in shape with two corners on one side rounded off, for holding the grains. This is used for cleaning the grains before they are ground and powdered. The material out of which this must be made is variously given as reeds (içîka). mango-leaves (åmra-patra), Arundo tibialis (na¥a), long-stalked grass (kuça, Poa cynosuroides), or cane (ve±u). Its prescribed size is also variously given: 24, 20 or 18 angulas.

3. K®ß±åjina The black antelope's hide used for the sacrificer to sit upon, and for the mortar (ulûkhala) and pestle (musala) for pounding grain to be placed on. It also figures during the consecration (dîkßå) of the sacrificer in soma-yåga.

4. Ulûkhala — (avaghåtasya ådhåra-bhûtam). A wooden mortar, used for pounding the grains or crushing soma shoots, It is cylindrical with a bowl-like depression (bila or nimnam) at the top; it is narrow in the middle (madhya-saºgrahîta). Its length and other particulars are not given, but it is usual for an ulûkhala to be knee-high. The text says that it can be of a desired or convenient length (icchha-pramå±a). It is made of khadira (Acacia catechu), våra±a (Crataeva roxburghii), udumbara (Ficus glomerata), or any other sacred tree. In Agni-chåyana, it is four-cornered.

5. Musala The pestle made of khadira or palåça, used for pounding (or husking) the grains or the soma shoots placed in the ulûkhala. It is prescribed to be three aratnis in length and one muß†i (fist) in breadth and has an iron plate at its base.

6. D®ßad Also called gråva, it is a large stone slab (pa††ah) on which are placed the somacreepers, to be crushed or ground (peça±årtha) with the help of upala.

7. Upala Also called adri, it is a smaller mill-stone resting on the d®ßad; it is used for crushing or grinding the soma-creeper, placed on the d®ßad. These two are used in the soma-rituals, and also for pounding the grains for the puro¥åça-cakes. But they are regarded as Soma's 'weapons' and used during 'somåbhishava±a' ritual.

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8. Sphya (cchedanådi-k®t) A wooden sword used for cutting the darbha-grass to the required size, for marking the lines in the sacrificial ground and for stirring the boiled oblations. It is made of khadira wood (Acacia catechu), and is a cubit long (1 aratni = 24 aºgulas). In varieties of the sacrifice Råjasuya (like maitra- bårhaspatyeß†i), no separate altar is constructed; the natural ground is used as altar. Here the sphya is used for removing the surface soil (uddhanana), viz. removing the upper layer of mud, digging the earth (khanana), and marking the area of the altar (parilekhana).

9. Çamyå (gadayå sad®çî båhu-parimita). A wooden peg or, stick or staff, shaped like a mace measuring a båhu or thirty-six aºgulas It is a measuring device, used along with sphya (which is used to mark the lines) (sphyena antar-likhati); in this case there is a vertical slit in the çamyå (or a hollow depression called 'garta'). It is made of khadira wood (Acacia catechu) or våra±a (Crataeva roxburghii)

10. Agnihotra-Hava±î: A large wooden ladle used for making oblations into the fire. It is a variety of sruk, and is prescribed to be made in vaikaºka†a (Flacourta sapida) wood. It is one båhu (36 aºgulas) in length. Besides these ten, which are specifically mentioned as yajñayudhas, there are many other utensils and implements which are used in a sacrifice; — different kinds of ladles (sruc), a variety of containers (graha), bowls (sthåli), pitchers (kalaça), cups (camasa), milk-pails (pinvana), planks (phalaka), sickles (asida), hoes (abhri), hammers (vighana), tongs (çapha), fans (dhavitri), carts (çaka†as) and stools or chairs (åsandi). The form of a utensil was not only suited to the function it was designed for, but was in accordance with some mystical symbolism of ritualistic significance; it would also be artistic. The Bråhma±a texts and the Srauta- sutra manuals provide all the information on these particulars. The yajñåyudha vary according to the sacrifice. Those used principally in the somabhiçavana sequence are not used in pravargya, for instance. Therefore, the functional significance of an implement used becomes important. Ladles, bowls, cups and containers have different forms, according to the primary nature of the rituals in which they are employed. Sometimes the classification of yajña-articles is made on the basis of what they are intended to Contain or carry. For instance ulûkhala, mûsala, k®ß±åjina, d®çad-upala and so on are called puro¥åça-påtras because they are associated with the making or storing the puro¥åça-cakes. Kumbhi, sakha-pavitra, abhidhani and dohana-påtra are instances of vessels called sannayyapåtras, viz. associated with procuring and keeping milk and curds (dadhi-payo-rupasannayya).

