The Scarlet Letter From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia encyclopedia
Not to be confused with The Scarlet Letters. Letters. For other uses, see Scarlet Letter (disambigua (disambiguation) tion)..
The Scarl Scarl et Letter Letter
Title page, first edition, 1850
Author(s)
Nathaniel Hawthorne
Genre(s)
Romantic,, Historical Romantic
Publisher
Ticknor, Reed & Fields
Publication date
1850
Pages
180
is an 1850 romantic work of fiction in a historical setting, written by Nathaniel Hawthorne. is Hawthorne. It is considered to The Scarlet Letter be his hismagnum opus. opus.[1] Set in 17th-century Puritan Boston, Massachusetts during the years 1642 to 1649, it tells the story of Hester of Hester Prynne, Prynne, who conceives a daughter through an adulterous affair and struggles to create a new life of repentance of repentance and dignity dignity.. Throughout the book, Hawthorne explores themes of legalism of legalism,, sin sin,, and guilt guilt..
Legalism
(theology) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia encyclopedia
This article relies on references to primary sources. Please add references to secondary or tertiary sources.. (February 2007) sources
theology,, is a usually pejorative term referring to an over-emphasis on discipline of conduct, or legal ideas, usually implying an Legalism , in Christian theology allegation of misguided rigour, pride, superficiality superficiality,, the neglect of mercy, and ignorance of the grace of God or emphasizing the letter of law over the spirit. spirit . Legalism is alleged against any view that obedience to law, not faith in God's grace, grace, is the pre-eminent principle of of redemption redemption.. Contents [hide hide]]
1 In the New Testament 2 In intra-Christi intra-Christian an relations o
2.1 Roman Catholic Church
o
2.2 Eastern Orthodox Churches
o
2.3 Protestant churches
o
2.4 In history
3 References 4 See also
edit]] In the New Testament [edit The words 'legalism' or 'legalist' do not occur in the Old or New Testaments. Legalism's root word, "law" (Greek nomos ), occurs frequently in the New Testament,, and sometimes connotes legalism. In 1921, Ernest De Witt Burton stated that in Gal. 2:16, Testament 2:16, "nomou is here evidently used ... in its legalistic sense, denoting divine law viewed as a purely legalistic system made up of statutes, on the basis of obedience or disobedience to which individuals are approved or condemned as a matter of debt without grace. This is divine law as the legalist defined it." it." [1] The Greek of of Paul's day lacked any term corresponding to the distinct position of "legalism", "legalist", or "legalistic", leading C.E.B. Cranfield to commend "the possibility tha t Pauline statements which at first sight seem to disparage the law, law, were really directed not against the law itself but against that misunderstanding and misuse of it for which we now have a convenient [2]] terminology" (legalism) (legalism)..[2 Messianic Jewish Bible translator David translator David H. Stern cited these two scholars to support the translation framework that often "'nomos '
means 'legalism' and not God's Torah", especially in Paul's constructs erga nomou (literally "works of law", law", rendered by Stern "legalistic observance of Torah commands") and upo nomon (literally "under law", rendered by Stern by 13 words, "in subjection to the system which results from perverting the Torah into legalism"). legalism") .[3]
One concept of legalism, the belief that salvation can be earned by obedience to laws, is referred to in various New Testament books, including Galatians. In this case, some Jews who had become Christians believed that in order to obtain salvation, both faith in Christ (as Messiah Messiah)), and obedience to the Mosiac laws were required, such as the cases of the thecircumcision controversy and the Incident at Antioch. Antioch. Generally, however, these cases are referred to as the Judaizer Judaizer controversy, controversy, rather than a legalism controversy, but the two are related.
Legalism refers to any doctrine which states salvation comes strictly from adherence to the law. It can be thought of as a works-based religion. Groups in the New Testament said to be falling into this category include the Pharisees Pharisees,, Sadducees Sadducees,, Scribes Scribes,, Judaizers Judaizers,, and Nicolaitans Nicolaitans.. They are legalists because they emphasized obeying the Law of Moses, Moses, in the case of the Pharisees and Scribes, to the letter without understanding the concept of grace. Jesus condemned their legalism in Matthew 23. 23. The Pharisees love of the praises of men for their strict adherence is said to be a prime example of legalism.
Legalism is sometimes confused with obedience. New Testament books such as Romans, speak of grace and obedience together. An example is found in Romans 1:5 (New American Standard Version) speaking of Christ 'through whom we have received grace and apostleship to bring about the obedience of
faith among all the Gentiles, for His name's sake...' The goal of receiving the grace was to bring about obedience of faith. Here grace, faith and obedience are tied together. Other references are in Acts 5:29, 32; Romans 16:19; 2 Corinthians 7:15; Hebrews 5:9.
Legalism is also confused with discipline, which is often spoken of in a positive light. See 1 Corinthians 9:17; 1 Timothy 4:7; 2 Timothy 1:7 and Hebrews 12:5 – 11.
A third common misunderstanding of legalism is the word law. Law in many places in the Bible refers to the Law of Moses, see also Biblical law in Christianity.. In Galatians the Judaizers were trying to insist that salvation required that a person be circumcised prior to obeying the Law of Christ. Christianity Christ. Galatians 2:16 says, "Knowing that a man is not justified by the works of the law, law, but by the faith of Jesus Christ, even we have believed in Jesus Christ, that we mi ght be justified by the faith of Chri st, and not by the works of the law: for by the works of the l aw shall no flesh be justifi ed" (King James Version). The faith here is the Law of Christ and the law here is the Law of Moses. The legalism of the Judaizers was that obedience to the law of Moses was necessary to be saved.
Legalism in the New Testament is believed by some as being revealed by the life of Saul prior to his conversion conversion.. Some believe that Saul sought to redeem himself by his works of persecution of the church and its ultimate destruction. Acts 26:9 –11 reveals, "I verily thought with mysel f, that I ought to do many things contrary to the name of Jesus of Nazareth. Which thing I also did in Jerusalem Jerusalem:: and many of the saints did I shut up in prison, having received authority from the chief priests; and when they were put to death, I gave my voice against them. And I punished them oft in every synagogue, and compelled them to blaspheme blaspheme;; and being exceedingly mad against them, I persecuted them even unto strange cities" (King James Version). Galatians 1:13 –14 states, "For ye have heard of my conversation in time past in the Jews' religion, how that beyond measure I persecuted the church of God, and wasted it: And profited in the Jews' religion above many my equals in mine own nation, being more exceedingly zealous of the traditions of my fathers" (King James Version). These two texts emphasize the nature of Saul's religion, works.
