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POLOGÍA DE LA LA TRADICIÓN A POLOGÍA DE
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Roberto de Mattei
POLOGÍA DE LA LA T RADICIÓN A POLOGÍA DE
Post–scriptum del libro El Concilio Vaticano II – Una historia nunca escrita
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CONTENIDO
I NTRODUCCIÓN NTRODUCCIÓN
I LA IGLESIA MILITANTE EN LAS HORAS MÁS DIFÍCILES DE SU HISTORIA II
LA “R EGULA EGULA FIDEI DE LA IGLESIA EN LAS ÉPOCAS DE CRISIS DE FE”
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Apología de la Tradición Título original: Apologia della Tradizione Autor: Roberto de Mattei Traducción: Martín Jorge Viano Primera edición en italiano: octubre de 2011 Primera edición en español: marzo de 2018
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I NTRODUCCIÓN
En su discurso a la Curia Romana del 20 de diciembre de 2010 [1] Benedicto XVI comparó la crisis actual a aquella que, en el siglo V, antecedió a la decadencia y la caída del Imperio Romano. Las analogías entre las dos épocas son reales. Si el Imperio Romano cayó por causa de las invasiones bárbaras, pero sobretodo como consecuencia de su de su desmoronamiento interno, del mismo modo hoy nuestra civili zación está sometida a una creciente presión exterior mientras, en su interior, padece una situación de disgregación cultural y moral creciente. Existe, sin embargo, una diferencia fundamental entre las condiciones de la sociedad de entonces y las del Occidente contemporáneo. En la época sombría de las invasiones bárbaras, en los siglos V y VI, cuando las instituciones políticas y sociales se desmoronaron y la Iglesia Católica se afirmó como único centro de orden y estabilidad en el caos generalizado, los nombres de San León y San Gregorio, Papas a los cuales la Iglesia atribuyó el apelativo Magno, nos recuerdan el papel decisivo que la institución pontificia tuvo en aquellos aquellos siglos. En nuestros días la Iglesia, sufriente y debilitada, está siendo atacada pero no resiste, como en el siglo V, a las vicisitudes de la Historia sino que parece casi aplastada. El remolino de la autodestrucción la dilacera [2] y, como lo admite su misma autoridad suprema, atraviesa una de las crisis internas más profundas de su existencia[3]. Esta crisis tuvo un punto focal en el Concilio Vaticano II que se desarrolló en Roma entre octubre de 1962 y diciembre de 1965. Desde entonces, la Iglesia parece haberse dejado seducir por el mundo moderno, al cual debería oponerse, y hoy se debate en su abrazo mortal. Benedicto XVI –quien vivió como joven protagonista los años del Concilio, y, después, como Prefecto de la Doctrina de la Fe, pudo evaluar la profundidad y la extensión de la crisis postconciliar– conoce más que nadie lo dramático del problema. En un célebre discurso a la Curia Romana del 22 de diciembre de 2005 [4], él propuso utilizar el método de la “ hermenéutica de la continuidad ” opuesta a la de la discontinuidad y la ruptura. De ese modo, Benedicto XVI condujo la discusión del
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Es precisamente lo que intenté hacer en mi libro “ El Concilio Vaticano II – Una historia nunca escrita”, en la cual el lector puede encontrar una reconstrucción histórica lo más verdadera y fiel posible del evento conciliar, basada en fuentes y documentos [5]. Aunque hasta el momento las críticas a mi libro fueron poco numerosas y de escasa consistencia, juzgo útil ofrecer algunos elementos de reflexión a quien quiera profundizar los problemas que inevitablemente levanta y en particular el siguiente: ¿se puede discutir históricamente el Concilio Vaticano II exponiendo a la luz pública eventuales sombras, límites y consecuencias negativas? De un modo general, ¿es lícito al historiador colocar en evidencia y eventualmente criticar a personalidades y acontecimientos eclesiásticos? La respuesta a esas preguntas puede ser dada en dos ámbitos: el