Capitolo 1
Capitolo 1 1.1 - Le centrali termoelettriche tradizionali. 1.1.1 - Caratteristiche e parametri principali di un generatore di vapore. 1.1.1.1 - Il rendimento del generatore di vapore. 1.1.1.2 - Equivalente termico del generatore di vapore. 1.1.1.2.1 - Il potere calorifico del combustibile. 1.1.1.2.2 - Emissioni di sostanze inquinanti. 1.1.1.3 - Il consumo specifico di combustibile. 1.1.1.4 - Il consumo specifico di calore. 1.1.1.5 - Il consumo specifico di vapore. 1.1.2 - La rigenerazione negli impianti a vapore. 1.1.2.1 - L’importanza i cicli rigenerativi. 1.1.2.2 - Ciclo Rankine – Hirn a rigenerazione. 1.1.2.3 - Effetti spillamento di vapore dalla turbina. 1.1.3 - Unità termoelettrica 30 MW nello Yemen. 1.1.3.1 - Problemi ricorrenti relativi all’unit{ di generazione termoelettrica. 1.1.3.2 - Svantaggi cicli rigenerativi. 1.2 - L’integrazione. 1.2.1 - Schema d’impianto. 1.2.2 - Analisi termodinamica. 1.3 - Le fonti energetiche rinnovabili. 1.3.1 - Il solare termodinamico – tecnologie esistenti. 1.3.1.1 - Caratteristiche generali. 1.3.1.2 - Principali impianti solari termodinamici in esercizio. 1.3.1.3 - Progetti recenti e prospettive di mercato. 1.3.2 - Prospettive future per i costi del Solare Termodinamico. 1.3.3 - Sfruttamento dell’energia solare . 1.3.4 - Le prospettive del solare termodinamico. 1.3.5 - Progetto Archimede. 1.3.5.1 - Schema generale di funzionamento. 1.3.5.2 - Progettazione e soluzioni innovative. 1.3.5.3 - Vantaggi Progetto Archimede. 1.3.5.4 – Svantaggi Progetto Archimede.
1
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Capitolo 1
Capitolo 1 Le centrali termoelettriche tradizionali
1.1 - Le centrali termoelettriche tradizionali Gli impianti a vapore forniscono oggi la maggior parte dell’energia elettrica prodotta. I moderni impianti a vapore sono a portata variabile, cioè presentano portata diversa in sezioni diverse dell’impianto, e risultano impiantisticamente complessi. Per iniziarne lo studio conviene partire dal ciclo semplice a portata costante, in cui le trasformazioni termodinamiche ideali subite dall’acqua per convertire in lavoro parte del calore sviluppato dalla combustione nel generatore di vapore sono le seguenti: 1. l’acqua viene compressa dalla pressione pc, a cui si trova il vapore scaricato dalla turbina, fino alla pressione po che regna nella caldaia, subendo un incremento di temperatura (entalpia) trascurabile; 2. l’acqua viene riscaldata dalla temperatura corrispondente alla pressione di saturazione pc, fino alla temperatura corrispondente alla pressione po e quindi vaporizzata a pressione costante; eventualmente il vapore viene surriscaldato, ancora a pressione costante, a temperatura superiore a quella di vaporizzazione;
3. il vapore si espande in turbina, ottenendo lavoro, dalla pressione po alla pressione pc ; 4. il vapore scaricato dalla turbina viene completamente condensato a pressione costante e ricondotto quindi allo stato liquido con cui aveva iniziato il ciclo. Lo schema dell’apparato è rappresentato in figura 1 mediante l’uso della simbologia grafica comunemente usata. In figura 1 è rappresentato un impianto a vapore semplice in cui si realizza un ciclo di conversione del calore in lavoro: il fluido è pressurizzato dalla pompa alimento caldaia (1 -2), riscaldato (2 -3), vaporizzato (3-4) ed eventualmente surriscaldato (ciclo di Hirn) in caldaia (4 -5), fatto espandere in turbina (5 -6) e quindi condensato nel condensatore (6-1) chiudendo in tal modo il ciclo. Nelle figure 1 è rappresentata la successione delle trasformazioni, supposte ideali, rispettivamente nei piani termodinamici (T−s ) e (h−s). Il fatto che il ciclo tagli la curva limite comporta un diverso peso della fase di compressione rispetto a quella d'espansione. Infatti, il lavoro di compressione ideale della pompa w p , nel caso di fluidi incomprimibili, è espresso dalla:
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Capitolo 1
Figura 1- Schema base di un impiantro a vapore.