However, in this passage the obedience is not tied to the obeying of specific Old Testament laws, such as keeping Sabbath or circumcision.
Icon of of James the Just, Just , whose judgment was adopted in the Apostolic the Apostolic Decree of Acts 15:19 –29 29,, c. AD 50.
At the Council of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, c. 50, James the Just decreed the Apostolic Decree Decree:
"Wherefore my sentence is, that we trouble not them, which from among the Gentiles are turned to God: But that we write unto them, that they abstain from pollutions of idols, idols, and [from] [from] fornication fornication,, and [from] things strangled, and [from] [from] blood blood..[1] For Moses of old time hath in every city them that preach him, being read in the synagogues every Sabbath day" ( Acts Acts 15:19 –21 21)). Though the Apostolic Decree is no longer observed by many Christian denominations today, it is still observed in full by the Greek Orthodox Orthodox..[4]and it was a very effective philosophie during that time.
edit]] In intra-Christian relations[edit Roman Catholic Church[edit edit]] In Roman Catholicism, Catholicism, good works are done in service to God and one's neighbour, by faith working through love. In contrast, an excess of severity in the imposition of, or overly scrupulous conformity to any rule of piety, may be charged with legalism. Faith and good works, giving the individual free will to choose.
In an attempt to resolve the dispute over legalism, the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification was a document issued in 1999 by LutheranCatholic clerical representatives, declaring a common belief in Sola gratia, that grace alone can save the faithful, and that there is a progressive progressive infusion of grace in the spirit of the believer.
Eastern Orthodox Churches[edit edit]] The Eastern Orthodox, Orthodox, for another example, rejects the satisfaction theory of the atonement as legalistic . The satisfaction theory states that mankind's Original Sin violated God's law, resulting in all men being born guilty: an idea prevalent in the writings of of Tertullian and Augustine and Augustine of Hippo of the Western Church. Church. Anselm Anselm f f o ormally rmally developed the theory that the legal problem of guilt before the Law, required the legal solution of retribution, in order to achieve a just salvation. The solution was for God's son Jesus to willingly die on the theCross in place of humanity, thus allowing the legal penalty to be fully carried out, satisfying the justice of God, and thus clearing the way for mercy to be shown to sinners. The Eastern Orthodox charge that this theory is too dependent upon Roman legal concepts of retribution and justice.
Protestant churches[edit edit]] In Protestant Protestant,, Evangelical Evangelical,, Christian theology theology,, especially in popular versions of the same, the charge of legalism is an accusation of overzealous adherence to the word of the Bible (as law) in all things said, established or accomplished in a believer's life (cf. bibliolatry bibliolatry)). All is in accordance to the word. word.[clarification needed ] In that context, to apply the criticism of legalism to a theological position or religious attitude implies that the accused has overturned the Gospel of salvation of salvation t through hrough faith and new life in Jesus Christ and has instead substituted some principle of personal works of strict adherence to the word, through action, thought, or speech for the unearned grace of God.
In history[edit edit]] Throughout the history of Christianity, Christianity, certain beliefs and practices have tended to draw charges of legalism. legalism.[5] These include:
Asceticism,, such as fasting and other forms of self-denial. Asceticism
The keeping of Christian of Christian Sabbath, Sabbath, especially regarding prohibitions of various otherwise innocent activities on the day of worship.
Various extra-biblical extra-biblical ordinances and customs that become associated not just with wisdom but with holiness, in the contemporary situation, such as prohibitions against againsttheater , movies movies,, dancing dancing,, playing cards, cards, interracial marriage or mixed or mixed bathing. bathing.
Total abstinence from alcohol (See also Christianity and alcohol.) alcohol.)
Ritualism,, a superficial or superstitious use of customary prayers and liturgy Ritualism liturgy..
Similarly, certain exclusive ritual practices, such as rigorous insistence on the tetragrammaton as the only name by which God is honored, dietary laws, laws, Saturday Sabbath, Sabbath, or Passover Passover (Christian holiday), holiday), especially when practicing these rituals is held necessary for salvation.
Sacraments,, especially when the underlying theology allegedly views them as communicating God's grace automatically (compare ex opere Sacraments operato)). operato
Various rigorous and restrictive beliefs, such as that, only the King James Version of the Bible constitutes God's word. word.[6]
The belief that Christian families should homeschool homeschool..
The belief that women should never wear pants or shorts.
Iconoclasm
Circumcision
Puritanism
Sexual morals
Judaizing
Restorationism
Christian Reconstructionism, Reconstructionism, which is based on the belief that Christians should still obey and enforce the full Mosaic law.
Several underlying dynamics appear in these controversies. The permitted scope of of veneration of material objects versus claims that such veneration is idolatry idolatry,, affects the perceived sanctity of ritual spaces and objects, and therefore of the rituals and customs themselves. Teachings about the authority of the church, the sources of legitimacy of that authority, and the role of of clergy versus the priesthood of all believers, believers,[7] also affect these debates.
edit]] References[edit
Sin From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia encyclopedia
"Sinful", "Sinner", and "Sinners" redirect here. For the trigonometric function commonly written as sin, see Sine Sine.. For other uses, see Sin (disambiguation),, Sinful (disambiguation), (disambiguation) (disambiguation), Sinner (disambiguation (disambiguation)), and Sinners and Sinners (disambiguation). (disambiguation).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by article by adding citations to reliable sources. sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed removed.. (February 2012)
A Sistine Chapel fresco depicts the expulsion of of Adam and Eve from the garden of Eden for their sin of eating from the fruit of the Tree of the knowledge of good and evil. evil.
[1][2][3][4] 2][3][4] In Abrahamic In Abrahamic contexts, sin is the act of violating God's will will.[1][ Sin can also be viewed as anything that violates the ideal relationship
between an individual and God. Sin has been defined as "to miss the mark "[5] Some crimes are regarded as sins and some sins are regarded as greater than others. In this nuanced concept of sin, sins fall in a spectrum from minor errors to deadly misdeeds. misdeeds. Catholicism regards the least corrupt sins as venial sins —which are part of human living and carry immediate consequences on earth, and, if unrepented for, more painful purgation, assuming the person is destined to heaven heaven,, as it is written in the formation letter "Purgatory", "most of the early Fathers of the Church speak of a cleansing fire, though we cannot tell
whether this means actual or spiritual fire."