histórico y el teológico. Lo importante es no sobreponer dos ámbitos que no están separados ni incomunicados pero que son realmente distintos: la historia y la teología. La historia, sin embargo, no es una simple exposición de hechos sino un auténtico “conocimiento” orientado a reconstruir los acontecimientos de forma ordenada, por medio de juicios de valor emitidos después de haber evaluado en forma ordenada la credibilidad de los acontecimientos y de los testigos. La historia de la Iglesia, observa Mons. Hubert Jedin, recibió concretamente su objeto de estudio de la Teología [6]. El historiador de la Iglesia es diferente del teólogo, no porque pueda prescindir de la Teología sino porque no es en ese campo donde desarrolla su conocimiento. Al historiador le es necesario un conocimiento teológico para comprender los hechos humanos que tienen en su centro a la Iglesia, del mismo modo que al teólogo no le puede faltar el conocimiento histórico si no quiere hacer de su doctrina una especulación abstracta, privada de sentido de la realidad. Los métodos de investigación son sin embargo diferentes. La Fe siempre debe iluminar los pasos del historiador católico, sobretodo cuando el objeto de su investigación es la Iglesia, pero el método que sigue y las cuestiones c uestiones que expone no son las del teólogo ni las del pastor. La pretensión de evaluar un trabajo histórico sobre la base de categorías
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La obra de Hergenrother cubre desde el nacimiento de la Iglesia hasta el Pontificado de León XIII. La de Pastor abarca el período correspondiente al inicio del exilio de los Papas en Avignon, en 1305, hasta la elección de Pío VII el 14 de marzo de 1800. Ambas han sido escritas con un riguroso método histórico y un profundo amor a la Iglesia y sus instituciones. Por lo demás, quien tenga tiempo de compulsar dichas obras se dará cuenta cómo sus autores no ocultaron ninguna página obscura de la historia de la Iglesia, persuadidos de que es especialmente en esas horas sombrías en las que se manifiesta Su grandeza y divinidad. El Cardenal Hergenrother estaba convencido de que “ la más bella defensa de los Papas es la revelación de su ser ”[11] y que aquello que se pide al historiador “ es la exposición objetivamente fiel y totalmente desapasionada de los hechos por él sinceramente examinados; en lo demás él debe tener libertad para manifestar sus rincipios religiosos”[12]. En lo que dice respecto al Barón von Pastor, Mons. Pío Cenci, quien estuvo a cargo de la edición italiana de su obra, cuenta que el historiador alemán, interrogado un día sobre su método, que consistía en destacar las sombras y las luces de los pontificados por él relatados, respondió con estas palabras: “ Nada hay que temer. Yo dije todo como un hijo obligado a revelar las faltas de una dilectísima Madre”[13]. León XIII, gran propulsor de los estudios históricos, como también de los filosóficos y teológicos, afirma que la historia de la Iglesia es como un espejo en el cual resplandece su vida a través de los siglos. “ Quienes la estudian jamás deben perder de vista que ella contiene un conjunto de hechos dogmáticos que se imponen a la fe y que nadie puede poner en duda (…). Sin embargo, como la Iglesia, al ser la continuación de la vida del Verbo Encarnado entre los hombres, está compuesta por un elemento divino un elemento humano, este último debe ser expuesto a los maestros y estudiado por los discípulos con una gran probidad. Como está dicho en el libro de Job: ‘¿Acaso Dios tiene necesidad de nuestras mentiras?’ (Job 13, 7). El historiador de la Iglesia – continúa León XIII– será tanto más eficaz al destacar su origen divino, superior a todos