Dalla definizione di rendimento utile`epossibile calcolare la potenza termica fornita al ciclo ηu = P u / Q1 ( 2) dove: Q1 : è la potenza termica fornita al ciclo. ηu : è il rendimento utile. P u : è la potenza utile.
La potenza interna del ciclo è data da: P i = Q1 – Q 2 =
u η
(3)
dove: Q 2 : è la potenza termica fornita al ciclo. ηm : è il rendimentomeccanico. P i : è La potenza interna del ciclo.
Il salto entalpico nel condensatore vale: Δhc = h6 – h1 = r · x
(4)
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Capitolo 1
La portata di vapore che condensa: (5 )
Q 2 = mv,c · Δh Δhc = mraff. · C C pw · ΔT ΔT
dove: mraff. : è la portata di acqua di raffreddamento. mv,c : è la portata di vapore che condensa. C pw : è il calore specifico dell’acqua. ΔT : è il salto di temperatura dell’acqua condensatrice.
1.1.1 - Caratteristiche e parametri principali di un generatore di vapore 1.1.1.1 - Il rendimento del generatore di vapore
Si può valutare il rendimento della caldaia anche considerando l'entalpia del vapore prodotto hv e l'entalpia dell'acqua di alimentazione ha. Indicando con mv la produzione oraria di vapore, il calore utilizzato in un'ora risulta: Qv = mv · (hv – ha )
(6)
La quantità di calore speso è invece data dal prodotto del consumo orario di combustibile m f per l’energia interna massica: Q f = m f · H i
(7)
dove: ha : l’entalpia dell’acqua di alimento all’ingresso della caldaia. hv : l’entalpia del vapore surriscaldato all’uscita della caldaia e all’ingresso in turbina. H i i : è il potere calorifico inferiore del combustibile. m f : è la portata del combustibile.
Per il rendimento della caldaia si ha quindi : ηu = Qv /Q f
(8)
Se la caldaia è dotata di un economizzatore, una parte del calore residuo contenuto nei fumi della combustione viene utilizzata per il preriscaldamento dell'acqua. In questo caso rimane invariato il calore speso ma aumenta quantità di calore utilizzato e quindi il rendimento; per la determinazione rendimento si deve infatti tener conto non dell'entalpia dell'acqua l'ingresso della caldaia ma dell'entalpia, inferiore, all'ingresso dell'economizzatore. Volendo ottenere il rendimento termico utile del generatore ηu, si deve giungere al calore speso per il vapore il calore esterno eventualmente utilizzato per il
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Capitolo 1
Figure 2 - Caratteristiche e parametri principali di un generatore di vapore
-Il rendimento del generatore di vapore : Il rendimento di un generatore di vapore è dato dal rapporto fra il calore trasferito dal generatore al fluido che in esso circola e il calore fornito al generatore;La quantità di calore fornita alla caldaia si ottiene sommando al calore sviluppato dalla combustione del combustibile il calore apportato dall’esterno, che, a seconda dei casi, può derivare dal riscaldamento del combustibile e dal vapore di atomizzazione del combustibile liquido η generatore di vapore vapore =
v h f
(9)
Dove; η generatore di vapore vapore : è il rendimento del generatore di vapore. m f : è la portata del combustibile. H i i : è il potere calorifico inferiore del combustibile. mv : è la portata del vapore prodotto. h h: è il salto entalpico nel generatore di vapore. La differenza dell'entalpia tra il vapore prodotto e l'acqua di alimento all'ingresso del generatore di vapore h h = hv – h sp (10) -Il Rapporto di evaporazione: è il rapporto tra la portata del vapore e la portata del combustibile
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Capitolo 1
μD/N = d.h/2679
(12)
dove: μD/N < μd questa significato il generatore di vapore produce vapore surriscaldato e funziona bene. μD/N < μd questa significato il generatore di vapore produce vapore umido e funziona male.
