INSTITUTO DE MEDICINA INTEGRAL PROFESSOR FERNANDO FIGUEIRA ESCOLA POLITÉCNICA DE SAÚDE DO IMIP
MARIA CAROLINA LOPES GRANJA
MATERIAL DIDÁTICO - Psicologia -
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CURSO
TÉCNICO EM RADIOLOGIA
CURSO
TÉCNICO EM ENFERMAGEM
DISCIPLINA PSICOLOGIA
DISCIPLINA PSICOLOGIA
CARGA HORÁRIA
CARGA HORÁRIA
20 h/a
Competências e Habilidades
Situar o aluno em relação aos aspectos gerais e conceituais da Psicologia.
40 h/a
Conteúdo Programático I- Psicologia Geral:
Caracterizar alguns processos psicológicos básicos, tais como: a percepção do corpo, da sociedade e da cultura.
Estruturalismo Funcionalismo Behaviorismo Gestalt Psicanálise Humanismo
II- Percepção
Situar o aluno nos conceitos de saúdedoença, diagnostico e tratamento, sob o olhar da Psicologia.
Do Corpo Do Sujeito Da Sociedade e Cultura
III- Teoria Humanista
Identificar princípios éticos para um relacionamento saudável com os pacientes e no Exercitar a humanização no trabalho do técnico em radiologia no seu dia a dia.
METODOLOGIA
Conceito de Saúde Conceito de Diagnostico e Tratamento
Exposição de filmes.
A metodologia tem como finalidade subsidiar os processos de desenvolvimento
AVALIAÇÃO DA APRENDIZAGEM
e de construção das competências indispensáveis à prática profissional.
A
verificação
da
aprendizagem
será
contínua e cumulativa no processo ensinoA abordagem didática voltada à construção construção
aprendizagem através de:
dos conhecimentos é fundamentada • Aplicação de testes;
através de:
• Trabalho de grupo;
Aulas expositivas; Aulas Práticas em laboratório
•Desenvolvimento
das
competências e habilidades nas
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Após alguma reflexão mais ou menos demorada você escolheu realizar um curso técnico na área de saúde. E eis que os seus planos começam a se tornar realidade. Nesta fase é normal ter dúvidas, dúvidas, sentir uma certa preocupação. E a curiosidade faz com que você busque busque novas informações e procure descobrir como será a sua realidade profissional. Quem atua profissionalmente no setor saúde deve estar apto a lidar com pessoas de todos os tipos, de todas as crenças, com todos os valores morais e com todo tipo de sofrimento (seja ele de ordem física ou mental). E este sofrimento causado pela doença tornase ainda mais intenso em virtude do processo de hospitalização, da distância da família e das atividades cotidianas, dos seus medos e inseguranças. Deste modo, é fundamental que você compreenda certos aspectos psicológicos envolvidos na saúde e no adoecimento, ampliando a visão de que somente o corpo sofre com a doença (ou de que somente o paciente sofre...). É preciso refletir sobre as relações humanas, humanas, sobre o papel da família e sobre os aspectos motivacionais que lhe ajudarão, futuro profissional, a conduzir os atendimentos da melhor maneira maneira possível. Nestes casos, a Psicologia tem muito a contribuir, fornecendo subsídios à compreensão da subjetividade humana e dos processos de construção de significados. Além disso, os estudos em Psicologia podem ajudar a se conhecer melhor e a encontrar novas formas de lidar com a dor e o sofrimento (tanto os seus quanto os dos pacientes com os quais se encontrará), para que suas práticas reflitam verdadeiramente verdadeiramente a intenção de promover o cuidado, e não a simples adoção de certas medidas técnicas. Com esta apostila, esperamos que você encontre pelo menos algumas das respostas que procura no que tange à ciência psicológica, refletindo sempre sobre as implicações práticas destes pressupostos teóricos. t eóricos. Lembre-se: o aluno aluno que você é hoje diz muito sobre o profissional que você será em breve. Então, não deixe de buscar, buscar, de investigar, investigar, de questionar, de refletir e acima de tudo, de apostar em uma forma mais humana e solidária de atuar como técnico na área de saúde.