[6]
Conversely, sins of great evil are mortal sins —which bring the consequence of eternal
maximal separation from God, the state more so than place, called hell hell.. Sins of careless living are considered destructive and lead to greater sins according to the Seven Deadly Sins. Sins . Another concept of sin deals with things that exist on Earth but not in Heaven Heaven.. Food, for example, while a necessary good for the (health of the temporal temporal)) body, is not of (eternal eternal)) transcendental living and therefore its excessive savoring is considered a sin .[7] Sin has also been categorized as an inevitable act that was passed down from generation to generation by the common ancestor, Adam. Like a disease, disease, sin was said to poison the heart heart of every human thereafter. A controversial controversial belief is that that every man is completely full of sin and can't help to think and act on it, but only disguise it. Contents [hide hide]]
1 History of the term 2 Religions o
2.1 Bahá'í
o
2.2 Buddhism
o
2.3 Christianity
o
2.4 Hinduism
o
2.5 Islam
o
2.6 Judaism
o
2.7 Shinto
3 See also 4 Notes and references 5 Bibliography 6 External links
edit]] History of the term[edit The word derives from ―Old English syn(n), for original *sunjō,... The stem may be related to that of Latin sons, sont -is guilty. In Old English there are examples of the original general sense, ‗offence, wrong -doing, misdeed'‖. misdeed'‖.[8] The Biblical terms that have been [9]][citation needed ] translated from Greek and Hebrew literally refer t o missing a target, i.e. error .[9
edit]] Religions[edit Bahá'í [edit edit]] Main article: Bahá'í views on sin
In the Bahá'í Faith, Faith, humans are considered naturally good (perfect), fundamentally spiritual spiritual beings. Human beings were created because of God's immeasurable love. However, the Bahá'í teachings compare the human heart to a mirror, which, if turned away from the light of the sun (i.e. God), is incapable of receiving God's love.
Buddhism[edit edit]]
Main article: Buddhist views on sin
Buddhism does not recognize the idea behind sin, but believes in the principle of karma, whereby suffering is the inevitable consequence of greed, anger, and delusion (known as t he Three poisons) poisons).[10] While there is no direct Buddhist equivalent of the Abrahamic concept concept of sin, wrongdoing wrongdoing is recognized recognized in Buddhism. The concept of Buddhist ethics isconsequentialist in nature and is not based upon duty towards any deity.
Christianity[edit edit]] Main articles: Hamartiology and Christian and Christian views on sin See also: also: Biblical law in Christianity
In Western Christianity, Christianity , sin is believed to alienate the sinner from God even though He has extreme love for men. It has damaged, and completely severed, the relationship of humanity to God. That relationship can only be restored through acceptance of Jesus Christ and his death on the cross as a substitutionary sacrifice for humanity's sin . Mankind was destined for life without a God when Adam disobeyed God. The Bible in John 3:16 says "For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only begotten Son, so that whoever believes will not perish, but have everlasting life." In Eastern Christianity, Christianity, sin is viewed in terms of its effects on relationships, both among people people and between people and God. Sin is seen as the refusal to follow God's plan, and the desire to be "like God" (Genesis 3:5) and thus in direct opposition to God's will (see the account of Adam Adam and Eve in the Book of Genesis) Genesis ). Original sin is a Western concept which states that sin entered the human world t hrough Adam and Eve' Eve's sin in the Garden of Eden, Eden, and that human beings have since lived with the consequences of this first sin . [11] One concept of sin deals with things that exist on Earth, but not in Heaven Heaven.. Food, for example, while a necessary good for the (health of the temporal temporal)) body, is not of (eternal eternal)) transcendental living and therefore its excessive savoring is considered a sin .[12] The unforgivable sin (or eternal (or eternal sin) sin) is a sin that can never be forgiven. Matthew 12 30-32 : ―Whoever i s not with me is against me, and whoever does not gather with me scatters.
31
And so I tell you, every kind of sin and slander can be forgiven, but blasphemy against the Spirit will not be
forgiven. 32 Anyone who speaks a word against the Son of Man will be forgiven, but anyone who speaks against the Holy Spirit will not be forgiven, either in this age or in the age to come. In Catholic Christianity sins are classified into grave sins called mortal sins and pardonable sins called venial sin. sin . Grave sins cause one to lose heaven unless the sinner repents and pardonable sins require some sort of penance either on Earth or in Purgatory. Purgatory.[13] Jesus was said to have paid double for the complete mass of sins past, present, and to come in future. Even inevitable sin from our weakness has already been cleansed. The Lamb of God was and is God Himself and therefore sinless. In the Old Testament, Leviticus (Specifically, 16:21) states that ‗the laying on of hands‘ was the action that the High Priest Aaron was ordered to do yearly by God to take sins of Israel's nation onto a sp otless young
lamb. 1st Peter 3:21 m entions a debatable: "and this water symbolizes baptism baptism that now saves you also —not the removal of dirt from the body but the pledge of a clear conscience toward God.[a] It saves you by the resurrection of Jesus Christ" And when compared with Matthew 3:15's verse: "―Permit it to be so now, for thus it is fitting for us to fulfill all righteousness‖" when John, also called John the Baptist, Baptist , baptizes Jesus, the Lamb of God. Oddly, t his takes place at a significant Jordan River that River that is present throughout stories in t he Bible. As
well as when Matthew 11:11, when Jesus says ―Among those born of women there has not risen one greater than John the Baptist." Which leads to the question of whether or not we should believe this. Book of Hebrews 9:27 says: ―And as it is appointed for men to die once, but after this the judgment‖ Many debate whether this means that a person must live a good life and stop sinning. As Book of Romans 3:20 explains: "For by the law is the knowledge of sin.‖ which some may say means that the law itself was made to show us that we need Jesus to save us. Matthew 15:7 tells about when Jesus said: "Hypocrites! Well did Isaiah prophesy about you saying: 'These people draw near to Me with their mouth, And honor Me with their lips, But their heart is far from Me, And in vain they worship Me, Teaching as doctrines the commandments of men'"
Hinduism[edit edit]] In Hinduism Hinduism,, the term sin (pāpa in in Sanskrit Sanskrit)) is often used to describe actions that create negative karma by violating moral and ethical codes, which automatically brings negative consequences. a crime consequences. This is different f rom Abrahamic sin in the sense that pāpa is not a against the will of God, but against (1) Dharma Dharma,, or moral order, and (2) one's own self, but another term apradha is used for grieve offenses.