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Ladles The most common ladles used in yajña are sruk and sruva. Sruk is a long ladle, a båhu (36 aºgulas), an aratni (24 aºgulas) or a pradeça (12 aºgulas) in length, made of a sacrificial wood. It has a bowl or depression (pußkara) on top of it at one end with a beak (Shaped like elephant's lips or swan's beak) for the liquid to be poured out (prasecana); the tail portion of the ladle (or handle) will be in the form of crow's tail (våyasa-puchha). There is a regulation that the front part of the ladle should be the top portion of the wood, while the rear part should be the bottom portion (facing the root of the tree).

Sruk There are several variant forms of 'sruk' like juhû, used for offering oblations supported by upabh®t, and along with dhruva; prachara±î used in offering oblations in soma-yåga; and agnihotra-havani used in agnihotra. The juhû is made of par±a (Butea frondosa) wood, upabh®t of açvattha (Ficus religiosa), dhruva of vikaºka†a (Flacourtia sapida), prachara±î of palåça (parna) and agnihotra-havani in vikaºka†a. According to Åpastamba, sruk is to be made of çami wood (Prosopis spicigera), or alternately in gold. Rauhi±a-hava±î is another variety of sruk, made of udumbara wood (Ficus glomerata) and a båhu (viz. 36 aºgulas) in length, with a small bowl carved out at one end. Two of them are used in the pravargya ritual to offer the rauhi±a-puro¥åça. The Sruk represents the female principle or Prak®ti.

Sruva Sruva is a smaller ladle used for offering liquids. It is an aratni (24 aºgulas) in length, and the bowl (pußkara) is a small one, its diameter being not more than the tip of the thumb of the sacrificer's hand. It is made of khadira wood (Acacia catechu) or of par±a wood (Butea frondosa). In the pravargya ritual, it is prescribed to be made of udumbara (Ficus glomerata). In magical rites it may be made in gold, silver or copper. The sruva represents purußa or the male principle.

Vasordhårå A variety of ladle (which means 'the flow of wealth') used in Agni-chåyana and is meant for continuous and uninterrupted offering of melted clarified butter (åjya) into the fire for a specific duration (represented by the chanting of the mantras). Baudhåyana-çrauta-sûtra (10;54) prescribes that its front half should be in the form of a sruk (ladle), but that the rear portion should accommodate a camasa (bowl). The purpose is to have a steady stream of ghee (Apastamba-çrauta-sûtra, 17;17;8 'santatam vasordhåråm juhoti'). The actual device has a long slender drain from the bowl to the beak (the implement being a vyåyama or 96 aºgulas in length); sometimes, two bowls are provided, for elegance and for ensuring steady supply: the rear bowl being larger than the one in front. The offering symbolises the unbroken

27 stream of prosperity by returning the åjya to Agni, and through Agni to the devata intended.

Pra±îta The Pra±îta is a wooden vessel in which consecrated water is kept. While making puro¥åças, water from this vessel is mixed with the flour. The vessel is also meant to store soma-juice. It is made of nyagrodha (Ficus indica), rauhitaka (Andersonia), varana (Crataeva roxburghii) or vikankata (Flacourtia sapida) wood. The vessel is square in shape, eight aºgulas long and broad, and four aºgulas high; the bowl is three aºgulas deep, and holds about half a prastha of water.

Prokßa±î The Prokßa±î is the vessel made in våra±a wood (Crataeva voxburghii) or vikankata (Flacourtia sapida), and with a long handle. The vessel is 12 aºgulas long, and has a depression shaped like a lotus-leaf (padma-patråkrti) or lotus-bud (kamalåmukulåkrti). It holds the holy water, used for consecrating (prokßa±am, — aspertion) the articles and the oblations. Into the water are dropped the darbha blades (Saccharum cylindricum) to make the water holy.