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CAPÍTULO 1: Introdução ao estudo da Psicologia
5
1.1. Psicologia: uma forma de conhecer o mundo ............................................................... 5 1.2. Os tipos de conhecimento ............................................................................................ 6 1.3. Um breve histórico ...................................................................................................... 7 1.4. A Psicologia como ciência ........................................................................................... 7 1.4.1. Funcionalismo ..................................................................................................... 8 1.4.2. Estruturalismo ..................................................................................................... 8 Para aprofundar a discussão: discussão: Nativismo versus empirismo .................................. ......................................... ....... 9
CAPÍTULO 2: Teorias da Personalidade
10
2.1. O que é personalidade? .............................................................................................. 10 2.2. Psican Psicanálise álise .................................. ................................................... .................................. .................................. ................................... ............................ .......... 11 2.2.1. A teoria topográfica ........................................................................................... 11 2.2.2. A teoria estrutural .............................................................................................. 12 2.3. Behavi Behaviorism orismoo ................................... .................................................... .................................. .................................. .................................. ...................... ..... 13 2.4. Teorias humanistas .................................................................................................... 14 Para aprofundar a discussão: discussão: Os mecanismos de defesa ................................. ........................................... .......... 15
CAPÍTULO 3: Afetividade e percepção percepção
16
3.1. A vida afetiva afetiva ................................... .................................................... .................................. .................................. .................................. ...................... ..... 16 3.1.1. 3.1.1. Os afetos afetos .................................. ................................................... .................................. .................................. .................................. ...................... ..... 16 3.1.2. As emoções ....................................................................................................... 17 3.1.3. Os sentimentos .................................................................................................. 17 3.2. Percepçã Percepçãoo ................................ ................................................. .................................. .................................. ................................... ............................... ............. 17 3.2.1. Percepção Percepção de corpo, de si e de sociedade sociedade .................. ........ ................... .................. .................. ................... .............. .... 18 3.3. Relações entre afetividade e percepção ...................................................................... 20 Para aprofundar a discussão: discussão: Afetividade e sexualidade ................................. ........................................... .......... 21
CAPÍTULO 4: Desenvolvimento Desenvolvimento humano
22
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4.2. As fases do desenvolvimento ..................................................................................... 23 4.2.1. A teoria dos estágios de Jean Piaget................................................................... 24 Para aprofundar a discussão: discussão: As fases psicossexuais do desenvolvimento............... desenvolvimento ................... 26
CAPÍTULO 5: Relações humanas
27
5.1. A vida em grupo ........................................................................................................ 27 5.2. Líder e liderança ........................................................................................................ 28 5.3. Motivaçã Motivaçãoo ................................ ................................................. .................................. .................................. ................................... ............................... ............. 29 5.4. A comunicação interpessoal ....................................................................................... 30 Para aprofundar a discussão: discussão: Sobre a ética e o sigilo profissional ............................ ............................ 32
CAPÍTULO 6: Reflexões sobre a normalidade normalida de
33
6.1. Conversando sobre a normalidade .............................................................................. 33 6.2. Loucura e estigma ...................................................................................................... 35 Para aprofundar a discussão: discussão: A reforma psiquiátrica .................................. ............................................... ............. 37
CAPÍTULO 7: Sobre o adoecimento e a morte
38
7.1. Diagnóstico e tratamento ........................................................................................... 38 7.2. Implicações psicológicas do adoecimento .................................................................. 39 7.3. Enfrentando a morte .................................................................................................. 40 Para aprofundar a discussão: discussão: A notícia ............................... ................................................. .................................... .................... 43
CAPÍTULO 8: Humanização Humanização e cuidado
44
8.1. Humanizar é preciso .................................................................................................. 44 8.2. Humanização e cuidado ............................................................................................. 46 8.3. Cuidar de si para cuidar do outro ............................................................................... 46 Para aprofundar a discussão: discussão: Como ser um profissional humanizado? humanizado? ..................... ..................... 48
Referências Bibliográficas ................................................................................................. 49
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Fonte: a autora
Para início de conversa... - Qual a importância da construção do conhecimento para o ser humano? - Como você definiria a Psicologia? - De que modo a Psicologia pode ajudar na sua prática profissional?