edit]] Islam[edit Main article: Islamic views on sin
Muslims see sin ( dhanb, thanb
) as anything that goes against the commands of God ( Allah) Allah). Islam teaches that sin is an act and
not a state of being. The Qur'an teaches that "the soul is certainly prone to evil evil,, unless the Lord does bestow His Mercy" and that even 12:53]] the prophets do not absolve themselves of the blame. blame.[Quran 12:53 It is believed that Iblis Iblis((Satan) has a significant role in tempting
humankind towards sin. In Islam, there are several gradations of sin:
sayyia, khatia : mistakes (Suras 7:168; 17:31; 40:45; 47:19 48:2)
itada, junah, dhanb: immorality (Suras 2:190,229; 17:17 33:55)
haraam: transgressions (Suras 5:4; 6:146)
ithm, dhulam, fujur, su, fasad, fisk, kufr : wickedness and depravity (Suras 2:99, 205; 4:50, 112, 123, 136; 12:79; 38:62; 82:14)
shirk : ascribing a partner to God; idolatry and polytheism (Sura 4:48)
One may sincerely repent to God for the wrongs committed and seek forgiveness, as stated in the Quran, "Our Lord! Forgive us our sins, remove from us our iniquities, and take to Yourself our souls in the company of the righteous." (Al-Imran.193/ 3.193). "Say Oh my slaves who have transgressed against their own souls despair not of the mercy of God, verily He forgives all sins, verily He is the oft-forgiving, most merciful" (Al-Zumar)
Judaism[edit edit]] Main article: Jewish views on sin
Judaism regards the violation of any of the 613 commandments as a sin. Judaism teaches that sin is an act, but one has an inclination to do evil "from his youth".( youth". (Genesis 8:21) 8:21 ) Sin furthermore has many classifications classifications and degrees. Some sins are punishable with death by
the court, others with death by heaven, others with lashes, and others without such punishment, but not without consequence. Sins can also be by error and negligence or with willful intent. When the Temple yet stood in Jerusalem, people would offer sacrifices for their misdeeds. With some exceptions, sin offerings were brought for a sin punishable by death when done with willful intent, but committed by mistake. All sin has a consequence. The righteous suffer their sins in this world and receive their reward in the world to come. The wicked cannot correct their sins in this world and hence do not suffer them here, but in gehinom (hell). If they have not become completely corrupted, they repent in hell and thereafter join the righteous. The very evil do not repent even at the gates of hell. Such people prosper in this world to receive their reward for any good deed, but cannot be cleansed by and hence leave gehinom, because they don't or can't repent. This world can therefore seem unjust where the righteous suffer, while the wicked prosper. Many great thinkers have contemplated this, but God's justice is long, precise and j ust.
Shinto[edit edit]] Evil deeds fall into two categories in Shinto: amatsu tsumi , "the most pernicious crimes of all", and kunitsu tsumi , "more commonly called misdemeanors". misdemeanors".[14]
edit]] See also[edit Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: to : Sin
Asceticism
Fall of Man
Hamartia
Hedonism
Internal sin
Morality
Religious law
Sin-offering
Taboo
Total depravity
Total Sanguine
Catholic Terms
Actual sin
Mortal sin
Original sin
Venial sin
Guilt (emotion) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Guilt (disambigu (disambiguation) ation)..
"Guilty" redirects here. For other uses, see Guilty (disambiguation (disambiguation)) .
or believes —accurately or not —that he or she has Guilt is a cognitive or an emotional experience that occurs when a person realizes or believes compromised his or her own standards of conduct or has violated a moral standard, and bears significant responsibility for that violation. violation.[1] It is closely related to the concept of remorse remorse.. Contents [hide hide]]
1 Psychology o
1.1 Defences
o
1.2 Lack of guilt in psyc hopaths
o
1.3 Causes (etiology)
1.3.1 Evolutionary theories
1.3.2 Social psychology theories
1.3.3 Other theories
2 Collective guilt 3 Cultural views o
3.1 Etymology
o
3.2 In literature
o
3.3 In the Bible
4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links
edit]] Psychology[edit Guilt is an important factor in perpetuating Obsessive –compulsive disorder symptoms disorder symptoms..[2] Guilt and its associated causes, merits, and demerits are common themes in psychology psychologya and psychiatry psychiatry.. Both in specialized and in ordinary language, guilt is an affective state in which one experiences conflict at having done something that one believes one should not have done (or conversely, having not done something one believes one should have done). done). It gives rise to a feeling which does not go away easily, driven by 'conscience 'conscience '. Sigmund Freud described this as the result of a struggle between the ego and the superego - parental imprinting. Freud rejected the role of God as punisher in times of illness or rewarder in time of wellness. While removing one source of guilt from patients, he described another. This was the unconscious unconscious force within the individual that contributed to illness, Freud in fact coming to consider "the obstacle of an unconscious sense of guilt...as the most powerful of all obstacles to recovery. "[3] For his later explicator, Lacan Lacan,, guilt was the inevitable companion of the signifying subject who acknowledged normality in the form of the Symbolic order .[4]
Alice Miller claims Miller claims that "many people suffer all their lives from this oppressive feeling of guilt, the sense of not having lived up to their parents' expectations....no argument argument can overcome these guilt feelings, for t hey have their beginnings in life's earliest period, and from that they derive their intensity." intensity."[5] This may be linked to what Les Parrott has called "the disease of false guilt....At the root of false guilt is the idea that what you feel must must be true." true. "[6] If you feel guilty, guilty, you must be guilty! The philosopher Martin philosopher Martin Buber underlined Buber underlined the difference between the Freudian notion of guilt, based on internal conflicts, and existential others .[7] guilt , based on actual harm done to others. Guilt is often associated with anxiety anxiety.. In mania mania,, according to Otto Fenichel, Fenichel , the patient succeeds in applying to guilt "the defense mechanism of denial by overcompensation...re-enacts overcompensation...re-enacts being a person without guilt feelings. "[8] In psychological research, guilt can be measured by using questionnaires, such as the Differential Emotions Scale (Izard's DES), or the Dutch Guilt Measurement Instrument .[citation needed ]
Defences[edit edit]] Fenichel points out that "mastery of guilt feelings may become the all-consuming task of a person's whole life...'counter-guilt.' life...'counter-guilt.' "[9] Various techniques are possible, including includin grepression repression.. Freud pointed out that "as a rule t he ego carries out repressions in the service and at the behest of its superego; but this is a case in which it has turned the same weapon against its harsh taskmaster. "[10] The problem, according to Eric Berne, Berne, is that because the superego is "a jealous master whose punishments are difficult to avoid", one may (in a return of the repressed) "begin to feel guilty many years afterwards and perhaps break down...under the long-continued reproaches of the Superego." Superego."[11] Projection is another defensive tool with wide applications. It may take the form of blaming the victim: victim : The victim of someone else's accident or bad luck may be offered criticism, the theory being that the victim may be at fault for having attracted the other person's hostility. hostility.[12] Alternatively, in in Fenichel's words, words, "the superego is reprojected onto external objects objects for the purpose of getting rid of guilt feelings...using external objects as "witnesses" in the fight against the superego. "[13] Here the danger is of creating ideas of reference. reference . Another form of Projection of Projection i is s self-harm or self-blame. "Guilty people punish themselves if they have no opportunity to compensate the transgression that caused them to feel guilty. It was found that self-punishment did not occur if people had an opportunity to compensate the victim of their tr ansgression. ansgression. "[14] Some forms of self-inflicted punishment are self-denied pleasure, or not allowing oneself to enjoy opportunities or benefits due to guilty feelings that cannot be resolved through compensation.
