TEMA 1 LA LENG LENGUA UA CO COMO MO CO COMU MUNI NICA CACI CIÓN ÓN:: LENG LENGUA UAJE JE OR ORAL AL Y LENG LENGUA UAJE JE ESCRITO. FACTORES CTORES QUE DEFINE DEFINEN N UNA SITUAC SITUACIÓN IÓN COMUNI COMUNICA CAT TIVA IVA: EMISOR EMISOR,, RECEPTOR FUNCIONALIDAD Y CONTEXTO. 0. INTRO TRODUCT DUCTIION ON.. 1. LANGU LANGUAGE AGE AS COMMUN COMMUNICA ICAT TION. ION. 1.1.
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(. SPOEN SPOEN AND AND /RITT /RITTEN EN LANG LANGUAG UAGE. E. (.1.
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4. 9I9L 9I9LIO IOGR GRAP AP3Y 3Y..
0. INTRODUCTION. Traditional Traditional foreign language teaching concentrated on getting students consciously to learn items of language in insolation. These bits of information would be mainly used to read read text textss and and only only occa occasi sion onal ally ly for for oral oral comm commun unic icat atio ion. n. The The focu focuss was was not not on commun communica icatio tion n but on a piece piece of langua language. ge. Follow Following ing Krashe Krashen’ n’ss distinc distinctio tion n betwee between n acquisition and learning we can say that people got to know about about the language language (learning) but could not use it in a real context (acquisition). The ritish applied linguist !llwright tried to bridge this dichotomy when he theorised that if de language teacher’s management acti"ities were directed exclusi"ely at in"ol" in"ol"ing ing the learne learners rs in sol"in sol"ing g commun communicat ication ion proble problems ms in the target target langua language# ge# then then language learning wil take care of itlself. $e may or may not agree with this extreme rendering of the %ommunicati"e approach# but we all agree nowadays on the importance of letting ous pupils use &nglish for real communication during at least# the production stage. 'n this this unit nit we are are goin going g to stu study lang langua uag ge and and its its fun functio ctions ns to see see that that communication is one of thes functions. $e wil then posit that learning a language is not only only a gramm grammatic atical al and lexical lexical process process but also also a social social proces process. s. $e also also analy analyee the differences between writing and speech and finally we will discuss the most important communication theory models# defining their key factors.
1.
LANGUAGE AS COMMUNICATION.
1.1. Langag! D!#$n$%$&n'. The word language language has prompted prompted innumerable innumerable definitions. definitions. *ome focus on the general general concept of language (what we call lengua or lengua or lenguaje) lenguaje) and some focus on the more specific notion of a language (what we call lengua or idioma). idioma). *!+', (-/-) said that 0language is a purely human non1instincti"e method of communicating ideas# emotions and desires by means of "oluntarily produced symbols2. 3!44 3!44 (-56) (-56) define defined d langua language ge as 0the 0the institu institutio tion n whereb whereby y humans humans commun communicat icatee and interact interact whith each other by means of habitually habitually used oral1auditory oral1auditory arbitrary symbols2. symbols2. !s we can see in these two definitions definitions it is diffi cult to make a precise and comprehen comprehensi"e si"e statement about formal adn functional uni"ersal properties of language so some linguists ha"e trien to indentify the "arious properties that are thought to be its essential defining characteristics. The most widely acknowledged comparati"e approach has been the one proposed by %harles 37%K&TT. 3is set of -8 design features of communication using spoken language were as follows9
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A"$%&28&)a )7ann! 9 sound is used between mouth and ear.
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92&a")a'% %2an'+$''$&n an" "$2!)%$&na 2!)!-%$&n 9 a signal can be heard by any auditory auditory system within earshot# and the source can be located using the ears’ direction1 direction1 finding ability abilit y.
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Ra-$" #a"$ng9 auditory signals are transitory.
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In%!2)7ang!a5$$%8 9 speakers of a language can reproduce any linguistic message they can understand.