1.1. Psicologia: uma forma de conhecer o mundo Você já percebeu que o ser humano sempre busca explicar e compreender os fenômenos que acontecem a sua volta? Isso ocorre porque a construção do conhecimento é um processo indispensável à adaptação do indivíduo, já que é preciso conhecer o mundo para que se possa agir efetivamente nele 3. As pessoas não buscam apenas compreender os fenômenos que ocorrem no mundo exterior. Ao contrário, muitos fenômenos que se passam dentro delas também são alvo de
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Acontece que muitos dos conhecimentos que adotamos em nosso dia-a-dia provêm não dos livros e artigos art igos científicos, e sim das práticas cotidiana cot idianas. s. Esse tipo de conhecimento conhecimento é denominado conhecimento do senso comum.
Conhecimento do senso comum : conhecimento intuitivo e espontâneo gerado nas práticas cotidianas, baseado baseado em tentativas t entativas e erros 2. Muitos dos conhecimentos originalmente produzidos pela ciência são, pouco a pouco, integrados ao conhecimento do senso comum construído por uma determinada sociedade 2. É por isso que não é raro ouvirmos frases como “aquela “ aquela menina é histérica” histérica” ou “aquele “aquele comportamento foi inconsciente”. inconsciente”. Como é possível observar, muitos conceitos psicológicos acabam sendo utilizados por pessoas comuns na tentativa de explicar certos comportamentos humanos ou aspectos relacionados ao funcionamento mental. Devido a esse processo de apropriação do conhecimento científico pelo senso comum, o termo psicologia é utilizado com os sentidos sent idos mais variados 2. Embora estes sentidos diversos nem sempre estejam comprometidos com a visão científica, há de se ressaltar que se trata de uma fonte de conhecimento que responde à finalidade de explicar os fenômenos do mundo. No entanto, um ponto merece merece atenção. Não podemos podemos afirmar que a psicologia do senso comum corresponda àquela adotada pelos psicólogos em sua prática profissional. Assim, é importante que você esteja atento às suas próprias “teorias” psicológicas aprendidas no cotidiano, pois estas não serão necessariamente as mesmas estudadas nesta apostila. Além do conhecimento do senso comum e do conhecimento científico, os seres humanos encontraram encontraram outras out ras formas de explicar os fenômenos do mundo em que vivem. vivem. Esse E sse será o tema do nosso próximo tópico de discussão. Vamos lá?
1.2. Os tipos de conhecimento Anteriormente, falamos sobre o conhecimento do senso comum, uma forma de conhecimento que se origina no cotidiano e que se constitui a partir da tradição (formas de refletir e agir sobre o mundo que passam de geração em geração), tornado-se hábito 2. Além dele, podemos falar em outros modos de conhecer e explicar o mundo, os quais
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Conhecimento científico : conjunto de conhecimentos sobre um determinado aspecto da realidade (objeto de estudo), expresso por meio de uma linguagem precisa e rigorosa. Caracteriza-se por possuir métodos e técnicas específicas, processo cumulativo de conhecimento conhecimento e objetividade 2. O que você faz quando quer conhecer melhor uma determinada pessoa? Provavelmente você procura saber seu nome, idade, quem são seus pais, onde mora... Enfim, você procura buscar informações sobre a história de vida dessa pessoa, certo? Pois bem. Faremos o mesmo em relação à Psicologia Psicologia científica. cient ífica.
1.3. Um breve histórico As raízes da Psicologia (termo etimologicamente derivado de psyché, psyché, que significa 2 alma e logos, logos, que significa razão ) podem ser encontradas nos grandes filósofos da Grécia Antiga. Os mais famosos entre eles, Sócrates, Platão e Aristóteles, fizeram perguntas fundamentais sobre a vida mental: “o que é a consciência? As pessoas são intrinsecamente racionais ou irracionais? Existe realmente livre-arbítrio?” livre-arbítrio? ”1.