Piß†a-påtri The flour for making puro¥åça-cakes for oblation is stored in piß†a-påtri, a container made of våra±a wood (Crataeva voxburghii) or in clay. It is also called piß†odvapani, and according to some it must be 20 aºgulas long and broad, with a circular depression to hold the dough; others say that its size must be 24 aºgulas long and broad (aratni-måtra). More usually it is rectaºgular in shape. According to Sayana, however, it can be of any shape but only made of clay. If it is a wooden vessel, it has a handle. A vessel similar in shape (oblong, but corners rounded off and narrow in the middle) is î¥a-påtra, one aratni (viz. 24 aºgulas) long, and with a handle. It is used for keeping the materials for oblations. It is made of varana wood (Crataeva voxburghii).

Puro¥åça-påtri The baked puro¥åça-cakes are kept in this vessel which is square is shape, pradeça (viz. 12 aºgulas) long and broad; the depth of the depression in the middle is six aºgulas.

Dro±a-Kalaça This is a large vessel made of strong and hard wood like våra±a or vikankata for storing the soma-juice; it is a trough (dro±a), square or circular in shape, with a handle (da±¥a-yuta). It may alternately be shaped like a boat (naukåkara).

Pariplu (or udanchana) A small wooden bowl (laghu-påtra) shaped like a sruk (but without a handle) ('yathåsruk ada±¥a'), is employed to take soma juice out of drona kalasa for

28 purposes of oblation ('dro±a-kalaçåt soma-graha±a-yogya ) And the soma-juice that is stored in dro±a-kalaça is already strained and ready for offering and drinking.

Daçåpavitra The device to strain the soma-juice. It is a fringed strainer, made from a piece of cotton cloth to which in the centre is attached or woven a round piece of woollen cloth. This is placed on the dro±a-kalaça and Soma-juice is poured into it; the strained soma-juice collects in the dro±a-kalaça.

Grahas The nine wooden cups which contain the soma-juice are made in various shapes, but generally, they resemble the form of a hour-glass, a span high, but narrow in the middle. Their names are: upåµsu-graha, antaryåmagraha, aindra-våyava-graha, maitra-varu±a-graha, açvina-graha, çukra-graha, manthi-graha, ukthya-graha and åditya-graha. Dadhi, aµçu and adabhya-grahas are four-cornered.

Camasas These are the soma-offering cups which are cared for by a special priest known as camasådhvaryu. Ten of these cups are mentioned, one for each of the priests who offer soma-juice as oblation. Their shapes differ so that the cup meant for the priest is easily identified. The participants after whom the ten chamasas are known are: hot®, brahma, yajamåna, udgåt®, prasastr, Bråhma±åcchamsi, pot®, nesht®, acchåvåka, agnîdhra and sadasya. The cups are made in udumbara wood (Ficus glomerata), nyagrodha (Ficus indica), rauhitaka (Andersonia), or våra±a (Craeteva roxburghii). They are generally square in shape and have handles.

Sthåli Various kinds of clay bowls. Agnihotra-sthåli which holds the fresh milk (godohana) is prescribed to be made by the hand of the sacrificer or one of the officiating priests. åjya-sthåli is for holding the ghee; likewise there are p®ßad-åjyasthåli, charu-sthåli, dhruvasthåli and ågraya±a-sthåli.

Mahåvîrå This vessel is described as 'the head of a sacrifice' (makhasya çira¿'), is used in pravargya ritual. It looks like three pots placed one above the other: being symbolic of the three worlds — the earth, the astral world and the transcendental realm (bhu¿, bhuva¿ and suva¿). symbolised by the three Vedic metres: gåyatrî, triß†ubh and jagati (Taittiriya-ara±yaka, 8;3;22, 'traya' ime lokå¿ chhandobhi¿ karoti'), The mahåvîrå is a cauldron a span high (pradeça-måtra), and it is also known as a gharma (hot clay pot ) used for boiling milk.. Because it is a boiler, it is difficult to handle it with bare hands; a pair of tongs (çapha) are used for lifting it from the fire and placing it upon another vessel upayamani by name (or çaphopayamana) This implement is meant to be a support for çapha, and is a long ladle (one bahu or 36;aºgulas long) with a fairly large depression ('mahå-pußkaram srucam') to hold the base of the mahåvîrå This is made of udumbara wood (Ficus glomerata).