1.1.1.2 - Equivalente termico del generatore di vapore
Per un generatore di vapore di rendimento ηg possiamo osservare i seguenti: ogni 1 [t/h] di combustibile può produrre salto entalpico del vapore prodotto h h espresso in [kJ/kg] può chiamato l’ equivalente termico del generatore di vapore h h = X [kJ/kg]; che dipende sui seguenti fattori: -Il rendimento termico del generatore di vapore. -Il potere calorifico inferiore del combustibile. -La portata del combustibile consumato. -Il carico del generatore di vapore. -Tipo di combustibile utilizzato. 1 [t/h] dal combustibile utilizzato equivalente a h=X h=X [kJ/kg] dove: X è l’equivalente termico del generatore di vapore.
bruciando gasolio con un potere calorifico inferiore di 10.000 kcal/kg ≃ 42.000 kJ/kg, per ogni kWh prodotto dobbiamo utilizzare circa 0.23 kg di combustibile. Considerando che il rapporto tra la massa di combustibile e la massa di vapore, per unità di lavoro prodotto, è pari 0.08 , 0.07 si vede che, per una centrale da 640 MW , sono necessarie 150 t/h di combustibile. Se dovesse funzionare, con un coefficiente di utilizzazione pari a 0.8, per un anno di esercizio sarebbe necessario circa un milione di tonnellate di combustibile.
1.1.1.2.1 - Il potere calorifico
Il potere calorifico superiore, H , è la quantità totale di calore sviluppata dalla reazione di
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Capitolo 1
dove le X rappresentano, rispettivamente, la frazione in massa di carbonio, idrogeno, zolfo ed ossigeno presenti nel combustibile.
I combustibili liquidi che si usano nelle centrali termoelettriche derivano derivano dalla dalla distillazione del petrolio greggio, sono composti quasi esclusivamente da idrocarburi e contengono mediamente mediamente l’84% di carbonio, il 12% di idrogeno e il 2% di ossigeno. Il contenuto in zolfo varia sec ondo ondo la provenienza del greggio ed i trattamenti di desolforazione effettuati in raffineria. L’olio combustibile tipo bunker C, detto comunemente nafta pesante, può essere così classificato: • ATZ – alto tenore di zolfo (S > 2,3%), • MTZ – medio tenore di zolfo (1,3 < S < 2,3%), • BTZ – basso tenore di zolfo (0,5 < S < 1,3%), • STZ – senza tenore di zolfo (S < 0,5%). Il potere calorifico inferi ore è dell’ordine di 9.600÷ 9.800 kcal/kg. La temperatura di accensione è intorno a 250 °C. La viscosità a 50 50 °C è 7÷30 °E. Nella tabella seguente mostra alcuni tipi di combustibile e il potere calorifico inferiore; Tabella 1-Il potere calorifico inferiore di alcuni combustibili (p.c.i.)
Nella combustione di combustibili contenenti idrogeno, nei fumi è presente acqua allo stato di vapore; il passaggio dell’acqua dallo stato liquido allo stato di vapore comporta la perdita del calore latente di vaporizzazione (circa 2500 kJ/kg) dal calore di
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Capitolo 1
ben controllata si può avere formazione di ossidi di azoto (NOx) di origine termica, cioè legata alla modalità con cui avviene la combustione (alta temperatura della fiamma); • combustione normale: normale: anche se la combustione risulta risulta essere normale si ha emissione emissione di anidride carbonica (CO 2) che provoca l’effetto serra. La tabella 2 riporta alcuni limiti e normative relative alla emissione di inquinanti. Tabella 2- Alcuni limiti e normative relative alla emissione di inquinanti.