Psicologia: termo etimologicamente derivado de psyché, psyché, que significa alma e logos, logos, que significa razão. Além das questões relacionadas à vida mental, os aspectos fisiológicos do corpo e o comportamento humano também geraram profundo interesse dentre os antigos filósofos, impactando profundamente profundamente nas origens da Psicologia Psicolog ia enquanto ciência 1. Embora filósofos e estudiosos continuassem interessados no funcionamento tanto da mente quanto do corpo ao longo dos séculos, geralmente considera-se que a Psicologia científica começou em 1879, quando Wilhelm Wundt montou o primeiro laboratório de Psicologia na Alemanha. Wundt acreditava que a mente e o comportamento poderiam ser tratados como objeto de análise científica. A forma encontrada por este autor para estudar as questões psicológicas foi associá-las aos sentidos, em especial à visão 1.
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Psicologia: ciência que estuda o comportamento humano e os processos mentais. Embora a Psicologia científica tenha nascido na Alemanha, foi nos Estados Unidos que ela encontrou campo para um rápido crescimento. Ali surgiram as primeiras abordagens ou escolas em Psicologia, que deram origem às inúmeras teorias psicológicas existentes na atualidade. São elas: o Funcionalismo, o Estruturalismo e o Associacionismo 2.
1.4.1. Funcionalismo Funcionalismo O Funcionalismo foi fundado por William James com o objetivo de responder a questões como “o que fazem os homens? hom ens?”” e “por que o fazem? fazem ?”. Para atingir este objetivo, a consciência foi eleita como objeto de estudo, estando os funcionalistas comprometidos em investigar como ela é utilizada pelos homens para se adaptarem ao meio em que vivem 2.
1.4.2. Estruturalismo Estruturalismo O Estruturalismo , fundado por Edward Titchner, investigava a consciência humana através de seus aspectos estruturais. Ou seja, investigava-se os estados elementares da consciência como estruturas do sistemas nervoso central 2.
1.4.3. Associacionismo Associacionismo O primeiro representante do associacionismo foi Edward. L. Torndike. O termo associacionismo originou-se da concepção de que a aprendizagem se dá por um processo de associação das ideias – das mais simples às mais complexas. Assim, para aprender um conteúdo complexo, complexo, a pessoa precisaria precisaria primeiro aprender as ideias mais simples que estariam 2 associadas àquele conteúdo .
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PARA APROFUNDAR A DISCUSSÃO...
Nativismo versus empirismo Um dos debates mais antigos sobre a psicologia humana ainda continua acirrado na atualidade. Ele gira em torno da questão de as capacidades humanas serem inatas ou adquiridas através da experiência. A concepção nativista afirma que os seres humanos vêm ao mundo com um suprimento inato de conhecimento conhecimento e entendimento entendimento da realidade. realidade. Os primeiros pr imeiros filósofos acreditavam que este conhecimento e entendimento poderiam ser acessados por meio de cuidadoso raciocínio e introspecção. No século XVII, Descartes apoiou a visão nativista argumentando que algumas ideias (tais como Deus, o eu, axiomas geométricos, perfeição e eternidade) eternidade) são inatas. Descartes também é notável por sua concepção concepção do corpo como uma máquina que pode ser estudada do mesmo modo que estudamos outras. [...] A concepção empirista afirma que o conhecimento é adquirido pelas experiências e interações com o mundo. Embora alguns dos antigos filósofos gregos apoiassem esta visão, ela é mais fortemente associada ao filósofo inglês do século XVII John Locke. Segundo Locke, ao nascer, a mente humana é uma tábula rasa, ou lousa vazia, na qual a experiência “escreve” o conhecimento e o entendimento à medida que o indivíduo amadurece. Esta perspectiva deu deu origem à psicologia à psicologia associacionista. associacionista. [...] Na atualidade, o debate entre nativismo e empirismo é mencionado mencionado como debate natureza-experiência. Embora alguns psicólogos ainda argumentem que o pensamento e o comportamento humanos resultam da biologia ou primordialmente da experiência, a maioria dos psicólogos adota uma perspectiva mais integrada, reconhecendo que os processos biológicos (como a hereditariedade hereditariedade ou os processos cebebrais) influenciam influenciam os pensamentos, pensamentos, os sentimentos e o comportamento, mas que a experiência também deixa sua marca neles.[...] Referência: Attkinson, R. L., Smith, E. E., Bem, D, J., Nolen-Hoeksema, S. & Smith, C. D. (2002). Introdução (2002). Introdução à Psicologia de Hilgard . 13 ed. (D. Bueno trad.). São Paulo: Artmed. (adaptado).
