King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals College of Environmental Design Architectural Engineering Department
Term paper on:
Fire Safety in Hotels By: Bakhter Ihsan (g201309390)
Course Instructor:
Dr. Mohammad A. Hassanain
Table of Contents List of Figures .............................................................................................................................2 1. Introduction.............................................................................................................................3 1.1 Hotels and fire ...................................................................................................................3 1.2 Types of hotels ..................................................................................................................4 1.3 Fire Safety .........................................................................................................................4 1.4 Fire safety in hotels ...........................................................................................................6 1.5 Objectives: ........................................................................................................................7 2. Literature Review ....................................................................................................................7 2.1 Common Causes of fire in hotels .......................................................................................7 2.2 Fire safety designs in hotels ............................................................................................. 13 2.3 Fire risk assessment ......................................................................................................... 16 2.4 Evacuation challenges in hotel fires ................................................................................. 19 2.4.1 The effects of fire on the building ............................................................................. 19 2.4.2 The effects of the building on the fire........................................................................ 19 2.4.3 The effect of fire on people ....................................................................................... 20 2.4.4 Individual response of people to fire ......................................................................... 21 2.4.5 Fuzziness of decision by evacuees ............................................................................ 21 2.4.6 Utility viewpoint ....................................................................................................... 21 3. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 22 References: ............................................................................................................................... 23
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List of Figures Figure 1 Structure fires in hotels by leading causes 2006-2010, in US. ........................................8 Figure 2: Potential fire hazards in the hotel kitchen .....................................................................9 Figure 3 Potential fire hazards in guest room ...............................................................................9 Figure 4 Potential fire hazards in storage areas .......................................................................... 10 Figure 5 Potential fire hazards in the hotel sauna ....................................................................... 10 Figure 6 Five steps of fire risk assessment ................................................................................. 18
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1. Introduction 1.1 Hotels and fire Changes in public’s tourism activities have altered the way we accomplish our hotel properties. Deregulation of the air companies has driven a modification in the way millions of people tour each year, given the hub-and-spoke design of airline services. Many hotel companies are now locating major hotel properties adjacent to hub air transport facilities, taking advantage of the fact that business travelers may not need to travel to a central business district (CBD) to accomplish their purpose in a given area. Meetings and conferences can now be scheduled within a five-minute limousine ride from the air terminal, and the business traveler can be headed for his or her next destination before the day is over without having to stay overnight in a CBD hotel. [Denney G. Rutherford & Michael J. O’Fallon, 2007] Hotel fires represent a major risk to people’s safety, the hotel property and business continuity. Statistics from the U.S. show that a structure fire is reported by one of twelve hotels or motels every year. Between 2006 and 2010 the fire departments responded to an estimated average of 3,700 structure fires per year at hotel and motel properties, causing annual average losses of 12 civilian deaths, 143 civilian injuries and $127 million in direct property damage [Fire protection in hotels by Siemens, 2014]. In 2007-2011, U.S. fire departments responded to an average of 15,400 structure fires in high-rise buildings. These fires caused annual average of: [High rise fire buildings, NFPA, 2013] 46 civilian fire deaths. 530 civilian fire injuries. $ 219 million in direct property damage.
To guarantee adequate fire safety standards, national and regional directives have been established in the vast majority of countries. Personal safety is generally regulated by laws and official requirements, while the protection of material assets is mainly determined by the guidelines and directives drawn up by insurance companies [Fire protection in hotels by Siemens, 2014]. Hotels are also the public assembly places. The hotel industry is a force to calculate within the European labor market and service sector. In 2006, approximately 265,000 hotels 3
offered 13.9 million bed places across the EU. 1.75billion overnight stays were recorded in European hotels and almost 1.8 million people were employed in the industry, of which 1.4 million on a full-time basis. 60% of all people employed were women [IMCO, Hotel Safety, 2008].
1.2 Types of hotels Hotels are classified according to the hotel size, location, target markets, levels of service, facilities, number of rooms, ownership and affiliation etc. Hotels vary considerably in size and complexity. For the purposes of the fire safety we will limit the discussion to the following four categories [Fire protection in hotels by Siemens, 2014]:
I.
i.