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Çapha The tongs (two of them, çaphau) are also made of udumbara wood and are shaped like claws ('saµdarçåkårau'); they are long in shape and meant only to hold the mahavira vessel ('mahåvîrå-graha±årtha)

Ara±is The fire that is used in the sacrifice must be produced by friction of sticks of the açvattha tree (Ficus religiosa) which has grown in close association with the çami tree (Prosopis spicigera or Mimosa suma). (cf Asvalåyana-çrauta-sûtra 2;1;16-17). Both these trees are invested with great spiritual significance; çami especially is regarded as the 'mother of fire' (agni-garbha). The tree called ara±ika (Premna spinosa) is also mentioned as suitable for this purpose. The expression 'ara±i' suggests the process of producing fire by 'turning round' (or by 'fitting one stick into another', viz. the stick-and-groove method). The fire may be produced by friction or contrition, by rubbing one stick over another, or by a simple apparatus such as the fire-drill. All references are to two ara±i's which are described as the two mothers of Agni, who is 'dvimåtr' ("having two mothers", Rig- Veda, 1;31; 2); the symbolism is of the two births of Agni, who is 'dvi-janma' ('born twice'), one in the heavens and the other on earth. This is represented in the two ara±is (Rig-Veda, 5;11;3;7,3,9 and 8;60;15), one 'lower' (called adharara±i) and the other 'upper' (uttarara±i). In the soma-yåga context, the two ara±i's are known by the names of the celestial nymph Urvåçi and her hero-lover Pururavas. The lower ara±i signifies the female aspect, while the upper one is male. The kindling of fire is thus an act of procreation.

Miscellaneous Implements Upaveça The sacrificial fire is stoked by a wooden (udumbara or palasa branch) stick, one pradeça (viz. 12 aºgulas) or one aratni (24 aºgulas) long, and the head of which is shaped like an extended palm (haståk®ti) It is called upaveça or dhrß†i.

Dhåvitra The sacred fire is fanned by the dhåvitras each of the three priests in gharmaoblation using one. It consists of a stick of bamboo (venu) or udumbara (Ficus glomerata) to which is fastened a piece of black antelope's hide.

åsandi A high throne upon which the Soma creepers are stacked in the yåga-çåla after purchase (soma-vikraya). Soma, the philosophical concept as well as the actual creeper, play an important role in yajña. Soma is regarded as 'råja' — the monarch and is thus installed upon the throne. During the coronation ritual, the earthly ruler imitates Indra, the lord of the celestial beings and is seated upon a wooden throne

30 called åsandi and is duly consecrated. The åsandi used for the soma-creepers is thus called råjåsandi. It is placed at the southern side of the åhavanîya ku±¥a. It is made of udumbara wood (ficus glomerata), the four legs of the seat as high as the sacrificer's navel ('nabhi-daghnah pådåni) and the portion above being an aratni (viz. 24 aºgulas) high (aratni-matrani çirßåni'). The seat is prepared by muñja-grass ropes (mauñji-rajju, Saccharum sara). It is covered by black antelope's skin (k®ß±åjina). A slightly taller åsandi, known as samrå¥-åsandi, is placed to the east or north of råjåsandi; and on this are kept the mahåvîrå pots, the upayamani ladle and other articles.

Kûrca "Kûrca" strictly means a bunch of kuça-grass (Poa cynosuroides). But the kûrca used in a sacrificial ritual is a small elongated plate made of kuça-grass or from våra±a wood (Crataeva roxburghii), a båhu (viz. 36 aºgulas) in length and made in the shape of a tortoise (kurma), or dolphin (makara). It is kept on the western side of the åhavanîya hearth; and the sacrificial ladles (sruca) when not used are placed upon it.