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T&%a #!!"5a) 9 speakers hear and can reflect upon e"erything that they say.
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the soun sound d wa"e wa"ess of spee speech ch ha"e ha"e no othe otherr func functi tion on than than to sign signal al S-!)$%a$;a%$&n9 the meaning.
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S!+an%$)$%89 the elemens of the signal con"ey meaning through their stable association with real1world situations.
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A25$%2a2$n!''9 there is no dependence of the element of the signal on the nature of the reality to which it refers.
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D$')2!%!n!'' 9 speech uses a small set of sound elements elements tha clearly contrast whith each other.
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D$'-a)!+!n%9 it is possible to talk about e"ents remote in space or time from the situation of the speaker.
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P2&")%$$%89 ther is an infinite capacity to express and understand meaning# by using old setence elements to produce new sentences.
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T2a"$%$&na T2a"$%$&na %2an'+$''$
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Da$%8 &# -&%%!2$ng 9 the sound of language ha"e no intrinsic meaning# but combine in diferents ways to form elements# such as words# than do con"ey meaning.
!fter ha"ing studied th:e main properties of language (what ( what is language?) language? ) we will now see its function (whats (whats language for?). for? ).
1.(. Langag! Fn)%$&n'. The The most most usua usuall answ answer er to the the ques questi tion on 0why 0why do we use use lang langua uage ge;2 ;2 is 0to 0to communicate our ideas2 and this ability to communicate or communicati"e competence is studied in the next part. ut it would be wrong to think of communicating our ideas as the only way in which we use language ( 2!#!2!n%$a, $"!a%$&na &2 -2&-&'$%$&na #n)%$&n ). *e"eral other functions may be indentified where the communication of ideas is a marginal or irrele"ant consideration.
7ne 7ne of the common commonest est uses of language languages# s# the !=-2!''$! &2 !+&%$&na one# is a means of getting rid of our ner"ous energy when we are under stress. $e do not try to communicate ideas because we can use language in this way whether we are alone or not. *wear words and obscenities are problably the most usual signals to be used in this way# especially when we are angry. ut there are also many emoti"e utterances of positi"e kind# such as expressions of fear# affection# astonishment...
> (-?661 (-?661-6 -6/) /) termed termed the third third use of langua language ge we are study studying ing >-7a%$) )&++n$)a%$&n? . 3e used it to refere to the social function of language# which arises out of the basic human need to signal friendship# or# at least# lack of enmity. 'f someone does not say hello to you when hi is supposed to# you may think hi is hostile. 'n these cases the sole function function of language language is to maintain maintain a comfortable comfortable relationship relationship between people# to pro"ide a means of a"oiding an embarrassing situation. +hatic communication# howe"er# is far from uni"ersal# some cultures prefer silence# eg# the !ritama of %olombia.
-2&-!2%$!' . The rhythmical The fourth function we may find is based on -7&n!%$) -2&-!2%$!' litanies of religious groups# the presuasi"e cadences of political speechmaking# the dialogue chants used by prisoner or soldiers ha"e only one apparent reason9 people take delight in them. They can only be explained by a uni"ersal desire to exploit the sonic potential of language. The fith function is the -!2#&2+a%$! &n! . ! performati"e sentence ins an utterance that performs an act. This use occurs in the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony# or when a priest bapties a child. $e may may also finde other functions such as9
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recording facts. 'nstrument of thought &xpression of regional# social# educational# sexual or occupational identity. identity.
The ritish linguist 3!44'@!> grouped all these functions into three metafunctions# shich are the manifestation in the linguistic system of the two "eryu general purposes shich underlie all uses of language combine whith the rhird component (textual) shich brethes rele"ance into the other two. -.1 The $"!a%$&na #n)%$&n is to organie the speaker’s or writer’s experience of the real or imaginary world# i.e. language refers to real or imagined persons# things# actions# e"ents# states#etc. /.1 The $n%!2-!2'&na #n)%$&n is to indicate# establish or mantain social relationships between people. 't includes forms of address# speech function# modality ... 8.1 The third component is the %!=%a #n)%$&n which ser"es to create written or spoken texts which cohere within themsel"es and which fit the particular situation in which they are used.