Nel seguito, ci limitiamo a valutare le emissioni di CO2, che sono attualmente quelle di maggiore interesse, per varie tipologie di combustibile. A tal fine, indichiamo innanzitutto con em la CO 2 prodotta, in tonnellate, per ottenere 1 TJ di energia termica bruciando un determinato combustibile; questo valore dipende dal contenuto di carbonio del combustibile e dal suo potere calorifico. Tale energia sarà convertita in energia elettrica in un impianto termoelettrico, il cui rendimento globale medio vale ηgm . La emissione totale di CO2 per ogni TJ di energia elettrica o meccanica prodotta sarà allora data da:
etot = W t t · em =
· em
,
= (14)
La Tab.3 riporta i valori delle emissioni così calcolate per i principali combustibili. Tabella 3- Principali caratteristiche caratteristiche dei combustibili combustibili commerciali.
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Capitolo 1
C c =
[kg/kWh]
(15)
E’ inversamente proporzionale al prodotto del rendimento per il potere calorifico del combustibile. Il rendimento globale dell'unità termoelettrica è dato da: ηu = P E E / Qin
(16)
1.1.1.4 - Il consumo specifico di calore C s
Consumo specifico di calore è il quoziente tra il consumo di calore e l’energia elettrica prodotta durante l’intervallo di tempo considerato, misurata al punto di uscita verso la rete (a valle del prelievo di energia elettrica per i servizi ausiliari di centrale e a monte del trasformatore principale); è dato da: C s = 3600/ η 3600/ ηu [kJ/kWh]
(17)
1.1.1.5 - Il consumo specifico di vapore C v v
Un valore che espresso il tasso di consumo di vapore per produrre 1 KWh; è dato da: C v v = 3600/( ηu .Qc ) [kg/kWh]
(18)
dove: Qc : la quantità di calore al ciclo [kW] Per una sezione termoelettrica tradizionale (320 MW ai morsetti dell’alternatore) il rendimento lordo al massimo carico si aggira intorno al 42% (consumo specifico lordo di 2048 kcal/kWh) e il rendimento netto è pari al 40% (consumo specifico netto di 2150 kcal/kWh).
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Capitolo 1
Al diminuire del carico il rendimento diminuisce (aumenta quindi il consumo specifico), poiché si modifica il ciclo termico per la diminuzione delle temperature e delle pressioni rispetto ai valori nominali.
Figura 4– 4– Variazioni del consumo specifico di calore per unità termoelettrica 320 MW.
1.1.2 - La rigenerazione negli impianti a vapore.
La rigenerazione consiste nella sostituzione di uno scambio termico superiore con l'esterno con uno scambio termico interno al sistema, possibilmente di tipo a recupero (calore di scarto). Tale pratica risulta particolarmente vantaggiosa se si sostituiscono gli scambi termici con l'esterno nella zona del ciclo dove il fluido operativo opera a basse temperature; infatti, il livello di temperatura sviluppato nei sistemi di combustione è elevato, e la degradazione del calore fino alle basse temperature del fluido operativo del ciclo comporta elevate irreversibilità nello scambio termico. Il ciclo Hirn può essere suddiviso in più cicli disposti termicamente in parallelo (ovvero che condividono la "sorgente" superiore; Figura 5
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Capitolo 1
Il ciclo ottenuto dalla combinazione dei tre cicli I, II e III é del tutto equivalente al ciclo originario in termini di calore (aree sottese dalle trasformazioni), lavoro (area del ciclo) e rendimento. Se la caldaia è dotata di un economizzatore, una parte del calore residuo contenuto nei fumi della combustione viene utilizzata per il preriscaldamento dell'acqua . In questo caso rimane invariato il calore speso ma aumenta quantità di calore utilizzato e quindi il rendimento; per la determinazione rendimento si deve infatti tener conto non dell'entalpia dell'acqua l'ingresso della caldaia ma dell'entalpia, inferiore, all'ingresso dell'economizzatore. Volendo ottenere il rendimento termico utile del generatore ηu, si deve giungere al calore speso per il vapore il calore esterno eventualmente utilizzato per il preriscaldamento del combustibile o dell'aria comburente e si deve sottrarre calore utilizzato la quantità di calore la quantità di calore nell’economizzatore QECON.. la quantità di calore nell’evaporatore QEVA.. la quantità di calore nello surriscaldatore QSUR.. la quantità di calore assorbita dall’acqua di alimento Qw .
1.1.2.1 - L’importanza i cicli rigenerativi.