Yûpa In sacrifices where animals are killed, the yûpa (sacrificial stake) is used. It is a pillar carved out of khadira wood (Acacia catechu), bilva wood (Aegle marmelos), palåça (Butea frondosa), açvattha wood (Ficus religiosa), udumbara wood (Ficus glomerata) or kramuka wood (Areca faubel). The height of the yûpa varies according to the yajña; — 17 aratnis in vajapeya, nine to 21 aratnis in agniß†oma and 9 aratnis in paçu-bandha. The base of the yupa is one aratni in height and is buried underground; this part may also be equipped with an iron ring ('yûpa-mûle nihita loha-valayam') called yûpa-ka†aka. The yûpa may either be cylindrical in shape ('vartulam çobhana¿') or square or it may be octagonal. The yûpa is so called because the sacrificial animal is fastened to it ('yuyate yujyate asmin iti'). One top of the yûpa is a detachable mount ('v®ßa-maulika¿'), made of wood or prepared out of wheat flour called 'caçåla'. The yûpa represents the Axis Mundi or centre of the universe.

Mekßa±a This is a rice-stirring spatula also used for offering oblations to the manes. It is either made of sacrificial wood or metal. pinvana asida vighana-mudgara abhiçava±a-phalaka

milk-pails knife for darbha-cutting the hammers soma-pressing boards

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APPENDIX 4 RV R. Rig Veda YV Yajur Veda Ai. Br. Aitareya-Bråhma±a Tai.Br. Taittiriya-Bråhma±a Go. Gopatha-Bråhma±a Nir. Nirukta Br.D Brhaddevata Sk. Skanda-svamin Vm Venkatamadhava Mud. Mudgala Sy. Sayana. a Dha. Dhatu-patha Pan. Panini At. Ananda-tirtha Rt. Raghavendra-tirtha An illustration of how the Rgvedic hymns (mantra portion) were interpreted to provide justification for the sacrificial context (Bråhma±a portion) is given below by choosing the very first hymn in R, Rig veda-Saµhita and by adding excerpts from the various commentaries that are available. Sayana may be seen to support the sacrificial approach, while others would prefer philosophical or symbolic approaches: FIRST MANDALA AG ~ he name o~ a god (Sy), abiding in the terrestrial realm (prthivi sthana); and ~i) leader of the denizens of heaven (devanam senanih agranih deva-senam s\/svayam nayati) (Ai. Br. 1.1.~, agnirmukham prathamam devanam; Tai. Br. 2,4,3,3, aganam; ~ii) leader of the sacrifice yajñeshu praniyate), being placed in the eastern sacrificial pot known as garhapatya, and the first to be lit; (iii) one who elf part by part (aºgam nayat; samnamamanah) by setting his own limbs (viz. the fuel sticks) ablaze (aºgam svakiyam sariram, nayati kaß†ha-dahe havishpake ca prerayati); and (iv) one who befriends not (aknopayati, "na snehayati. kim tu kaß†hadikam rukshayati"), viz., burns up the faggots (sthulaß†iva) (Nir).