1.*. C&++n$)a%$! )&+-!%!n)! %37<*K> (-AB) defined language as Ca set of sentences# each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. ! capable speaker has a subconscious knowledge of the grammar rules of his language which allows him to make sentences in that language’. 3owe"e 3owe"er# r# @ell @ell 3><&* 3><&* though thoughtt that that %homsk %homsky y had missed missed out some some "ery importan importantt information9 the rules of the use. $hen a nati"e speaker speaks# he does not onlu utter grammatically correct forms# he also knows where and when to use these sentences and to whom. whom. 3ymes 3ymes## then# then# said said that that compet competenc encee by itself itself is not enough enough to explain explain a nati"e nati"e spea speake ker’ r’ss knowl nowled edg ge# and and he rep replace laced d it with ith his his own own conc concep eptt of communicative competence. 3><&* distinguishes 6 aspects of this competence9 1 systematic potential 1 appropriacy 1 occurrence - feasibility
S8'%!+a%$) -&%!n%$a means that the nati"e speaker possesses a system that has a potential for creating a lot of language. This is similar to %omsky’s competence.
A--2&-2$a)8 means means that the nati"e speaker knows what language is appropriate appropriate in a gi"en situation. 3is choice is based on the following "ariables# among others9 *etting +articipants +urpose %hannel Topic O))22!n)! means that the nati"e speaker knows how often something is said in the language and acts accordingly. accordingly.
F!a'$5$$%8 means means that that the nati"e nati"e speake speakerr knows knows whether whether someth something ing is possib possible le in the language. &"en if there is no grammatical rule to ban /D1ad:ecti"e prehead construction# we know that these constructions are not possible in the language. These 6 categories ha"e been adapted for teaching purposes. Thus# the ,oyal @ecree -DD5E-- of -6 une (7& /A une)# which establishes the teaching requirements for +rimar +rimary y &duca &ducatio tion n nation nationwid wide# e# sees commun communicat icati"e i"e compete competence nce as compri comprisin sing g fi"e fi"e subcompetences9
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G2a++a2 )&+-!%!n)! (competencia gramatical# o capacidad de poner en prGctica las
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unidades y reglas de funcionamiento del sistema de la lengua). D$')&2'! )&+-!%!n)! (competencia discursi"a o capacidad de utiliar diferentes tipos de disc discur urso so y orga organi nia arl rlos os en func funciH iHn n de la situ situac aciH iHn n comu comuni nica cati ti"a "a y de los los inetrlocutores).
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S&)$&$ng$'%$) )&+-!%!n)! ( competencia competencia sociolingIJsti sociolingIJstica ca o capacidad de adecuar adecuar los enunciados enunciados a un contexto concreto# concreto# atendiendo a los usos aceptados aceptados en una comunidad comunidad lingIJstica determinada).
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S%2a%! S%2a%!g$) g$) )&+-! )&+-!%!n %!n)! )! ( compet competenc encia ia estrat estratgic gicaa o capaci capacidad dad para para defini definir# r# correg corregir# ir# matiar o en general# realiar a:ustes en el curso de la situaciHn comunicati"a).
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S&)$&)%2a )&+-!%!n)! ( competencia sociocultural# entendida como un cierto grado de familiaridad con el contexto social y cultural en el que se utilia una determinada lengua).
The The terms terms gram gramma mar# r# soci sociol olin ingu guis istic tic and and soci socioc ocul ultu tural ral comp compete etenc ncee are quit quitee self self explanatory so we will only analye discourse and strategic competence.