Roadside hotels
ii.
Regional hotels
iii.
Metropolitan hotels
iv.
High-rise hotels
Roadside hotels: One- or two-story buildings - in some cases multiple buildings spread out over a relatively large area, with individual buildings often separated by parking lots.
II.
Regional hotels: Low-rise buildings up to 5 stories high, with parking lots at the front or rear of the main building.
III.
Metropolitan hotels: Buildings more than six stories high, typically consisting of a single building with an underground parking areas.
IV.
High-rise hotels: These buildings are usually found in the heart of large cities. They are characterized by their skyscraper appearance and usually have underground parking areas.
1.3 Fire Safety Generally, the fire safety objectives may include life safety, protection of property and structure, continuity of business operation, heritage and environmental protection. However, the fire safety objectives of a building may vary with the occupancy, structure and height of the 4
building. The severity of fire is the main factor that determines the safety of a building and its occupants. It is therefore, important to understand the mechanism which controls the potential fire risk and to study the ways in which buildings can be designed to minimize fire damages. Possible fire safety issues that could arise in the move toward energy efficiency, environmental protection and sustainable design and construction are revealed when one considers show this move might impact [William L. Grosshandler, 2012]:
The flammability of materials (ignition, heat release rate, and flame spread),
The toxicity of the products of combustion
Automatic suppression approaches,
The materials’ resistance to fire (ability to maintain confinement and/or structural loading)
Firefighting strategies (physical accessibility, firefighter protection, hazards from electrically energized equipment such as photovoltaic panels and battery powered vehicles).
Having said that, in order to obtain a satisfactory level of safety, the facilities must comply with a number of requirements specified in codes. The potential combination of fire and life safety performance objectives typically addressed by building and fire codes involving fire hazards, risks and performance attributes can be listed as follows [FPRF, 2012]:
Poses potential ignition hazard
Poses potential shock hazard
Poses potential explosion hazard
Poses potential toxicity hazard
Readily ignitable
Burns readily once ignited
Contributes more fuel / increased heat release rate (HRR)
Material affects burning characteristics
Fast(er) fire growth rate
Significant smoke production/hazard
Potential for shorter time to failure
Failure affects burning characteristics
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Failure presents smoke spread concern
Failure presents flame spread concern
Material presents flame spread concern
May impact smoke/heat venting
May impact occupant evacuation
May impact fire-fighter (FF) water availability
May impact suppression effectiveness
May impact fire apparatus access
May impact fire-fighter (FF) access and operations
May impact containment of runoff
Thus it is required for the safety of a facility to address these issues in terms of its construction, operation and maintenance.
1.4 Fire safety in hotels Fire safety is a relative term. If you define "fire-safe" as a zero chance of a fire, then one can never say that any hotel is fire-safe. However, we can describe hotels as relatively safer than others based on the fire protection equipment that is installed and the safety practices that they follow. The amount and type of fire safety equipment in a hotel varies by the size of the building, its height and age. Many high-rise hotels are protected with fire sprinklers, but one out of four still lack them. For all hotels and motels regardless of height, only 50 percent have fire sprinklers. Some hotel owners have corporate policies to retrofit older properties with fire sprinklers, but this is not the norm. And some hotels install state-of-the-art, well-maintained fire alarm systems that render false alarm problems nil, but other owners continue to tolerate the problem. As a result, many hotel guests ignore fire alarms. The quality of fire protection also varies by region. In some areas, building and fire officials keep their safety codes current and diligently enforce them. But code advancement and enforcement are not uniform around the U. S. If these codes are not kept up to date and enforced by competent personnel, the quality of fire safety can suffer a great deal.
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1.5 Objectives: The primary goal of fire protection is to avoid personal injury and material damage. In a hotel, the safety of guests and personnel is of paramount importance. Objectives of this paper are also as the main objectives of fire protection in buildings which are:
Personnel injury must be prevented.
Asset damage must keep to an absolute minimum.
Environmental damage due to extinguishing water must be avoided.