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The interpretation provided by the ancient glossator Sakapu~!i (Rathitara) derives the word from the three letters 'a', 'ga' and 'ni' (dhatu-trayad agni-sabda-nishpattih): 'a' sug9ests~going irl" (eti, from ~in gatau', Dha. 24,37); ~ga~ (transformed 'ka', 'akto'nju vyaktim rakshana-kanti-gatishu~ Dha., 29,21) signifies ~ones own limb" (aºgam); and 'ni' ('nito nina prapane', Dha. 22,5) connotes "carrying", "leading~ (nayati). Agni, accordings to this interpretation means that which goes to the place of sacrifice and leads (viz., stimulates) the faggo~s to burn themselves and cook the offerings (yajr~labhumim gatva svakiyam aºgam nayati kaß†hadahe havishpake cha prerayatjtj samudayarthah) (Nir.) There is a tripartite division of gods according to the three realmS which comprehend the universe: the terrestrial firmament (prthivi), the mid-region (antariksha) and the shining vault above (dyauh) . The gods of the first realm are Agni, Prthvi, Soma, Brhaspati etc; the gods of the second realm are Indra, Vayu, apam-napclt, Rudra, Marut, Parjanya and Apah; and the gods of the third realm are Dyauh, Varuna, Mitra, Surya, Savitr, Pushan, Asvins. Vishnu and Aditya. The representative divinities are: Agni for the terrestrial realm, Vayu or Indra for the mid-region and Surya for the heavens (agnih prthvTsthano vayur-vendro vantarikshasthanah suryo dyusthanah, (Nir 7,5, 1-2); also Br. D. 1,6,9 cf. agnir asminn athendrastu madhyato vayureva cha; suryo divlti vijr-leyas tisra eveha devatah.) The three divinities are actually one god discharging three different functions. Conventionally, however, three distinct gods are recognized Agni, Vayu (Indra) and Surya (Nir.). Of them Agni, who is praised in as many aS 200 suktas, is the most important, as his influence spans all three realms. He is the patron-deity of Rg Veda, as Vayu is of Yajurveda and Surya of Sama-Veda (trayo veda ajayanta: rgveda agnerajayata, yajurvedo vayoh; samaveda adityat'. Ai. Br. 5,32). He has three sources; in the waters of the ocean as bad, avanala', in the midregion as lightning, and in the heavenly firmament as the Sun (RV. 1,95,3). He is the one who is present in the sacrificial fire: most ancient and ever young. He it was that kindled the first sacrificial fire (RV, 3,15,4); and there is no priest superior to him. Br. D.(prefatory ch. 91) explains that Agni is so called because he is conducted from its source (near the arani) to the Uttara-vedi (in accordance with the agnyanayana rite), and because he conducts

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the performer of the sacrifice to the expected goal, and that although these are two distinct functions, he is but one. ! ILE (viz Ide, 'iditi' dhatoh stutyartham prasiddham'). The root 'id signifies 'praising', and also 'begging' (adhyeshana, hence 'yachami), 'worshipping'(puja) (Nir. 7,15). The sage who has intuited the hymn begs of Agni the favours to bestow which he is most competent. ida stutau, Dha., 24,7 ida stutih, Halayudha). The employment of '!a' instead of 'da' was in accordance with the tradition of the Bahvrchas. But it must be noted that in the Vedic context i!a represents 'speech' (Vak) or the goddess of speech. We read in Br.D. 3,13 that the goddess of speech followed Agni of the terrestrial region in the form of lla or praise ('agnim evanugata). The expression 'i!a' is there explained as the form designed by the sages, viz., praises which facilitate growth. Agni is therefore described as one equipped with such prasies. ~q ~ ,r ~ ul°l ~lqi ~ r~R~I ~,r ~ purohitam . PUROHITA. 'One who places himself in front' ('purah enam dadhati', Nir. 2,12 on RV 10,98,7). The human priest being in front, protects the performer of sacrifices (king etc.) from evil and ills through pacificatory and nourishing rites; and Agni discharges this role (Sk. 'santi-pauß†ikaih karmbhir yo rajanam apadbhyas trayate sa purohitah tat-sthanlya'). Purohita (viz.'placed foremost') is the high priest, the master-ofceremonies, advisor and director, as Brhaspati was of the gods and Chandamarka of the demons (Tai. Sam. 6,4,10). The function of the high priest is to accomplish the desires of the person who seeks his aid. Even so Agni accomplishes the expectations of the performer of the sacrifice (Sy.) The gods had Visvarupa, son of Tvaß†!-prajapati, as their high priest (ibid., 2,5,1). 'Visvarupa' signifies the divinity that assumes all forms, and it is a synonym for Agni. The ritualistic interpretation takes the expression to mean the fire that has been placed in the. northern platform (Vm. 'puro' nihitam, uttara-vedyam'). Alternatively, it refers to the fire that assumes the 'ahavaniya' (invocatory) form, having been placed on the eastern