CANALE (-?D) defined discourse competence as an aspect of communicati"e competence which which descri describes bes the ability ability to produc producee unifie unified d written written or spoken spoken discourse discourse that that shows shows coherence and cohesion and which conforms to the norms of different genres. 7ur pupils must be able to produce discourse in which successi"e utterances are linked through ruoles of discourse competence. *trategic competence may be defined as an aspect of communicati"e competence which which descri describes bes the abilit ability y of speake speakers rs to use "erbal "erbal and non1"e non1"erba rball commu communica nicatio tion n strategies to compensate for breakdowns in communication or to impro"e the effecti"eness of communication.
(. SPOEN SPOEN AND AND /RITTEN /RITTEN LANGUA LANGUAGE GE 't is traditionl in language study to distinguish between spoken and written language. efo efore re sum summari marii ing ng thei theirr main main diff differ eren ence cess we will will outl outlin inee thei theirr main main feat featur ures es independently.
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S-&!n Langag!
The most ob"ious aspect of language is speech. *peech is not essential to the definition of an infinitely producti"e communication system# such as it is constituted by language. ut# in fact# speech is the uni"ersal material of human language.
a2%$)a%&28 -7&n!%$)' .The mo"ement of the articulators produces disturbances in the air pressure called sound wa"es# which are ar e physical manifestations. This is the acoustic stage of the chain# during which the sound wa"es tra"el towards the listener’s ear1drum. The study of speech sound wa"es correspons to a)&'%$) -7&n!%$)' . The hearing process is the domain of a"$%&28 -7&n!%$)' . This can be seen in the following table9
SPEEC3 C3AIN !cti !cti"i "ity ty stage
+honetics
9RAIN
psy psych chol olog ogic ical al linguistic
SPEEC3 MEC3ANISM phy physiol siolog ogic ical al production
articulatory phonetics
SOUND /AVES
EAR
9RAIN
phy physica sicall phy physiol siolog ogic ical al psychologicals transmission perception linguistic
acoustic phonetics
auditory phonetics
'n this table we can see how phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds. This is not the most important task for linguist# howe"er. ! linguist must study the way in which a language’s speakers systematically use a selection of theses sounds in order to express meaning. 'n this acti"ity he is helped by phonology. phonology. +honology is continually loking beneath th surface of speech to determine its underlying regularities. 't is not interested in sounds sounds but in phonemes# phonemes# ie. *mallest *mallest contrasti"e contrasti"e phonological phonological units which which can produce a difference in meaning. The study of speech is therefore# the field of both +honetics and +honology.
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'deogr 'deograms ams or ideog ideograp raphs hs ha"e ha"e an abstra abstract ct or con"en con"entio tional nal meanin meaning# g# no longer longer displaying a clear pictorial link whith external reality. The cuneiform method of writing dates from the 6 th.
+honological systems do show a clear relationship between the symbols and the sounds of language. $e can distinguish syllabic and alphabetic systems. 'n a system of syllabic writing# each grapheme corresponds to a spoken syllable# usually a consonant1"owel pair. This system can be seen in apanese Kataka. !lphab !lphabeti eticc writin writing g establi establishes shes a direct direct corresp correspond ondenc encee betwee between n graphe graphemes mes and morphemes. This makes it the most economic and adaptable of all the writing systems. 'n a perfectly regular sustem there is one grapheme for each morpheme. 3owe"er# most alpha alphabe bets ts in prese present nt day day use fail fail to meet meet this this crite criteri rion on.. !t one one extr extrem emee we find find such such languages as *panish# which has a "ery regular system at the other# we find such cases as &nglish and Naelic# where there is a marked tendency to irregularity.