2. Literature Review 2.1 Common Causes of fire in hotels Up to the present moment, the causes of hotel fires were due to the careless disposal of cigarettes, faults in electrical appliances, carelessness by workers using naked flames which ignited grease and oil deposits in kitchen areas, and some suspicious reasons. Most of the fires were originated in guest rooms, kitchen areas and shopping arcades [W. K. Chow and H. T. Kot, 1989]. During 2006-2010, an estimated average of 3,700 structure fires in hotels and motels were reported to U.S. fire departments per year, with associated annual losses of: 12 civilian deaths 143 civilian injuries $127 million in property damage
Nearly three-quarters (73%) of fires in hotels and motel didn’t spread beyond the object of origin.
Cooking equipment was involved in nearly half (45%) of fires as in Fig. 1 12% of fires in hotels and motels began in a bedroom/guest sleeping room, but these fires were responsible for 31% of civilian injuries and 72% of civilian deaths. Smoking materials were the cause of the fire in 79% of civilian deaths. [NFPA,
2012] 7
Figure 1 Structure fires in hotels by leading causes 2006-2010, in US.
According to the South Australian Country Fire Services department most common fire cause in hotel are categorized to nine main categories. In addition, they also provided some tips that how to prevent fire causes in hotels. The most common fire causes are as below [SACFS, 2013]: 1. Kitchen Naked Stoves 2. Electric Blankets 3. Faulty Wiring 4. Smoking in Bed 5. Lighting 6. Flammable Liquids 7. Clothes Dryers 8. Candles 9. Heating Due to different areas in hotels the most common areas in hotel where fire occurs are kitchen, guest rooms, storage area and sauna as in Figure 2A, 2B, 2C and 2D. [Michael Buser, by Allianz, Munich, 2014]:
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Figure 2: Potential fire hazards in the hotel kitchen
Figure 3 Potential fire hazards in guest room
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Figure 4 Potential fire hazards in storage areas
Figure 5 Potential fire hazards in the hotel sauna
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Moreover, the South Australian Country Fire Services department answers the question which we asked before that how to prevent start of fries in hotels by putting some tips and description under each and every certain category [SACFS, 2013]. 1. Kitchen Naked Stoves:
Never leave the stove unattended.
Check that electric cords, curtains, tea towels and oven cloths are at a safe distance from the stove top.
Be careful of long flowing sleeves contacting gas flames.
2. Electric Blankets:
Do not sleep with electric blankets on or leave the house without switching them off.
Never leave weighty objects on the bed when the electric blanket is on.
Have your blanket checked by an authorized repairer if you suspect overheating.
Always follow manufacturer´s instructions for care and storage.
Inspect each blanket for wear and tear at the beginning of the cooler months.
3. Faulty Wiring:
Always use a qualified electrician.
Double adaptors and power-boards can overload power points.
Install safety switches and correct fuses.
4. Smoking in Bed:
Smoking in bed can be fatal - tiny embers can smoulder unnoticed and burst into flame much later.
5. Lighting:
Check light fittings for heat buildup.
Discard lampshades that are close to light globes & lamp bases that can be knocked over easily.
Ensure recessed down lights are properly insulated from wood paneling or ceiling timbers. 11
6. Flammable Liquids:
Store all flammable liquids such as petrol, kerosene, methylated spirits away from heat.
Always check the label before use and storage.
Use extreme care when pouring.
7. Clothes Dryers:
Always clean lint filters after each load.
Avoid drying bras in your dryer as the underwire can get caught and start a fire.
8. Candles:
Never leave burning candles unattended. Do not sleep with a burning candle.
Make sure curtains and other flammable items are well away from burning candles.
9. Heating:
Make sure all appliances are professionally installed.
Check that walls and floors are insulated from heat sources.
Be careful where you place portable appliances.
Never leave an open fire alight when you leave the house or go to bed.
Place a mesh guard in front of open fires.
Have your chimney and flue cleaned annually.
Never leave children unattended near fires and heaters.
Clothing should not be dried close to heaters or fires.
Therefore, at all, the education of people, especially the hotel management, in the awareness of fire hazards and proper maintenance of electrical appliances are the most important ways to prevent fires in hotels.
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2.2 Fire safety designs in hotels In order to provide safety against the fire, sufficient protection has to be provided. The design in modern hotels can be summarized under eight requirements [W. K. Chow and H. T. Kot, 1989]. 1.