La rigenerazione è una tecnica molto utilizzata nei sistemi di conversione termodinamica dell’energia, ai fini dell’aumento del rendimento. Il vapore spillato non compirebbe quindi alcun lavoro, e riscalderebbe soltanto l'acqua liquida alla stessa pressione, il che risulta chiaramente controproducente. La risulta però molto vantaggiosa anche a costo di una diminuzione del lavoro utile del ciclo. Il grado di rigenerazione che rende massimo il rendimento termodinamico è vicino a R = 0.5 . le applicazione di energia solare può entrare qui per produrre l’energia termica tramite i collettori solari a concentrazione lineari e riscaldare l’acqua di alimento e sfruttamento una fonte esterna di calore senza consumo di combustibile, e di lato in modo si otterrà quanto segue: - Ridurre la quantità del combustibile consumato in unità termoelettrica per produrre la stessa potenza. - Ridurre il vapore spillato che dovrebbe passare la turbina dove avrebbe aumenta la sua potenza prodotta.
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Capitolo 1
La differenza di entalpia nell’economizzatore Δh 2-1’ 2-1’ . La differenza di entalpia nell’evaporatore Δh3-2. La differenza di entalpia nello surriscaldatore; Δh4-3. Il salto entalpico totale del generatore di vapore Δh4-1’ 4-1’ .
1.1.2.2 - Ciclo Rankine – Hirn a rigenerazione.
Per aumentare ulteriormente il rendimento si adotta no i cicli rigenerativi o a spillamento di vapore, nei quali l’acqua che va alla cal daia viene preriscaldata mediante vapore spillato dalla turbina. Il rendimento migliora perché le calorie conte nute nel vapore spillato, che ha già compiuto del lavoro in turbina, vengono utiliz zate integralmente per innalzar e la temperatura dell’acqua all’ingresso di caldaia invece di andare in gran parte perdute nel condensatore. Lo spillamento di vapore riduce lo scostamento del ci clo Rankine da quello ideale di Carnot; infatti il calore, f ornito ornito dall’esterno con la combustione del combustibile, è ceduto al fluido (l’acqua di alimento) che è già stato preriscaldato a spese di calore prelevato all’interno del ciclo. In tal modo viene evitata una parte del ciclo Rankine a minor rendimento, cio è quella del riscaldamento dell’acqua a bassa temperatura lungo la curva limite inferiore.
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Capitolo 1
Figura 8- Schema di impianto a vapore con uno spillamento
Nella Figura 8 si fa riferimento ad una portata unitaria (1 kg/s) al condensatore. La portata ṁ A spillata in turbina nel corso dell' espansione (punto A) viene interamente condensata nello scambiatore rigenerativo (Figura 8), e preriscalda l'acqua di alimento prima dell'ingresso nel generatore di vapore. Per semplicità si assume che la condensa non sia sottoraffreddata (punto a) e che la sua entalpia sia uguale a quella dell'acqua di alimento in uscita dallo scambiatore (per i liquidi l'entalpia dipende molto poco dalla pressione). La condensa viene reiniettata sulla linea dell'acqua di alimento mediante una apposita pompa.
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Capitolo 1
m(h A - ha ) = (ha - h0 ) = R i
( 20)
La differenza (h A - ha ) rappresenta il calore sottratto all'unità di massa di vapore spillato, dalle condizioni di estrazione (normalmente, vapore surriscaldato) a quelle di liquido condensato. L'espressione del rendimento per il ciclo limite con uno spillamento é: ηR = 1- Q 2 /Q1 = 1- (h4 - h0 )/{ (1+m)[(h3 - h1 ) + (1- R) i]}
(21)
dove (1- R) i = h 1 - h A rappresenta la quantità di calore non rigenerata e che deve essere trasferita all'acqua in fase liquida nell'economizzatore.