Lack of guilt in psychopaths[edit edit]] Psychopaths l Psychopaths lack ack any true sense of guilt or remorse for harm they may have caused to others. Instead, they rationalize their behavior, blame someone else, or deny or deny it outright. outright.[15]This is seen by psychologists as part of a lack of moral reasoning (in comparison with the majority of humans), an inability to evaluate situations in a moral framework, and an inability to develop emotional bonds with other people. people.[16] Also known as sociopathy sociopathy or antisocial or antisocial personality disorder , disorder , this psychopathic lack of guilt used to be termed 'moral insanity'. insanity'.[17] However, others suggest that the psychopath is in f act driven by a very severe but unconscious sense of guilt. guilt .[18]
edit]] Causes (etiology)[edit
[ edit edit ] E v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r i e s [ Some evolutionary psychologists theorize that guilt and shame helped maintain beneficial relationships, such as reciprocal altruism. altruism .[19] If a person feels guilty when he harms another, or even fails to reciprocate kindness, he is more likely not to harm others or become too selfish. In this way, he reduces the chances of retaliation by members of his tribe, and thereby increases his survival prospects, and those of the tribe or group. As with any other emotion, guilt can be manipulated to control or influence others. As a highly social animal living in large groups that are relatively stable, we need ways to deal with conflicts and events in which we inadvertently or purposefully harm others. If someone causes harm t o another, and then feels guilt and demonstrates regret and sorrow, the person harmed is likely to forgive. Thus, guilt makes it possible to forgive, and helps hold t he social group together.
[ [edit e dit ] Social psychology theories When we see another person suffering, it can also cause us pain. This constitutes our powerful system of empathy, which leads to our thinking that we should do something to relieve the suffering of others. If we cannot help another, or fail in our efforts, we experience feelings of guilt. From the perspective of group selection, groups that are made up of a high percentage of co-operators outdo groups with a low percentage of co-operators in between-group competition. People who are more prone to high levels of empathy-based guilt may be likely to suffer from anxiety and depression; however, they are also more likely to cooperate and behave altruistically. This suggests that guilt-proneness may not always be beneficial at the level of the individual, or within-group competition, but highly beneficial in between-group competition. competition .[citation needed ]
[ [ edit edit ] Other theories Another common notion notion is that guilt guilt is assigned by social processes, processes, such as a jury trial (i. e., that it is a strictly legal concept). Thus, the ruling of a jury that O.J. Simpson or Julius Julius Rosenberg was "guilty" or "not innocent" is taken as an actual judgment by the whole society that they must act as if they were so. By c orollary, the ruling that such a person is "not guilty" may not be so taken, due to the asymmetry in the assumption that one is assumed innocent until proven guilty , and prefers to take the risk of freeing a guilty party over convicting innocents. Still others —often, but not always, theists of one type or another —believe that the origin of guilt comes from violating universal principles of right and wrong. In most instances, people who believe this also acknowledge that even though there is proper guilt from doing 'wrong' instead of doing 'right,' people endure all sorts of guilty feelings which do not stem from violating universal moral principles.
edit]] Collective guilt[edit This section is written like a personal reflection or opinion essay rather than an encyclopedic description of the subject. Please help improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic style. style. (April 2013)
Collective guilt (or group guilt) is the unpleasant and often emotional reaction that results among a group of individuals when it is perceived that the group illegitimately harmed members of another group. It is often the result of ―sharing a social identity with others
whose actions represent a threat to the positivity of that identity.‖ identity. ‖[20] Different intergroup inequalities can result in collective guilt, such as receiving unearned benefits and privileges or inflicting more extreme forms of harm on an out-group (including genocide genocide)). Individuals are generally motivated to avoid collective guilt in order to maintain a positive social identity. There are many ways of decreasing collective guilt, such as denying harm or justifying actions. Collective guilt can also lead t o positive outcomes, such as promoting intergroup reconciliation and reducing negative attitudes towards the out-group .[citation needed ]
There are several causes of collective guilt: salient group identity, collective responsibility, responsibility, and perception of unjust in-group actions. In order for an individual to experience collective guilt, he must identify himself himself as a part of the in- group. ―This produces a perceptual shift from thinking of oneself in terms of ‗I‘ and ‗me‘ to ‗us‘ or ‗ we‘.‖ we‘. ‖ [20] Only when an individual is salient with the in-group can he or she
perceive responsibility for the harmful actions of the group, past and present. In addition to in-group salience, an individual will only feel collective guilt if he or she views the in-group as responsible for the harmful actions done to the out-group. For instance, in two st udies by the American Mosaic Project, racial inequality in the United States was framed as either ―Black Disadvantage‖ or ―White Pr ivilege.‖