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Fonte: imagem capturada na internet1.
Para início de conversa - Em sua opinião, o que é personalidade? - O que explica o fato de as pessoas serem tão diferentes entre si?
2.1. O que é personalidade?
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Personalidade: padrões distintivos e característicos de pensamentos, emoções e comportamentos que definem o estilo pessoal de interação de uma pessoa com o ambiente físico e social 2. Se, por um lado, a Biologia é capaz de explicar com bastante precisão o que temos em comum com os demais entes da nossa espécie, explicar as diferenças individuais tem sido uma tarefa árdua para diversas ciências, inclusive para a Psicologia. Por conta disso, muitos autores desta área buscaram – buscaram – ee continuam buscando – buscando – explicar explicar o fenômeno da personalidade. Algumas das teorias da personalidade ganharam destaque na ciência psicológica por seu poder explicativo. Três delas serão abordadas a seguir.
2.2. Psicanálise Sigmund Freud nasceu em maio de 1856 no país que atualmente é conhecido como República Tcheca. Tendo se formado em medicina e se especializado em psiquiatria, interessou-se pelos estudos sobre a histeria formulando ao longo de toda a sua vida um corpo teórico denominado Psicanálise Psicanálise 4. Através dos atendimentos clínicos que prestava aos pacientes (e também de sua autoanálise), Freud percebeu que cada pensamento, cada memória revivida, sentimento ou ação possui uma causa. causa. Ou seja, segundo ele, os processos mentais mentais (sejam eles conscientes ou não) são determinados pelos fatos que o antecederam. Além disso, Freud defendia que o corpo era a fonte básica de toda energia mental 4, dando mais ênfase aos eventos biológicos do que aos eventos ambientais na constituição da
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ou reprimido (ver boxe no final do capítulo). Este material não é esquecido ou perdido, mas não lhe é permitido ser lembrado. O pensamento ou a memória ainda afetam a consciência, mas apenas indiretamente 4. Um exemplo disso são certos sentimentos ou características que temos em nós que, por serem inaceitáveis (como sentir raiva do filho ou desejar que alguém querido morra), nós não percebemos ou negamos. pré-consciente: é uma parte do consciente, mas uma parte que pode tornar-se consciente c) o pré-consciente: com facilidade 4. As porções de memória que são acessíveis fazem parte do pré-consciente. São exemplos disso o seu número de CPF ou o telefone de sua casa. Você provavelmente não estava pensando neles até ler esta parte do texto. Porém, se desejar, poderá trazer tais informações facilmente à consciência. As constantes críticas quanto à incapacidade da teoria topográgica responder questões cruciais sobre os conflitos psíquicos levaram Freud a abandoná-la e a desenvolver uma segunda teoria do aparelho mental.
2.2.2. A teoria estrutural Ao reformular certos conceitos de sua teoria, Freud defendeu que o aparelho psíquico possuía três estruturas estruturas básicas básicas (daí o nome desta desta teoria), sendo sendo elas o id, o ego ego e o superego superego 4. a) o id : é o reservatório de energia de toda a personalidade, sendo a estrutura original, básica, central. O id é atemporal (ou seja, não comporta a noção de passado, presente ou futuro), sendo regido pelo princípio do prazer. Os instintos localizam-se aí.