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side of the sacrificial platform ('yajhasya purva-bhage ahavaniyarupenavasthitam', Mud.). EtYn~°lOgically, 'agni' is related to 'agra' (foremost), and hence At. takes the word to mean 'one who is to be adored foremost, or at the very beginning 'agni-sabdoyam agra evabhipujyatayam'. Being foremost' or 'at the head' is explained as signifying leadership in prompting the organs and limbs of all of us ('agryatvan agranetrtvam aºgar;ga-netrtvam'). Thus, he, the Lord, is in the nature of prior benefit (aseshasya purvam eva hitam prabhum') and is therefore described as 'purohita'. yajhasva devam YAJNA. Worship, devotion, praise (yaja pujayam) in early Vedic literature, sacrificial ritual (ijyate havir diyate') in later literature. (cf. also 'yaja deva-puja-saºgati-karana-daneshu'). Various references to yajna in RV suggest that it is the word for cosmic unity. I~ is the foundation for rta (cosmic order, e.g. RV l, 43,9 1,84,4 and 3,55,14). The gods created yajr~a as the support and sustenance for earth and the heavenly vault (RV, 10,65,7); it is the navel of the universe ~TV, 1,64,35 'ayam yaji;o bhuvanasya nabhih'). Further, yajha is regarded as a wheel that has two courses: speech and mind: by the three Vedas viz. speech, one course is sanctified; by the fourth veda (viz., the Atharva-veda) the other course is sanctified through mind. q~ ~rsq ~ ~ol ~ ~rq~l ~q ~ ,qrr ~ q ~ ~ Ai. Br. 5,33. Yajna in the sense of sacrifice in the context is taken by Sk to signify the performer of sacrifice ('yajnadhikrtasya' "yajno vai jayamanah" 1,28). He takes 'purohitam' to go with 'yajnasYa' so that it means ~the high priest of the performer of sacrifice, (apadam apahantaram'). DEVA 'One who shines' (divyati), 'one who illumines~ (dipayati), 'one who bestows gifts~ (danarthe). Thus Sk takes the word along with ~yajr-lasya' and describes Agni as 'one who inspires the performance of sacrifices and also confers the rewards thereof to the gods and humans who perform sacrifices', for the sacrifice indeed depends on him. ('yajnasya dataram dipayitaram va yajno hi devebhyo manushyebhyasca agnir dadati, tadayattatvat ). The fire

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known as 'ahavaniya' was placed in the eastern quarter, and was therefore called 'purohita'; the same fire is again addressed as 'deva' ('yajr-~asya etat tu devam ity anena sambaddhyate'). The expression 'deva' has different significances, according to Nir. 7,15: bestower of gifts (danad), illuminor (dipanad), shining one (dyotanad), resident of the shining region above (dyusthanadva) The sense of bestowal of gifts (dana) became obsolete in later Sanskrit. SK, Sy and Mud. agree in giving this interpretatjon to the word 'deva', taking it along with 'yajr~lasya': Agni is the divinity that confers the benefits of the sacrifice on the performer. Vm, however, takes the word in the sense of Idenizen of the heavenly realm' (dyusthanam). At. provides a comprehensive explanation for the word deva. meaning illumination, victory, and adorable lustre (~dyotanad vijayat kantya) RTVIJAM HOTARAM The rtvik is the name of the priest involved in the sacrificial context ('rtau yajatlti' Pan. 3,2,59~. Usually four of them are counted; hota, adh~Jaryu, udgata and brahma, associated with the four vedas respectively: RgVeda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda. Go. Br. 3,2) q~q ~ The expression rta is taken to mean sacrifice in the above interpretation Actually, however, the word 'rta' is used in the early Vedic literature in the sense of cosmic order, fixed or settled la~, sacred custom. divine truth (satya) and the conduct emanating from, dependent upon. or revealing, truth (e.g. RV 1,137,2 'rtsya putaye). Yajna is related to this rta or cosmic reality (e.g. RV. 1,145,5 also rtachiddhi satyam). and the priest officiating in this yajna is called rtvij (from 'yaj') (one who officiates in rituals from time to time, 'rutau rtau yashtaram', Sk.) Agni is called sage or priest (agneh rshibhedah, YV. 17,82). He is ceiebrated as the priest of the gods ('devanam yaß†a~ VIT)). And because he is associated with RV he is designated as the 'hota ('agnir vai devanam hota, Ai. Br. 3,14; 'agnir daivyo hota', SK). He is the primordial 'hota' ('ayam hota prathamah' RV. 6,9,4). The human priest officiating as the hota' (one of the four chief priestS) is in fact in imitation of, or empowered by. this ciivine