When the term ―black disadvantage‖ was used to describe racial inequality, white participants felt less collectively responsible responsible for the harm done to the out- group, which lessened collective guilt. In comparison, when ―white privilege‖ was used, white participants felt more collectively responsible for the harm done, which increased collective guilt .[citation needed ] . Lastly, an individual has to believe the actions caused by the in-group were unjustifiable, indefensible, indefensible, and unforgivable. If an individual can justify the actions of t he in-group, this will lessen collective guilt. Only when an individual views the in-group actions as reprehensible will that individual feel collective guilt. Collective guilt is not only a result of feelin g empathy for the out-group. It can also be caused by self-conscious emotion that stems from the questioning of the morality of the in-group .[citation needed ] There are various methods of reducing collective guilt. Some of these methods are denying the in - group‘s harmful actions, denying responsibility responsibility,, claiming actions by the in-group were just, focusing on positive aspects caused by t he harmful action, and pointing out positive things in other areas to counterbalance the harm. First, by denying the in- group‘s harmful actions, or downplaying or downplaying the severity of the harm, the effect of collective guilt is lessened. If the individual or group can neglect to observe the harm caused by their actions, either consciously or unconsciously, then the individual will not feel collective guilt. If a person does not feel that the in-group is responsible for the harm caused by actions, collective guilt will be lessened. Additionally, if a person believes th at only individuals are responsible for their own actions, and not a collective group, then they can deny the existence of collective responsibility, thereby reducing feelings of collective guilt. An individual can rationalize the actions of the in -group. If the individual believes that there were just reasons for the harm inflicted, collective guilt is likely to be reduced. For instance, out-group dehumanization is one effective means towards justifying the in- group‘s actions. By focusing on the positive aspects of the in-group‘s actions rather than the harmful effects, collective guilt can be reduced. For instance, an individual or group may choose to focus on the benefits of high levels of production and consumption, rather than on its harmful effects on the environment .[citation needed ]
edit]] Cultural views[edit This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed removed.. (June 2009)
Traditional Traditional Japanese society, society , Korean society and Chinese culture[21] are sometimes said to be "shame shame--based" rather than "guilt-based", in that the social consequences of "getting caught" are seen as more important than the individual feelings or experiences of the agent (see the work of Ruth of Ruth Benedict) Benedict). The same has been said of Ancient of Ancient Greek society society,, a culture where, in Bruno Snell' Snell's words, if "honour is destroyed the moral existence of the loser c ollapses." ollapses. "[22] This may lead to more of a focus on etiquette than on ethics as understood in Western civilization, leading some [who?] in Western civilizations to question why the word ethos was adapted from Ancient from Ancient Greek with such vast differences in cultural norms. Christianity and Islam inherit most notions of guilt from Judaism Judaism,, Persian Persian,, and Roman ideas, mostly as interpreted
through Augustine through Augustine,, who adapted Plato Plato''s ideas to Christianity. Christianity. The Latin word for guilt is culpa, a word sometimes seen in law literature, for instance in mea culpameaning "my fault (guilt)."
edit]] Etymology[edit Guilt, from O.E. gylt "crime, "crime, sin, fault, fine, debt,", derived from O.E. gieldan "to pay for, debt." The mistaken use for "sense of guilt" is first recorded 1690. "Guilt by association" is first recorded in 1941. "Guilty" is from O.E. gyltig , from gylt .
edit]] In literature[edit Guilt is a main theme in John Steinbeck' Steinbeck 's East of Eden, Fyodor Dostoevsky' Dostoevsky 's Crime and Punishment , Tennessee Williams' A Streetcar Shakespeare's play Macbeth Macbeth,, Edgar Allan Poe' Poe's "The Tell-Tale Heart" Heart " and "The Black Cat" Cat ", and many other Named Desire , William Shakespeare' works of literature. In Sartre's The Flies, Flies, the Furies (in the form of flies) represent the morbid, strangling forces of neurotic guilt which bind us to authoritarian and totalitarian power .[23] Guilt is a major theme in many works by Nathaniel Hawthorne, Hawthorne, and is an almost universal concern of novelists who explore inner life inner life and secrets secrets..
edit]] In the Bible[edit Guilt in the Christian Bible is not merely an emotional state but is a legal state of deserving punishment. The Hebrew Bible does not have a unique word for guilt, but uses a single word t o signify: "sin, the guilt of it, the punishment due unto it, and a sacrifice for it. "[24] The Greek New Testament uses a word for guilt that means "standing exposed to judgment for sin" (e.g. Romans 3:19). In the Old Testament, the Bible says that through sacrifice one's sins can be forgiven. The New Testament says that this forgiveness is given as written in 1 Corinthians 15:3-4 "3 For what I received I passed on to you as of first importance[a]: that Christ died for our sins according to the Scriptures, 4 that he was buried, that he was raised on the third day according to the Scriptures." Some believe that the Old and New Testaments have differing opinions on the expiation of guilt because the Old Testaments Testaments were subject to the Age of Law and the New Testaments replace the Age of Law with the now current Age of Grace. However, both in the Old Testament and the New Testament salvation was granted based on God's grace and f orgiveness (Gen 6:8; 19:19; Exo 33:12-17; 34:6-7). Animal sacrifices were only a symbol of the future sacrifice of Jesus Christ (Heb 10:1-4; 9-12). The whole world is guilty before God for abandoning him and his ways (Rom 3:9). In Jesus Christ God took upon himself the sins of the world and died on the cross to pay our debt(Rom 6:23). Those who repent and accept the sacrifice of Jesus Christ for their sins, will be redeemed by God and thus not guilty before him. T hey will be granted eternal life which will take effect when Jesus comes the second time (1 Thess 4:13-18).