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de la Iglesia no quiere decir que ella no haya conocido, a lo largo de su historia, cismas y herejías que dividieron dolorosamente a los sucesores de los Apóstoles y, en algunos casos, alcanzaron a la Cátedra de Pedro. El historiador católico, por lo tanto, puede reconstruir libremente los hechos y enunciar juicios sobre el comportamiento de la autoridad eclesiástica, siempre y cuando se limite a la búsqueda de la verdad y sea movido por amor a la Iglesia y no por el deseo de denigrarla. Si los hechos históricos colocan problemas teológicos, el historiador no puede ignorarlos y debe traerlos a la luz pública, pero siempre recordando la doctrina de la Iglesia. De igual modo, en el plano teológico, todos los bautizados tienen el derecho de presentar problemas a la legítima autoridad eclesiástica, aún cuando nadie tenga la facultad de substituir al Supremo Magisterio de la Iglesia para resolver de forma definitiva los temas controvertidos. Antes que historiadores o teólogos, los estudiosos católicos son miembros del Cuerpo Místico de Cristo y tienen no sólo el derecho sino el deber de ocuparse, con la competencia que les es propia, de todas las cuestiones de fe y de moral de las cuales la Iglesia, y sólo Ella, es custodio y maestra. Todo fiel, sea cual fuera su posición y su rol en la Iglesia y en la sociedad civil, tiene el derecho de levantar cuestiones y de interpelar a la autoridad eclesiástica para que las resuelva, a través de la palabra suprema de su Magisterio. Es lo que me propongo en la segunda parte de este estudio, dedicado a establecer cuál es la regla de fe de la Iglesia en las épocas de crisis, como ésta en que estamos viviendo. Hubo un tiempo en que, además de los catecismos, se escribían preciosos manuales de teología para laicos, con el objeto de invitar a los fieles no a hacerse teólogos sino a conocer la buena teología y, a través de la misma, a amar la fe de la Iglesia [15]. Como simple fiel, en las páginas que siguen, no pretendo erigirme en teólogo, sino simplemente recordar algunos fundamentos doctrinales que deberían ser conocidos por todos los católicos de mediana cultura y, a partir de ello, invitarlos a una reflexión. Mis puntos de referencia son los teólogos más seguros de la Escolástica, de la Contra–
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PREFACIO PARA LA EDICIÓN BRASILERA[18]
Las páginas que siguen fueron escritas para responder algunas objeciones suscitadas por mi libro “ El Concilio Vaticano II. Una historia nunca escrita” publicado en italiano a fines del 2010 y, después, en otros idiomas [19]. Muchas cosas ocurrieron desde entonces, pero sobre todo el acto de renuncia de Benedicto XVI al pontificado, el 11 de febrero de 2013, y la elección del papa Francisco, el 13 de marzo del mismo año. Entre esos dos acontecimientos históricos se consumó la crisis de la así llamada “hermenéutica de la reforma en la continuidad” de Benedicto XVI [20], a la cual muchos se referían. La crisis de esa línea de interpretación fue confirmada por el mismo Papa Benedicto XVI en su discurso al Clero Romano del 14 de febrero de 2013, tres días después del anuncio de su renuncia [21]. Se trata de un discurso largo y articulado sobre el Vaticano II, pronunciado de improviso, sin anotaciones, ex abundantia cordis. Un discurso que surge como visión retrospectiva de la participación del joven teólogo Ratzinger en el Concilio, pero que se presenta como un testamento doctrinal. Sin detenerme en la descripción que Benedicto XVI hace de su experiencia conciliar, como perito del cardenal Frings, me limito limito a destacar el punto substancial de su discurso: “(...) fuimos al Concilio –recuerda– no sólo con alegría, sino con entusiasmo. Había una expectativa increíble. Esperábamos que todo se renovase, que llegara verdaderamente un nuevo Pentecost és és , una nueva era de la Iglesia”. Pero ocurrió algo imprevisto: “ Estaba el Concilio de los Padres –el verdadero Concilio–, ero estaba también el Concilio de los medios de comunicación. Era casi un Concilio aparte, y el mundo percibió el Concilio a través de éstos, a través de los medios. Así, ues, el Concilio inmediatamente eficiente que llegó al pue pueblo fue el de los medios, no el