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2.3. Behaviorismo O termo Behaviorismo foi inaugurado pelo americano Jonhn Watson em 1913. A behavior significa comportamento, que inicialmente era considerado por essa palavra inglesa behavior significa abordagem como objeto de estudo da Psicologia 3. Postulando o comportamento como objeto da Psicologia, Watson deu a esta ciência a consistência que os psicólogos da época vinham buscando – um objeto observável, mensurável, cujos experimentos poderiam ser reproduzidos em diferentes condições e sujeitos. Essas características foram importantes para que a Psicologia alcançasse o status de ciência, rompendo definitivamente com a sua tradição filosófica 3. Em contraste com a Psicanálise, a abordagem behaviorista enfatiza a importância dos determinantes ambientais ou situacionais do comportamento. Nesta concepção, o comportamento é o resultado da contínua interação entre as variáveis pessoais e ambientais 2. Os psicólogos behavioristas utilizam os termos “resposta” e estímulo” para se referirem àquilo que o organismo faz e às variáveis ambientais que interagem com o sujeito 3. O mais importante dos behavioristas que sucedeu Watson foi B. F. Skinner. Este contribuiu profundamente profundamente para a construção de conceitosconceitos-chave chave como: a) comportamento respondente (ou reflexo): são interações estímulo-resposta incondicionadas, nas quais certos eventos ambientais produzem certas respostas do organismo, organismo, independente independente de aprendizagem. Exemplo: dilatar a pupila em ambientes escuros. b) comportamento operante: operante: comportamentos que dependem da aprendizagem e que visam à
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2.4. Teorias humanistas Durante a primeira metade do século XX, as abordagens psicanalítica e behaviorista eram dominantes na Psicologia. Em 1962, contudo, um grupo de psicólogos fundou a Associação de Psicologia Humanista. Eles viam o humanismo como a “terceira força” da Psicologia, uma alternativa às outras o utras duas abordagens 2. Dentre os teóricos humanistas, o que mais teve t eve destaque pela pela sua obra o bra foi Carl Rogers. Ele acreditava que as pessoas possuem uma tendência inata para o crescimento, maturidade e mudança positiva. Tal pressuposto foi denominado tendên t endência cia de realização 2. Além da tendência de realização, outros conceitos fundamentais da teoria rogeriana (teoria proposta por Rogers) são: a) self a) self : termo que designa o eu ou o auto-conceito. auto-conceito. É formado formado pelo conjunto de ideias, ideias, valores 2 e percepções do sujeito sobre si mesmo . b) self b) self ideal : refere-se àquilo que cada um gostaria de ser. Assim, quanto mais próxima do self ideal, mais feliz e realizada será a pessoa 2. c) empatia: empatia: uma das atitudes três atitudes que um terapeuta rogeriano deve adotar. Refere-se à tendência de se colocar no lugar do outro sem, no entanto, se confundir com o outro 5. d) congruência: congruência: uma das atitudes três atitudes que um terapeuta rogeriano deve adotar. Estar congruente consigo mesmo é estar de acordo, estar harmônico. A harmonia implica um estar 5
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PARA APROFUNDAR A DISCUSSÃO...