See also[edit edit]]
Conscience
Emotional blackmail
Catholic guilt
Georges Bataille
Good faith
Guilt society
Mea culpa
Nietzsche
Postponement of guilt
Shame
Survivor guilt
Contents [hide hide]]
1 Plot summary 2 Major themes o
2.1 Sin
o
2.2 Puritan legalism
3 Publication history 4 Critical response 5 Allusions 6 In popular culture 7 See also 8 References o
8.1 Notes
o
8.2 Bibliograph Bibliography y
9 External links
edit]] Plot summary[edit In June 1642, in the Puritan town of Boston, a crowd gathers to witness an official punishment. punishment. A young woman, Hester Prynne, has been found guilty of adultery and must wear a scarlet A on her dress as a sign of shame shame.. Furthermore, she must stand on the scaffold for three hours, exposed to public humiliation. As Hester approaches the scaffold, many of the women in the crowd are angered by her beauty and quiet dignity. When demanded and cajoled to name the father of her child, Hester refuses. As Hester looks out out over the crowd, crowd, she notices a small, small, misshapen man and recognizes recognizes him as her long-lost long-lost husband, who who has been presumed lost at sea. When the husband sees Hester's shame, he asks a man in the crowd about her and is told the story of his wife's adultery. He angrily exclaims that the child's father, the partner in the adulterous act, should also be punished and vows to find the man. He chooses a new name — Roger Chillingworth — to aid him in his plan. Reverend John Wilson and the minister of her church, Arthur Dimmesdale, question Hester, but she refuses to name her lover. After she returns to her prison cell, the jailer brings in Roger Chillingworth, a physician, to calm Hester and her child with his roots and herbs. Dismissing the jailer, Chillingworth first treats Pearl, Hester's baby, and then demands to know the name of the child's father. W hen Hester refuses, he insists that she never reveal that he is her husband. If she ever does so, he warns her, he will destroy the child's father. Hester agrees to Chillingworth's terms even though she suspects she will regret it. Following her release from prison, Hester settles in a cottage at the edge of town and earns a meager living with her needlework. She lives a quiet, somber life with her daughter, Pearl. She is troubled by her daughter's unusual character. As an infant, Pearl is fascinated
by the scarlet A. As she grows older, Pearl becomes capricious and unruly. Her conduct starts rumors, and, not surprisingly, the church members suggest Pearl be taken away from Hester. Hester, hearing the rumors that she may lose Pearl, goes to speak to Governor Bellingham. With him are Reverends Wilson and Dimmesdale. When Wilson questions Pearl about her catechism catechism,, she refuses to answer, even though she knows the correct response, thus jeopardizing her guardianship. Hester appeals to Reverend Dimmesdale in desperation, and the minister persuades the governor to let Pearl remain in Hester's care. Because Reverend Dimmesdale's health has begun to fail, the townspeople are happy to have Chillingworth, a newly arrived physician, take up lodgings with their beloved minister. Being in such close contact with Dimmesdale, Chillingworth begins to suspect that the minister's illness is the result of some unconfessed guilt. He applies psychological pressure to the minister because he suspects Dimmesdale to be Pearl's father. One evening, pulling the sleeping Dimmesdale's vestment aside, Chillingworth Chillingworth sees something startling on the sleeping minister's pale chest: a scarlet A. Tormented by his guilty conscience, Dimmesdale goes to the square where Hester was punished years earlier. Climbing the scaffold, he sees Hester and Pearl and calls to them to join him. He admits his guilt to them but cannot find the courage to do so publicly. Suddenly Dimmesdale sees a meteor forming what appears to be a gigantic A in the sky; simultaneously, Pearl points toward the shadowy figure of Roger Chillingworth. Hester, shocked by Dimmesdale's deterioration, decides to obtain a release from her vow of silence to her husband. In her discussion of this with Chillingworth, she tells him his obsession with revenge must be stopped in order to s ave his own soul. Several days later, Hester meets Dimmesdale in the forest, where she removes the scarlet letter from her dress and identifies her husband and his desire for revenge. In this conversation, she convinces Dimmesdale to leave Boston in secret on a ship to Eur ope where they can start life anew. Renewed by this plan, the minister seems to gain new energy. Pearl, however, refuses to acknowledge either of them until Hester replaces her symbol of shame on her dress. Returning to town, Dimmesdale loses heart in their plan: He has become a changed man and knows he is dying. Meanwhile, Hester is informed by the captain of the ship on which she arranged passage that Roger Chillingworth will also be a passenger. On Election Day, Dimmesdale gives what is declared to be one of his most inspired sermons. But as the procession leaves the church, Dimmesdale stumbles and almost falls. Seeing Hester and Pearl in the crowd watching the parade, he climbs upon the scaffold and confesses his sin, dying in Hester's arms. Later, witnesses swear swear that they saw a stigma in the f orm of a scarlet A upon his chest. Chillingworth, losing his revenge, dies shortly thereafter thereafter and leaves Pearl a great deal of money, enabling her to go to Europe with her mother and make a wealthy marriage. Several years later, Hester returns to Boston, resumes wearing the scarlet letter, and becomes a person to whom other women turn for solace. When she dies, she is buried near the grave of Dimmesdale, and they share a simple slate tombstone with a scarlet A.
edit]] Major themes[edit
Nathaniel Hawthorne
Sin[edit edit]] The experience of Hester and Dimmesdale recalls the story of Adam of Adam and Eve because, in both cases, sin results in expulsion and suffering. But it also results in knowledge —specifically, specifically, in knowledge of what it means to be immoral. For Hester, the scarlet letter functions as "her passport into regions where other women dared not tread", leading her to "speculate" about her society and herself more "boldly" than anyone else in New England. As for Dimmesdale, Dimmesdale, the "cheating minister", minister", his sin gives gives him "sympathies "sympathies so intimate intimate with the sinful brotherhood brotherhood of mankind, mankind, so that his chest vibrate[s] in unison with theirs." His eloquent and powerful sermons derive from this sense of empathy .[2] The narrative of the Reverend Arthur Dimmesdale is quite in keeping with the oldest and most fully authorized principles in Christian thought. His "Fall" is a descent from apparent grace to his own damnation; he appears to begin in purity but he ends in corruption. The subtlety is that the minister's belief is his own cheating, convincing himself at every stage of his spiritual pilgrimage that he is saved. saved .[3] The rose bush, its beauty a striking contrast to all that surrounds it —as later the beautifully embroidered scarlet A will be –is held out in part as an invitation to find "some sweet moral blossom" in the ensuing, tragic tale and in part as an image that "the deep heart of nature" (perhaps God) may look more kind on the errant Hester and her child than her Puritan neighbors do. Throughout the work, the nature images contrast with the stark darkness of the Puritans and their systems . [4] Chillingworth's misshapen body reflects (or symbolizes) the anger in his soul, which builds as the novel progresses, similar to the way Dimmesdale's illness reveals his inner turmoil. The outward man reflects the condition of the heart; an observation thought t o be inspired by the deterioration of Edgar of Edgar Allan Poe, Poe , whom Hawthorne "much admired". admired".[4] Although Pearl is a complex character, character, her primary function function within the novel is as a symbol. symbol. Pearl herself is is the embodiment embodiment of the scarlet letter, and Hester rightly clothes her in a beautiful dress of scarlet, embroidered with gold thread, just like the scarlet letter upon Hester's bosom. bosom.[2]
Puritan legalism[edit edit]]
Another theme is the extreme legalism legalism of the Puritans Puritans and how Hester chooses chooses not to conform conform to their rules and and beliefs. Hester Hester was rejected by the villagers even though she spent her life doing what she could to help the sick and the poor. Because they rejected her, she spent her life mostly in solitude, and wouldn't go to church. As a result, she retreats retreats into her own own mind and her own own thinking. Her thoughts begin to stretch and go beyond what would be considered by the Puritans as safe or even Christian. She still sees her sin, but begins to look on it differently than the villagers ever have. She begins to believe that a person's earthly sins don't necessarily condemn condemn them. She even goes so far as to tell Dimmesdale that their sin has been paid for by their daily penance and that their sin won't keep them from getting to heaven, however, the Puritans believed believed that such a sin surely condemns. But Hester had been alienated from the Puritan society, both in her physical life and spiritual life. When Dimmesdale dies, she knows she has to move on because she can no longer conform to the Puritans' strictness. Her thinking is free from religious bounds and she has established her own different moral standards and beliefs. beliefs .[2]
edit]] Publication history[edit
Hester Prynne at the stocks - an engraved illustration from an 1878 edition.