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3istor 3istorical ically ly speaki speaking# ng# writte written n langua language ge was consid considere ered d tobe tobe superi superior or to spoken spoken language for many centuries. 't was the medium of literature# and literature was considered a sour source ce of stan standa dard rdss of ling lingui uisti sticc exce excell llen ence ce.. $itten itten reco record rdss pro" pro"id idee lang langua uage ge with with permanence and authority and so the rules of grammar were illustrated exclusi"ely from written texts. 7n the other hand# spoken language was ignored as an ob:ect unworthy of study. *poken language demostrates such a lack of care and organiation that cannot be studied scientifically it was said to ha"e no rules# and speakers ha"e thought that# in order to speak properly# properly# it was necessary to follow the correct norm. !s this norm was based on written standards# it is clear that the prescripti"e tradition rested supremacy of writing o"er speech. This This "iew "iewpi pion ontt becam becamee wide widely ly criti critici cied ed at the the turn turn of our our cent centur ury y. 4eon 4eonar ard d loomfield insisted that Owriting is not language but merely a way of recording language by means of "isible marksO. This approach pointed out se"eral factors# some of which we ha"e already mentioned9
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*peech is many centuries older than writing 't de"elopes naturally in children $riting systems are mostly deri"ati"e# ie# they are based on the sounds of speech.
'f speech is the primary medium of communication# it was also argued that it should be the main ob:ect of linguistic study. !ctually# !ctually# the ma:ority of the worldPs culturesP languages ha"e ne"er been written down and this has nothing to do with their e"olutionary degree. 't is a fallacy to suppose that the languages of illiterate or so1called primiti"e peoples are less structured# less rich in "ocabulary# and less efficient than the languages of literate ci"iliation. &. *apir was one of the first linguistics to attack the myth that primiti"e peoples spoke primiti"e languages. 'n one study he compared the grammatical equi"alents of the sentence Ohe will gi"e it to youO in six !merindian languages. !mong many fascinating features of these complex grammatical forms# note the le"el of abstraction introduced by the following example9 *outhern +aiute
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,esearch has begun to in"estigate the nature and extent of the differences between them.
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*pecch uses phonic substance typically in the form of air1pressure mo"ements $riting uses graphic substance typically in the form of marks on a surface.
@ifferences of structure and use are the product of radically different communicati"e situations. situations. %rystal (-?B) pointed that Cspeech Cspeech is tme1bound# tme1bound# dynamic# dynamic# transient# transient# part of an interaction interaction in which# which# typically typically## both participant participantss are present# and the speaker has a specific specific addressee in mindR. $riting is space1bound# static# permanent# the result of a situation in which# typically# the producer is distant from the recipient and# often# may not e"en know
who the recipient is. !s writing can only occasionally be thought of as an interaction it is :ust normal that we can establish the following points of contrast9 -.1 The The perma permanen nence ce of writin writing g allows allows repeate repeated d reading reading and close close analy analysis. sis. The The sponta spontanei neity ty and rapidi rapidity ty of speech speech minimi minimies es the chance chance of complex complex prepla preplanni nning# ng# and promotes features that assist to think standing up. /.1 The participants in written interaction cannot usually see each other# and they thus cannot rely on the context to help make clear what they mean as they would when speaking. !s a consequence# deictic expressions are normally a"oided. 7n the other hand# feedback is a"ailable in most speech interactions. 8.1 The ma:ority of graphic features present a system of contrast that has no speech equi"alent.