Structural fire protection All the structures are designed to perform satisfactorily in case of fire. The Building
(Construction) Regulations [Hong Kong Building Regulations, 1974] set out the minimum fire resistance periods (FRP) for the construction elements. The value depends on the volume or floor area in any one storey. For compartments, it is recommended to install fire-resisting doors and select non-combustible materials for duct or pipe works. In addition, it must be ensured that the guest floors are well separated from the other areas of relatively higher fire risks. 2.
Provision of escape routes The Building (Planning) Regulations specifies the provision of means of escape for
emergency (Code of Practice, 1986). A second staircase must be provided if the floor of the uppermost storey is more than 17 m or 6 storeys above the ground level. The Code of Practice on Provision of Means of Escape in case of Fire and The Allied Requirements (1986) prescribe the number and width of the required exits and staircases, the maximum travel distance, the fire resistance periods etc. It also specifies the requirements for basements, garages, car parks, refuge floors and others in order to comply with the above regulation. Hotel staff should be trained to ensure that problems such as the wedge-opening or locking of fire doors, the blockage of the means of escape etc. do not arise. 3.
Smoke control Smoke control can be divided in two parts (a) The amount of smoke involved (b) Movement of smoke
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The amount of smoke produced can probably be reduced by limiting the fire size (e.g. by sprinklers) and the fire load of the hotel. Smoke movement can be controlled by providing either physical barriers to confine it or by natural or mechanical ventilation to extract it. The escape routes should be protected by pressurization systems [Hobson and Stewart, 1982] in controlling smoke movement as specified in the new Code of Practice on Minimum Fire Service Installations and Equipment (1986). 4.
Ventilating system Heat and smoke may spread from one compartment to another through the ventilating
ducts. Therefore, protecting by fire dampers or using fire resisting ducts is essential. Under the (Building Ventilating Systems Regulation, 1974), it is prescribed that the air intake for the ventilation systems must be sited in a place which will not constitute a fire hazard. Every duct should be constructed of non-combustible materials with strength and durability not less than that of either galvanized iron or steel. It must be fitted with a damper operated by fusible links at a temperature of 69°C. In addition, yearly inspection by a registered ventilating contractor is required. 5.
Installation of automatic sprinkler system Fifth requirement is to install automatic sprinkler systems [Nash and Young, 1977].
Hotels are required to provide sprinkler systems covering all public areas including common corridors under the new regulations. But guest rooms might be exempt if other firefighting installations such as hydrants, hose reels and portable extinguishers are present. The Fire Services Department enforces the Fire Offices Committee (FOC, 1986) rules for automatic sprinkler installations with certain modifications to suit local conditions. Under the current edition of FOC rules, hotels are classified as Extra Light Hazard (ELH) occupancy where the amount and combustibility of the contents are low. So the sprinkler systems are required to discharge water at 2.25 mm/min with four sprinklers in operation and covering a total minimum area of 84 m2. Higher standards will be required for other areas such as basements, boiler rooms, kitchens, laundries, storage areas, workrooms, etc. Temperature rating of sprinkler heads is selected according to the nature of risk and ranges from 57 to 260°C.
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6.
Fire detection system Detectors can be classified according to their mode of detection and recommended to be
installed in accordance with Fire Office Committee rules or other suitable standards. The problems associated with the detection systems are mainly due to failure to operate or false alarms. Up to five false alarms per day can be observed! Maintenance and sensitivity tests by the hotel management are therefore essential. Some systems claim to be able to detect a real fire and accommodate false alarm problems. However, microprocessor-controlled smoke detector systems [BRE, 1986] should not only include these but should be able to help occupants to decide what they should do. Human behavior [Hopkinson, 1984] under fire should therefore be included. 7.
Installation of fire hydrant and hose reel systems Every part of the floor must be reached by the hose reel or the hose connected to the
hydrant. The rising main may be wet or dry, depending on the height of the hotel. For a hotel not exceeding 60 m in height, a dry riser installation is acceptable since the firefighting equipment can deliver water to a height of 60 m. Over that, the wet riser installation with booster pumps is used. Fire service inlet must be provided for both wet and dry rising mains. 8.