It was long thought that Hawthorne originally planned The Scarlet Letter to to be a shorter novelette shorter novelette which was part of a collection to be named Old Time Legends and that his publisher, James Thomas Fields, Fields , convinced him to expand the work to a full-length nove l.[5] This is not true: Fields persuaded Hawthorne to publish The Scarlet Letter alone alone (along with the earlier-completed "Custom House" essay) but he had nothing to do with the length of the story. story .[6] Hawthorne's wife Sophia later challenged Fields' claims a little inexactly: "he has made the absurd boast that he was the sole cause of the Scarlet Letter being published!" She noted that her husband's friend Edwin Percy Whipple, Whipple, a critic, approached Fields to consider its publication. publication .[7] The manuscript was written at the Peter Edgerley House inSalem, Massachusett Massachusetts s , still standing as a private residence at 14 Mall Street. It was the last Salem home where the Hawthorne family lived. lived.[8]
was published as a novel in the spring of 1850 by Ticknor & Fields, beginning Hawthorne's most lucrative The Scarlet Letter was period. period.[9]When he delivered the final pages to Fields in February 1850, Hawthorne said that "some portions of the book are powerfully written" but doubted it would be popular .[10] In fact, the book was an instant best-selle r [11] though, over fourteen years, it brought its author only $1,500. $1,500 .[9] Its initial publication brought wide protest from natives of Salem, who did not approve of how Hawthorne had depicted them in his introduction "The Custom-House". A 2,500-copy second edition of The Scarlet Letter included included a preface by Hawthorne dated March 30, 1850, that stated he had decided to reprint his introduction "without the change of a word... The only remarkable features of the sketch are its frank and genuine good-humor... As to enmity enmity,, or ill-feeling of any kind, personal or political, he utterly disclaims such motives". motives" .[12] was also one of the first mass-produced books in America. Into the mid-nineteenth century, bookbinders of homeThe Scarlet Letter was grown literature typically hand-made their books and sold them in small quantities. The first mechanized printing of The Scarlet Letter , 2,500 volumes, sold out within ten days, days ,[9] and was widely read and discussed to an extent not much experienced in the young country up until that time. Copies of the first edition are often sought by collectors as rare books, and may fetch up to around $18,000 USD USD..
edit]] Critical response[edit On its publication, critic Evert Augustus Duyckinck, Duyckinck , a friend of Hawthorne's, said he preferred the author's Washington IrvingIrving -like tales. Another friend, critic critic Edwin Percy Whipple, Whipple, objected to the novel's "morbid intensity" with dense psychological details, writing that the book "is therefore apt t o become, like Hawthorne, too painfully anatomical in his exhibition of them" .[13] Most literary critics praised the [14]] book but religious leaders took issue with t he novel's subject matter . matter .[14 Orestes Brownson complained that Hawthorne did not
understand Christianity, confession, and remorse. [citation needed ] A review in The Church Review and Ecclesiastical Register concluded the author "perpetrates bad morals." morals. "[15] [16]
Henry James once said of the novel, "It is beautiful, admirable, extraordinary; it has in the highest degree that merit which I have
spoken of as the mark of Hawthorne's best things--an indefinable purity and lightness of conception...One conception...One can often return to it; it supports familiarity and has the inexhaustible charm and mystery of great works of art. "[17] The book's immediate and lasting success are due t o the way it addresses spiritual and moral issues from a uniquely American standpoint. standpoint.[citation needed ] In 1850, adultery was an extremely risqué subject, but because Hawthorne had the support of the New England literary establishment, it passed easily into the realm of appropriate reading. It has been said [who?] that this work represents the height of Hawthorne's literary genius, dense with terse descriptions. It remains relevant for its philosophical and psychological depth, and continues to be read as a classic tale on a universal theme .[18]
edit]] Allusions[edit The following are historical and Biblical references that appear in The Scarlet Letter.
Anne Hutchinson, Hutchinson, mentioned in Chapter 1, The Prison Door, was a religious dissenter (1591 –1643). In the 1630s she was excommunicated by the Puritans and exiled from fro mBoston and moved to Rhode Island. Island.[4]
Ann Hibbins, Hibbins, who historically was executed for witchcraft in Boston in 1656, is depicted in The Scarlet Letter as as a witch who tries to tempt Prynne to the practice of witchcraft. witchcraft .[19][20]
Richard Bellingham, Bellingham, who historically was the governor of Massachusetts and deputy governor at the time of Hibbins's execution, was depicted in The Scarlet Letter as as the brother of Ann Hibbins.
Martin Luther (1483 Luther (1483 –1545) was a leader of the Protestant Reformation in Germany.
Sir Thomas Sir Thomas Overbury and Dr. Forman were the subjects of an adultery scandal in 1615 in England. Dr. Forman was charged with trying to poison his adulterous wife and her lover. Overbury was a friend of the lover and was perhaps poisoned.
John Winthrop (1588 –1649), second governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Colony .
King's Chapel Burying Ground, Ground, mentioned in the f inal paragraph, exists; the Elizabeth Pain gravestone is traditionally considered an inspiration for the protagonists' grave.
The story of King David and Bathsheba is depicted in the tapestry in Mr. Dimmesdale's room (chapter 9). (See II Samuel 11-12 for the Biblical story.)
edit]] In popular culture[edit See also: also: Film adaptations of The Scarlet Letter and Letter and The The Scarlet Letter in popular culture
has been adapted to numerous films, plays and operas and remains frequently referenced in modern popular The Scarlet Letter has culture.. The Scarlet Letter was culture was also the basis for the 2010 film Easy A, the story of Olive Penderghast (Emma Stone) Stone) who experiences the same isolation Hester Prynne undergoes in the novel, but in a reversed way. In the film, she was originally singled out for being the only virgin girl on campus, and becomes popular after she tells the school that she had sex with a homosexual male classmate, who was also picked on for his sexuality. The plot of the novel The Brooklyn Follies by Paul Auster revolves around the manuscript of The Scarlet Letter .
edit]] See also[edit