Os mecanismos de defesa Diante de situações dolorosas e angustiantes da vida, o ser humano pode optar por utilizar estratégias de enfrentamento focalizadas nas emoções. Freud utilizou o termo mecanismos de defesa para se referir às estratégias inconscientes que as pessoas usam para lidar com a ansiedade. Tais estratégias não alteram em nada a situação, apenas muda o modo como a pessoa percebe ou pensa sobre ela. Assim, todos os mecanismos de defesa envolvem um elemento de auto-engan auto- engano. o. Todos usam mecanismos de defesa de vez em quando. Eles nos ajudam nos momentos difíceis até podermos lidar com as situações estressantes de maneira mais direta. Os mecanismos de defesa só causam inadaptação quando se tornam o modo dominante de responder aos problemas.[...] São exemplos de mecanismos de defesa a repressão (através dela, memórias ou impulsos perigosos ou dolorosos são excluídos da consciência), a racionalização (não significa agir “racionalmente” como o nome pode sugerir, mas sim a atribuição de motivos lógicos ou socialmente desejáveis ao que fazemos de modo a parecermos ter agido racionalmente), racionalmente), a projeção (tal mecanismo nos protege do reconhecimento reconhecimento de nossas próprias qualidades indesejáveis indesejáveis atribuindo-as aos outros outro s de maneira exagerada), a intelectualização (é a tentativa de se desvencilhar de uma situação estressante lidando com ela de maneira abstrata e intelectual), a negação (ocorre quando o sujeito nega a existência de um fato indesejável) e deslocamento (ocorre quando um motivo que não pode ser gratificado de uma maneira é
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é, podemos nos utilizar da linguagem para expressá-los a outras pessoas), muitas vezes eles parecem enigmáticos para aqueles que os sentem. Outras vezes podem parecer mesmo enigmáticos àqueles que nos observam e tentam inferir o que estamos sentindo 2. Os afetos podem ser produzidos tanto por estímulos internos (e.g., uma lembrança desagradável) quanto externos ao indivíduo (e.g., as relações sociais). Nós vivenciamos nossos estados afetivos através de emoções e sentimentos 2.
3.1.2. As emoções As emoções podem ser definidas como expressões afetivas rápidas e intensas, as quais geralmente causam fortes reações orgânicas, como a aceleração dos batimentos cardíacos, o tremor, o riso, o choro e as lágrimas. Tais reações são denominadas descargas emocionais, que funcionam para diminuir o estado de tensão do organismo 2. São exemplos de emoções a surpresa, a raiva, o nojo, o medo, a vergonha, a tristeza, o desprezo, a alegria, a paixão, a atração física. Elas podem ser conscientes ou não, sendo mais ou menos aceitas socialmente por questões culturais. Como você deve saber, na nossa
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Não é sem motivo motivo que uma importante teoria psicológica, psicológica, a Gestalt, tenha se se originado a partir de estudos sobre os fenômenos perceptuais. Gestalt é um termo alemão que não encontra correspondente na língua portuguesa. Uma tradução próxima é “forma” ou “configuração”. Por este motivo tal teoria ficou conhecid a também como Psicologia da forma. Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler e Kurt Kofka realizaram estudos psicofísicos relacionando a forma à sua percepção. O objetivo destes gestaltistas era compreender que processos psicológicos psicológicos atuariam em fenômenos como a ilusão de ótica, situação na qual o indivíduo percebe uma forma diferentemente daquilo que ela é de fato 2. Os teóricos da Gestalt criticavam o Behaviorismo (ver Capítulo 2) por acreditarem acreditarem que entre o estímulo oferecido pelo meio e a resposta apresentada pelo indivíduo (modelo estímulo-resposta) havia o processo de percepção (modelo estímulo-percepção-resposta). Assim, afirmava-se que a compreensão do comportamento humano depende da compreensão do que o indivíduo percebe e de como este indivíduo percebe 2. Alguns conceitos conceitos importantes da teoria da Gestalt são 2: a) importância do contexto: contexto: para os gestaltistas, gestalt istas, o comportamento humano humano só poderia ser bem
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que atribuímos a ele fazem parte do que somos. Assim, o modo como percebemos o nosso corpo influencia profundamente o modo como nos percebemos. Cada pessoa tem uma relação particular com o seu próprio corpo. Embora ele seja a sede de todas as experiências individuais, muitas vezes suas condições orgânicas não são aceitas. Isso pode ocorrer devido às doenças, à idade ou mesmo a não aceitação de certas características estéticas que são ditadas socialmente. Em vista disso, para algumas pessoas o seu próprio corpo acaba sendo percebido como um fardo 3. A percepção é um fenômeno que se inicia com os estímulos sensoriais (apreendidos por órgãos dos sentidos tais quais a pele, os olhos e os ouvidos) e que termina com a atribuição de significados. significados. Por exemplo, ao vermos um estranho vindo em nossa direção enquanto caminhamos por um rua escura, é provável que interpretemos a situação como ameaçadora. Ou seja, a percepção envolve mais do que elementos puramente sensoriais, englobando também questões relacionadas ao significado e à cultura.