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hota, viz., Agni ('tad adhikrtas tu manusho hota hautr3m karma karoti', Sk, cf also At. ~rvting-niyamakatvena yajnanam rtvijam sada'). The close association between Agni, Rg Veda and the hotapriest is evidenced by what we read in Go. Br. (2.24): ~r~q~q ~ ~ q~ rq ~ u ~ rclr~r~l and in Ai.Br. yad!chaiva hotram kriyate. Sy. quotes (R,gvidena hota karoti) in his comm. on AV. The expression hotr (from 'hu' '~to call~ I'to invite~, with the 't!n' suffix, (Pan. 7,3,84) means one who invokes or invites (the gods) (hvayati, 'devanam ahvataram', Sk. and Sy. on the evidence of Nir. 7.15 'hvataram'). The view of an ancient glossator, Aurnanabha, is cited in Nir. and according to this view the expression is derived from 'juhoti' meaning "to offer oblation", "to sacrifice" (juhoter hota ity aurnanabhah'). Sy. accordingly provides this meaning also: 'agnes cha hotrtvam homadhikaranatvena draß†avyam'. Although Agni abides in the terrestrial region, he becomes a denizen of the heavenly region (hence deva, 'dyusthana') when he carries the offered oblations to the gods ('yadyapl agnih prthvisthanah, tathapi devan prati havir vahanat dyusthano bhavati'.) At. interprets the word 'hota' symbolically as meaning one who offers oblations in the form of sensory objects into the fires of the sense-organs ('indriyagnishu charthanam yaddhota, hotr-namakah). He derives the word from two roots: movement and delight ('gatya ratya cha devakhyam hot!-samstham vi~eshatah'). ratnadhatamam: 'Ratna', literally meaning whatever pleases or delights (from 'ram', 'ramate cha' Unadi 3,14, ~ramayatj harshayati iti'), also employed to suggest what is best in the class ('sva-jati-sreß†hah'~ Medini) is usually used in the sense of jewels and pearls which are precious. More generally however it means wealth ('ratnam iti dhana-nama Sk.) from Nir. 7 15 (ramaniya-nan-~ dhananama). Wealth in the context is taken as the rewards for the performance of sacrifices ('yaga-phala-rupanam ratnanam', Sy.) Dhatama signifies best among the bestowers' (from dha ~ tama. idadhatir da~larthah dhananam atis'ayena dataram Sk.~ from Nir. 715 'datrtamam')

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Agni is here described as the divinitv who bestows in profusion the jewels (or wealth) characteristically c,btained as the reward for the performance of sacrifice ('yaga-phala-rupanam ratnanam atisayena dharayitaram Sy.) bestowal here Suggesting also protection and nourishment ('dharayitaram poshyitara~Tn Mud.). Taking ratna' in its etymological sense of pleasing' or delighting ~ At. explains the co~Tnpound 'ratna-dhatama' as the most superior among the nourish~rs of delight ('rati-dharakottamatvat sa ratnadhatama iritah ' Furtller he points out that liberation from sorrow and ignorance is the most desirable delight and that Agni as God Vishnu is one who can bestow it on us ('atroktagunanam Harau niravadilikatvam tadadhiß†hane agnau yatha yogyam atra adhyatmam sarvatra mokslla sadhako yah kascit sattvika yajamano jneyah')

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The yajña being a ritual, all the details thereof are taken very seriously; omissions. commissions, and deviations are not tolerated and there is an insistence that any irregularity must immediately be corrected. Sometimes the classification of yajña-articles is made on the basis of what they are intended to Contain or carry. For instance ulukhala, musala, krshnajina, drshad-upala and so on are called puro¥åça-påtras because they are associated with the making or storing the puro¥åça-cakes. Kumbhi, sakha-pavitra, abhidhani and dohana-påtra are instances of vessels called sannayya- påtras, viz. associated with procuring and keeping milk and curds (dadhi-payorupa-sannayya).

HOMA VIDHI

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