Storage of dangerous goods and combustible materials Under the Dangerous Goods Ordinance the Fire Services Department has jurisdiction on
the control of dangerous goods. Building materials must conform to the requirements of Building (Construction) Regulations. However, building contents are out of scope of the current legislation. But furniture contained in a bedroom might give a fire load of 65% of the total fire load of the room itself! Therefore, particular attention must be paid on the furniture used.
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2.3 Fire risk assessment A fire risk assessment is an organized and methodical look at your premises, the activities carried on there and the likelihood that a fire could start and cause harm to those in and around the premises. [FSRA, 2006] The aims of the fire risk assessment are: To identify the fire hazards. To reduce the risk of those hazards causing harm to as low as reasonably practicable. To decide what physical fire precautions and management arrangements are necessary to ensure the safety of people in your premises if a fire does start. The terms ‘hazard’ and ‘risk’ are used above and having a clear idea is very important because these terms used a lot in fire safety especially here in fire safety risk assessment. Hazard: Anything that has the potential to cause harm. Risk: The chance of the harm occurring.
Here are five steps of risk assessment in hotels and its procedure: Step 1. Identify Fire Hazards
Identify sources of ignition
Identify sources of fuel
Identify sources of oxygen
Step 2. Identify People at Risk As part of a fire risk assessment, it is important to identify those at risk if there is a fire. To do this it is needed to identify the occupants of the premises, e.g. guests, residents, people working, either at permanent workstations or at occasional locations around the premises, and to consider who else may be at risk, such as visitors, visiting contractors etc., and where these people are likely to be found. Step 3. Evaluate, Remove, Reduce and Protect from risk
Evaluate the risk of a fire occurring
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Evaluate the risk to people
Remove or reduce the hazards for fire ignition and fuel
Remove or reduce the risks to people Fire detection and warning systems Firefighting equipment and facilities Escape routes Emergency escape lighting Signs and notices Installation, testing and maintenance
Step 4. Record, Plan, Inform, Instruct and Train
Record the significant findings and action taken
Emergency plans
Inform, instruct, co-operate and co-ordinate
Fire safety training
Step 5. Review It should constantly monitor what we are doing to implement the fire risk assessment, to assess how effectively the risk is being controlled. All steps of fire risk assessment summarized in Figure 6.
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Figure 6 Five steps of fire risk assessment
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2.4 Evacuation challenges in hotel fires Serious fires involving fatalities as well as injuries frequently arise in buildings where many people are gathered, and whenever they have occurred in hotels and other hospitality environments. [Graham, T. L and D. J. Roberts, 2000] Hotels are characterized by the huge number of people at threat when fires break out. Most significant, they are unaccustomed with the surroundings and find it problematic to identify the escape routes and staircases (Code of Practice on Provision of Means, 1986) etc. It has been estimated that between 4000 and 8000 hotel fires will occur each year on a worldwide basis, in which between 5000 and 10,000 people will die and thousands of serious injuries will result (Slough, 1984). These estimates determine that inspecting the fire danger of hotels in order to arrange for future design data and appropriate hotel management techniques which are very important and vital. The evacuation process can be divided in two phases, namely the pre-movement phase and the movement phase. The processes in the pre-movement phase are believed to be more decisive on survival than the actual movement speed. The pre-movement phase consists of the alarm time and the reaction time. [Jeon, Gyu-Yeob, et al.] 2.4.1 The effects of fire on the building Apart from cosmetic and aesthetic damage, which are themselves important losses for any hotel, the principal damage from fire to such a building is structural. This is due to the heat which causes expansion, deformation, melting, cracking and structural failure rendering the building no longer able to perform its function. The thermal expansions and consequent strains in the building structure will change the stresses at all joints and corners and, since common building materials are not normally elastic at the temperatures reached in fires, they may become permanently deformed and so weakened, that demolition and reconstruction is necessary. 2.4.2 The effects of the building on the fire It is well known in fire engineering that a small, low-intensity fire can become a highintensity inferno in minutes, if not seconds. In one of the most famous such fires, at the Cocoanut
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Grove Dance Hall in 1942, the fire spread throughout the building in less than 5 min resulting in: 490 fatalities 259 injuries Only ¼ of those inside the club escaped unhurt. The design and decoration affected the fire in such a way as to cause what is known as a flashover, a phenomenon which has been at the heart of numerous high-publicity fire disasters [Rasbash,1991;Thomas et al., 1980]. 2.4.3 The effect of fire on people The physiological effects of fire on people can be distinguished as those due to heat and those due to smoke [Graham, T. L and D. J. Roberts, 2000]. A. Heat effects: human beings operate within a few degrees of 37 ℃ (98℉). Higher temperatures bring the possibilities of heat exhaustion (loss of water and salt through sweat) & heat stroke where the body cannot adequately control its temperature. Deep severe burns effect nerves system, lungs and skin. B. Smoke effects: smoke has two common ways of affecting people: I.