Figura 10- Diagramma temperatura-superficie temperatura-superficie dello scambiatore rigenerativo
Per il ciclo non rigenerato (R = 0), si ricade nel caso del ciclo semplice; Poiché il calore Q 2 = (h4 - h0 ) trasferito al condensatore é lo stesso nei due casi, la massimizzazione del rendimento é ricondotta a quella del calore Q1 trasferito nella caldaia; nel caso con 1 spillamento, il massimo del rendimento si raggiunge circa per R =
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Capitolo 1
La figura 11 rappresenta anche l'andamento di ∆Q 1/Q1 per n > 1 spillamento. Per n = 2 la curva presenta un massimo per R ≈ 0.75, ed il valore per R = 1 corrisponde al valore massimo di ∆Q1/Q1 per n = 1. Tale situazione si ripete per n >2, con ∆Q 1/Q1 (R=1, n = i) = ∆Q1/Q1 (R=Ropt , n = i-1). L'incremento ∆Q1/Q1 risulta sempre più contenuto al crescere di n; inoltre, il massimo si sposta sempre di più su valori prossimi a R = 1. Non conviene quindi mai raggiungere tale valore limite di rigenerazione, in quanto ∆Q1/Q1 (R=1, n = i) = ∆Q1/Q1 (R=Ropt , n = i-1) (22) In effetti, per preriscaldare rigenerativamente l'acqua fino alla temperatura di vaporizzazione, occorrerebbe spillare vapore direttamente lungo l'isobara superiore, ovvero prima dell'ingresso in turbina; il vapore spillato non compirebbe quindi alcun lavoro, e riscalderebbe soltanto l'acqua liquida alla stessa pressione, il che risulta chiaramente controproducente.
Figura 12- confrontati i rendimenti tra ciclo semplice e ciclo rigenerativo
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Capitolo 1
Il rapporto fra il segmento MF e quello AF dà in valore relativo la quantità di vapore che va al condensatore. Tale rappresentazione del ciclo rigenerativo conserva alle coordinate dei punti della linea di espansione il loro significato fisico, mentre ciò non è più vero per i punti del preriscaldamento dell’acqua; dell’acqua; valgono invece le considerazioni energetiche sulle quantit{ di calore scambiate e sul lavoro utile ottenuto. Facendo riferimento al diagramma di figura, l’area del ci clo (MNBCDEF) rappresenta il lavoro utile ottenuto, mentre l’area (HMFK) rappresenta il calore ceduto nel condensatore. Se consideriamo un solo spillamento, potremmo pensare di praticarlo alla temperatura di condensazione, non ottenendo in tal caso nessun riscaldamento e quindi nessun incremento di rendimento. Se invece riscaldassimo l’acqua alimento con vapore spillato alla temperatura di ingresso turbina, avremmo in tal caso un efficace riscaldamento ma questo vapore non produrrebbe nessun lavoro in turbina e quindi non otterremmo alcun incremento di rendimento. Il massimo incremento di rendimento con un solo spillamento si avrà quindi per una temperatura intermedia tra le due. Aumentando il numero degli spillamenti si incrementa la temperatura di preriscaldamento dell’acqua dell’acqua e si aumenta il rendimento del ciclo. Il grado di rigenerazione ottimale coincide con quello massi mo (temperatura dell’acqua alimento uguale a quella di ebollizione in caldaia) solo nel caso teorico di infiniti spillamenti. Nelle pratiche realizzazioni, poiché gli spillamenti comportano un onere di impianto, si pone il problema di ottimizzare il loro numero e la superficie di scambio dei singoli riscaldatori. Infatti i miglioramenti del rendimento del ciclo termico comportano l’adozione di impianti sempre più complessi, i cui costi non sempre possono essere
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Capitolo 1
P turbina turbina = P turbina1 turbina1 + P turbina2 turbina2 P turbina1 turbina1 = ṁv6 × Δh6-7 P turbina2 turbina2 = ṁv8 × Δh7-8
(23)
dove: ṁv6 = ṁvtotale ṁv8 = ṁv6 - ṁv7
-
Ridurre la quantità di vapore significa riduzione la potenza prodotta dalla turbina.