Percepção : fenômeno psicológico que se inicia com co m a recepção de estímulos sensoriais e que envolve a atribuição de significados.
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Para encerrar essa discussão sobre a percepção, cabe destacar um ponto de extrema importância. É fundamental que prestemos atenção aos sinais que o nosso corpo nos dá, pois eles informam os nossos estados afetivos (sabe aquela dor de coluna que não passa?) e nos alertam para a necessidade de nos cuidarmos melhor. É comum, por exemplo, o corpo apresentar desajustes em seu funcionamento como reflexo de problemáticas psicológicas não resolvidas. São as chamadas doenças psicossomáticas, psicossomáticas, cujos exemplos mais clássicos são a gastrite, a asma, a hipertensão arterial, a taquicardia, a herpes, a urticária e a enxaqueca.
Doenças psicossomáticas : são doenças resultantes de causas psicológicas e cujos sintomas são expressos no corpo. Nas doenças psicossomáticas o sofrimento corporal é real, não devendo ser considerado como secundário ou menos importante. O tratamento das doenças psicossomáticas psicossomáticas demanda uma u ma abordagem de trabalho multidisciplinar, multidisciplinar, já que tanto o corpo quanto a mente deverão ser cuidados.
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PARA APROFUNDAR A DISCUSSÃO... Afetividade e sexualidade sexualidade A Psicologia já sabe há um bom tempo que a questão sexual, pelos aspectos morais a ela vinculados, é fonte de angústia para o jovem que se inicia nesses segredos. Mas não é somente o jovem que sofre angústia com a sexualidade; o adulto e o velho também.
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a) Mudanças a) Mudanças biologicamente influenciadas: influenciadas: tratam-se dos processos biológicos biológicos que envolvem crescimento e maturação do corpo. Um exemplo é o crescimento do cérebro nos primeiros anos de vida 2. partilhadas: quando chegam a determinadas idades, as pessoas geralmente b) Experiências partilhadas: passam por experiências experiências sociais comuns à população da mesma faixa etária. Isso faz com que uma sequência de experiências culturais partilhadas, como entrar na escola, gere alguns padrões de desenvolvimen desenvolvimento to bastante parecidos parecidos 2
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Na história da Psicologia, o tema do desenvolvimento tem sido abordado de diferentes diferentes maneiras. Há teorias que enfatizam o desenvolvimento da linguagem (como a teoria de Lev Vygotsky), outras que procuram explicar o desenvolvimento psicossocial (como foi a proposta de Erick Erickson Er ickson), ), há outras ainda que exploram o desenvolvimento desenvolvimento psicossexual psicossexual do indivíduo (como propôs Freud – ver – ver boxe ao final do capítulo). Como se vê, dentro da Psicologia há muitos modos de compreender o desenvolvimento. Isso porque há inúmeras possibilidades de explorar o desenvolvimento de um determinado aspecto humano (como a linguagem, a sexualidade, a inteligência, a
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c) operacional concreto (7-11 ou 12 anos): com o declínio do egocentrismo, a criança desenvolve a habilidade de se colocar no lugar do outro, passando a usar a linguagem com finalidades predominantemente predominantemente comunicativas comunicativas e aumentando suas habilidades sociais. Outras Out ras características são o aparecimento do pensamento lógico (por exemplo, a habilidade de agrupar mentalmente objetos semelhantes), a percepção da conservação, a maior habilidade de concentração em atividades e de colaborar em tarefas de grupo. Vale ressaltar que, neste estágio, a realização de operações lógicas depende fortemente da presença de materiais concretos. Por exmplo: a criança consegue realizar contagem numérica com auxílio dos dedos
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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