*. COMMUNICATION T3EORY. *.1. D!#$n$%$&n %ommunication# the exchange of meanings between indi"iduals through a common system of symbols# concerned scholars since the time of ancient Nreece. 'n -/? the &nglish literary critic and author '"or !rmtrong ,ichards offered one of the first definitions of communication. *ince about -/D the growth and apparent influence of communication technology ha"e ha"e attr attrac acte ted d the the atte attent ntio ion n of many many spec specia iali list stss who who ha"e ha"e atte attemp mpte ted d to isol isolat atee communication as a specific facet of their particular interest. 'n thethe-5 5Ds Ds##
y the late /D th century the main focus of interest in communication seemed to be drifting away from
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!n information source ! transmiter ! channel of transmission ! recei"er ! destination
This model was originally intended for electronic messages so# in time# the fi"e eleme element ntss of the the mode modell were were renam renamed ed so as to spec specify ify comp compon onen ents ts for for othe otherr type typess of communication transmitted in "arious manners. The information source was split into its components to pro"ide a wider range of applicability9
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a source an encoder a message a channel a decoder a recei"er
!nother concept# first called a Cnoise sourceR but later associated with the notion of entropy was imposed upon the communication model. &ntropy diminishes the integrity of the message and distorts the message for the recei"er. =egati"e entropy may also occur in instances instances where incomplete incomplete or blurred blurred messages are ne"ertheless ne"ertheless recei"ed intact# either because of the ability of the recei"er to fill in missing details or to recognie# despite distortion or paucity of information# both the intent and the content content of the communication. ut not only negati"e entropy counteracts entropy. ,edundancy# the repetition of elements within a message that pre"ents the failure of communication of information# is the greatest antidote to entropy. ,edundancy is apparently in"ol"ed in most human acti"ities# and# because it helps to o"ercome the "arious forms of entropy that tends to turn intelligible messa essage gess into into unin uninte tell llig igib ible le ones ones## it is an indi indisp spen ensa sabl blee elem elemen entt for for effe effect cti" i"ee communication. $e can see that the model# despite the introduction of entropy and redundancy# is conceptually static. To correct this flaw# =orbert $iener# $iener# the father of cybernetics# added the principle of feedback# ie# sources tend to be responsi"e to their own beha"iour and to the contex contextt of commun communicat ication ion.. 'ntera 'nteractio ction n between between human human beings beings in con"er con"ersati sation on cannot cannot function without the ability of the message sender to weigh and calculate the apparent effect of this words on his listener. $e will now analye each of these key factors. fa ctors.
*.*. !8 #a)%&2' This This unit unit title title mentio mentions ns some some of the key factors factors affecti affecting ng any communica communicati" ti"ee interaction such as the sender and the recei"er. !fter putting them in the broader framework of the
The information source selects a desired message out of a possible set of messages. The transmitter changes the message into a signal which is sent o"er the communication channel channel where it is recei"ed by the recei"er recei"er and changed changed back into a message message which is sent to the destination. 'n the process of transmission certain unwanted additions to the signal may occur which are not part of the message and these are referred to as noise or entropy negati"e entropy and redundancy counteract entropy. For somo communication systems the components are simple to specify as# for instance9
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information source9 a man on the telephone transmitter9 the mouthpiece message and signal9 the words the man speaks channel9 the electrical wires recei"er9 the earpiece destination9 the listener
'n face1to face1to1fac 1facee commun communicat ication ion## the speaker speaker can be both both inform informatio ation n source source and transmitter# while the listener can be both recei"er and destination. 8.8.-. *peech acts. .4. .4. !ustin !ustin (---1(---1-5D 5D)) was the first first to draw draw attent attention ion to the many many functi functions ons performed by utterances as part of interpersonal communication. 3e distinguishes two main types of functional potential9
- performati"e - contati"e ! performati"e is an utterance that perform an act9 to say is to act# as we ha"e already seen when when study studying ing langua language ge functi functions ons.. +erform +erformati" ati"es es may be explici explicitt and implici implicitt performati"es# which do not contain a performati"e "erb. %onstati"es are utterances which assert something that is either true or false. 'n speech act analysis the effect of utterances on the beha"iour of speaker and hearer is studies using a threefold distinction9 ! locu locuti tion onary ary act act is the the sayin saying g of some someth thin ing g which which is mean meanin ingf gful ul and and can can be understood. For example# saying the sentence Cshoot the snakeR is a locutionary act if hearers understand the words CshootR# CtheRand CsnakeR and can identify the particular snake referred to. !n illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform a function. For example Cshoot the snakeRmay be intended as an order or a piece of ad"ice. ! perlocutionary act is the result or effect that is produced by means of saying something. For example# shooting the snake would be a perlocutionary act. !ustinRs three1part distinction is less frequently used than a two part distinction between the propositional content of a sentence and the illocutionary force or intended