-
La potenza termica richiesta dalla caldaia : P caldaia caldaia = ṁw × Δh6-5
(24)
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Capitolo 1
Negli impianti di maggior potenza (v.Fig.17), gli spillamenti sono organizzati in due gruppi, ad alta pressione ( preriscaldatori di alta) e a bassa pressione ( preriscaldatori di bassa ) , separati da un componente, detto degasatore, che oltre al preriscaldamento assolve lo scopo di rimuovere i gas incondensabili che sono presenti nel vapore o vi si accumulano a causa delle infiltrazioni d’aria nella sezione subatmosferica dell’impianto. Questi gas, accumulandosi nel condensatore e non potendo essere condensati, causerebbero un incremento di pressione nello stesso ( perdita di vuoto al condensatore) con conseguente peggioramento del rendimento. Il degasatore è l’unico scambiatore a miscelamento; gli altri sono a superficie: in essi il vapore spillato condensa preriscaldando l’acqua di alimento, viene successivamente laminato (per riportarlo allo stato vapore che ha un più alto coefficiente di scambio termico) ed inviato ai preriscaldatori successivi per essere infine convogliato nel degasatore (per i preriscaldatori di alta) o nel condensatore (per quelli di bassa). Il degasatore opera ad una pressione intermedia per cui è necessario dividere il sistema di pompaggio in tre sezioni: pompe di estrazione del condensato (dal condensatore al degasatore), pompe booster (dal degasatore ai preriscaldatori di alta) e pompe di alimento (dai preriscaldatori di alta al generatore di vapore).
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Capitolo 1
I progettisti delle caldaie mantengono sempre la temperatura dell'acqua di alimento all’uscita dell’economizzatore a circa 25 a 35 gradi sotto la temperatura di saturazione in corpo cilidrico. Questo viene fatto per evitare principalmente vapore nel economizzatore. Un economizzatore vapore è generalmente meno affidabile. Come regola empirica, uno per ogni grado di raccogliere temperatura dell'acqua economizzatore, ci sarà una caduta di circa 3 a 3,5 gradi. Quindi i limiti del riscaldamento dipende dalla temperatura di saturazione per questo, la determinazione della temperatura di saturazione che corrispondente alla pressione della caldaia con l’attenzione di questo valore della temperature in modo che non ha superato; per garantire l'evaporazione non avviene nell'economizzatore, la differenza della temperatura tra la temperatura di saturazione e la temperatura all'uscita dell'economizzatore che dovrebbe essere almeno all'interno del dominio di 28C°. L'OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer) si consiglia la temperatura d ell’acqua di alimento all’uscit{ dell’economizzatore T inferiore a 28 Cᵒ dalla temperatura di saturazione T s(p) del vapore nel corpo cilindrico corrispondente la pressione di funzionamento, cioè: T s(p) - T> 28 Cᵒ (26)
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Capitolo 1
1.1.3 - Unità termoelettrica 30 MW nello Yemen. L’acqua prelevata dalla pompa di estrazione del condensato dal condensatore (37,87 C°), entra in preriscaldatore di bassa pressione, nei quali si scalda a spese del vapore spillato dalla turbina di bassa pressione. La temperatura ambiente nell'area della è (37 – 40) C° durante tutto l'anno; e la temperatura dell'acqua di raffreddamento (32 – 35) C°. Il vapore spillato condensa e viene reinserito nel ciclo prima della pompa. Successivamente l’acqua entra del degasatore a miscela dove scambia calore con il vapore spillato alla fine di media pressione della turbina. Una seconda pompa, detta di alimento, porta l’acqua a 110 bar. Vi sono poi altri due preriscaldatori, in due rami paralleli, dove l’acqua continua a preriscaldarsi a spese di vapore spillato dai media e alta pressione della turbina.
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Capitolo 1
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Capitolo 1
2- ridurre la quantità del combustibile consumato che è necessario per vaporizzare l'acqua di alimento nella caldaia .
1.2 - L’integrazione.
La tecnologia solare a concentrazione potrà giocare nei prossimi decenni un ruolo fondamentale nella produzione energetica mondial e, sfruttando calore ad alta temperatura da fonte solare per produrre quantità significative di termica tramite conversione termodinamica con cicli in un sistema integrato di minore emissione di gas
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Capitolo 1
2- Attraverso analisi termodinamico e il bilancio di massa, e che consente di calcolare
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Capitolo 1 Tabella 4: Consumo di energia nel mondo nel 2006.
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Capitolo 1
a Priolo Gargallo, in Sicilia, con potenza di 5 MWatt. Già 14 centrali simili sono state
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