It will affect the senses and (chemically) the physiology. Chemically, smoke contains irritants, toxins, carcinogens and little oxygen. Lack of O2 causes asphyxia and rapid unconsciousness/death. CO is a toxin which replaces O2 in the blood and thus causes loss of consciousness and asphyxia.
II.
Accumulation of smoke in a building reduces visibility and can render obstacles along an escape route, or even the fire itself, invisible. Additionally, hot smoke can rapidly spread upwards, reducing visibility even further, and given the height of hotels and the use of atria in many modern premises.
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2.4.4 Individual response of people to fire In simplest terms the response of someone to a fire can be characterized by the time required to act. The evacuation time tevac for someone, in a hotel on fire, is the time taken from the first detection of the fire to the time taken for the last guest/staff to reach a place of safety, and may be divided into three parts [Graham, T. L and D. J. Roberts, 2000]: 1. The delay time, talarm, which occurs between the occurrence of the first flames and the time the person, becomes aware of the fire because of smell of smoke, sounding of an alarm, etc. 2. The pre-movement time tpre, between the guest hearing the alarm and beginning to leave the building. During this stage the guest may investigate, warn others, collect belongings, etc. 3. The minimum time to physically move to an exit, tmove.
tevac= talarm+tpre+tmove. 2.4.5 Fuzziness of decision by evacuees In the event of fire, the escape decisions reached by hotel patrons would be expected to follow established principles. For example, people will tend to use those exits with which they are familiar, as opposed to the nearest exit unless directed to do so (Sime, 1995). A particular corridor would normally be taken only if it lies in the direction of travel originally intended by the guest, etc. Lack of awareness of safety precautions in hotels in some parts of the world may leave guests reliant upon systems and services where none actually exist. Since hotels tend to have high fire loads with a consequent likely rapid growth in any fire which is not extinguished immediately, it becomes possible that the extent of the fire and its concomitant smoke may determine the actions of people rather than they themselves. 2.4.6 Utility viewpoint In the fire egress and decision making discussed above the suggestion is that people tend to action-avoidance for small problems but take drastic action as things go out of control. In the 21
1979 Woolworth's fire in Manchester, some customers remained seated in the restaurant, determined to finish the meal they had paid for. In terms of this discussion the risk perceived did not equate to the cost of the meal. Risk avoidance is action above the line, the action taken is greater than the risk requires. The utility in egress problems is the value placed on human safety. [Graham, T. L and D. J. Roberts, 2000]
3. Conclusion First of all, as we know hotels are part of residential occupancies where many people gather in one time. Secondly the worst case of damage, fatalities and injury are possible in such occupancies because of dense amount of people in one time and sleeping factor from night side. Finally the most important issue to be considered is safety in hotels which is unfortunately still not in even last line of listed facilities for most guests or users. To sum up, here are some recommendations for both, the hotel staff as well as guests:
Staff should receive regular fire-safety instruction and catastrophe training should be carried out at least twice a year.
Information channels should be clearly established and sounding the alarm given priority over opposing the fire.
Regular inspection of used fire-protection installations is necessary to ensure they will work in an emergency.
Regular tours of inspection during normal hotel operation should be carried out to identify danger points or make sure that known hazards have been eliminated.
Important measures should be set down in an alarm and fire-protection plan.
Fire drill that involves the fire bridges is recommended.
Special caution should be exercised when hazardous work is being carried out.
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2.
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4.
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7.
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8.
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