effect effectss of speech speech acts. acts. There There are thousan thousands ds of possib possible le illocu illocutio tionary nary acts# acts# and se"eral se"eral attempts ha"e been made to classify them into a small number of types9
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representati"es directi"es commisi"es expressi"es declarations
'n decla declara rati" ti"es es the the speak speaker er is comm committ itted ed in "ary "aryin ing g degr degree ees# s# to the the truth truth of a proposition. 'n directi"es the speaker tries to get the hearer to do something. 'n commissi"es commissi"es the speaker is committed# committed# in "arying degrees# to a certain course of action. 'n expressi"es the speaker expresses an attitude about a state of affairs. 'n declarations declarations the speaker speaker alters the external status or conditions conditions of an ob:ect or situation solely by making the utterance. !s we can infer from the examples there are some fuy areas and o"erlappings between different types of illocutionary force. ut an utterance may lose its illocutionary force if does not satisfy se"eral criteria# known as felicity conditions. For example the preparatory conditions ha"e to be right9 the person performing the speech act has to ha"e the authority to do so. 7rdinary people automatically accept these conditions when they communicate. 'f any of these conditions does not obtain# then a special interpretation of the speech act has to apply. oth normal and special interpretations of utterances ha"e much to do with the context in which they are made. 8.8./. %ontext. %ontext is defined by the %ollins &nglish @ictionary as9 -. The parts parts of a piece of writing writing## speech# speech# etc# that that precede precede and follow follow a word or passage and contribute to its full meaning. /. The conditi conditions ons and circumstances circumstances that that are rele"an rele"antt to an e"ent# e"ent# fact# etc. etc. The first definition co"ers what we may call linguistic context# but as we can infer from the second definitio definition# n# linguistic linguistic context may not be enough enough to fully understand understand an utterance understood as a speech act. 'n fact# linguistic elements in a text may refer not only to other parts of the text but also to the outside world# to the the context of situation. The concept of context of situation was formulated by
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-. /. 8. 6. A. 5. B. ?.
3><&* Form Form and and con conte tent nt of text text *etting +art +artic icip ipan ants ts &nds Ke y
3!44'@!> -. field /. mode 8. tenor
$e will will now now analy analye e 3all 3allid iday ayRs Rs more more abstr abstrac actt inte interp rpret retati ation on as it pract practic icall ally y subsumes 3ymesRs one. The The field field is the total total e"ent# e"ent# in which which the text text is function functioning ing## togeth together er with the purpose acti"ity of the speaker or writer it thus includes the su:ect s u:ect matter as one element in it. The mode is the function of the text in the e"ent# including therefore both the channel taken by the language# and its genre or rethorical mode# as narrati"e# didactic# persuasi"e and so on. The tenor refers to to the participants who are taking part in this communicati"e exchange# who they are and what kind of relationship thay ha"e to one another. 't is clear that role relationships# ie# the relationship which people ha"e to each other in a act of communication# influences the way they speak to each other. 7ne of the speakers may ha"e# for instance# a role which has a higher status than that of the other speaker or speakers.
6.
9I9LIOGRAP3Y .
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%ollins &nglish @ictionary. %ollins. Nlasgow# -/.
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%rystal# @. The %ambridge &ncyclopedia of 4anguage. %+. %ambridge# -?B.
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&ncyclopaedia ritannica. &nc. rit. 'nc. %hicago# -D.
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3allid 3alliday ay## <. !. K. *poken *poken and writte written n 4angua 4anguage. ge. Neelon Neelong# g# Uic. ic. @eakin @eakin ni"er ni"ersity sity +ress# -B5.
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3alliday# 3alliday# <. !. K. 4anguage as social semiotics. semiotics . !rnold. 4ondon# -B?.
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3alliday# 3alliday# <. !. K. Functional grammar. !rnold. 4ondon# -?/.
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3alliday# 3alliday# <. !. K and 3asan# ,. %ohesion in &nglish. 4ongman. 4ondon# -B5.
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,ichards# . %# +latt# .# and +latt# 3. 4ongman @ictionary of 4anguage Teaching and !pplied 4inguistics. 4ongman. 4ondon# -/.
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*teinberg# @. @. +sycholinguistics. 4ongman. 4ondon.-?/
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