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Benedicto XVI, en lugar de ser histórico o teológico es, ante todo, hermenéutico. El problema de una falsa hermenéutica que se opone a la interpretación auténtica, no sólo de los textos, sino del mismo acontecimiento conciliar. La tesis del Papa Ratzinger no es nueva. Es la idea de fondo de los teólogos que, en 1972, después de haber participado del nacimiento de la revista Concilium, con Karl Rahner, Hans Küng y Edgard Schillebeeckx, la abandonaron para dar vida a la revista Communio[22]. El padre Henri de Lubac fue el primero en acuñar la expresión “paraconcilio” para indicar al movimiento organizado que habría deformado la enseñanza del Concilio mediante una interpretación tendenciosa de ese evento [23]. Otros teólogos usaron el nombre “meta-concilio” [24] y el mismo cardenal Joseph Ratzinger, en el célebre “ Rapporto sulla fede”[25], en 1985, anticipó la tesis del Concilio virtual que es también la clave de lectura de su discurso a la Curia Romana, en diciembre de 2005, sobre dos hermenéuticas, la de la discontinuidad y la de la “reforma en la continuidad”. El punto frágil de la tesis de Communio está en querer reducir el problema del Concilio a una cuestión hermenéutica, con una propuesta oriunda del subjetivismo y del idealismo. La discusión hermenéutica acentúa más la interpretación de un hecho que el mismo hecho. Pero, en el momento en que son puestas en confrontación diversas hermenéuticas, ellas se distancian de la objetividad del hecho, sobreponiendo a éste sus interpretaciones subjetivas, reducidas a opiniones. En la presencia de esa pluralidad de opiniones, la palabra decisiva podría ser pronunciada por una autoridad suprema que definiera, sin sombra alguna de equívocos, la verdad en que se debe creer. Pero en sus discursos, Benedicto XVI, como los Papas que lo precedieron, nunca quiso atribuir un carácter magisterial a su tesis interpretativa. En el debate hermenéutico en curso, por lo tanto, el criterio de juicio último permanece siendo la objetividad de los hechos. Y el hecho innegable es que, si hubo un Concilio virtual, no fue menos real que aquel que se desarrollaba en el interior de la Basílica de San Pedro. Del punto de vista histórico, el Concilio Vaticano II no puede ser dividido en diferentes aspectos porque representa un todo que comprende su espíritu y sus
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obligatoriedad, fue absolutamente diferente”[27]. Característica sorprendente ésta de la “pastoralidad” porque, en la totalidad de los veinte concilios universales precedentes, la forma siempre fue dogmática y normativa [28]. En el Vaticano II, la “pastoralidad” no fue sólo la explicación natural del contenido dogmático del Concilio de un modo adaptado a los tiempos, como antes, sino que fue elevada a principio alternativo al “dogmatismo”, dando a entender que existe una prioridad de aquélla sobre éste. La dimensión pastoral, de suyo accidental y secundaria frente a la doctrinal, se volvió prioritaria en los hechos, operando una revolución en el lenguaje y en la mentalidad. La Iglesia se despojó de su vestidura dogmática para vestir un nuevo hábito pastoral y exhortativo, ya no más obligatorio y definitivo. La relación de la Iglesia con el mundo [29] cambió con el abandono de la lengua latina y de la predicación apologética para el pueblo, como también del estilo definitorio y jurídico [30]. El Padre John O’Malley definió al Vaticano II como “ un evento lingüístico” explicando cómo las profesiones de fe y los cánones fueron substituidos por un “ género literario” que él denomina “epidíctico”, o sea, demostrativo [31]. Pero expresarse acerca del pasado en términos diferentes significa aceptar una transformación cultural más profunda que todo cuanto se pueda imaginar. El estilo del discurso revela, de hecho, aún antes que las ideas, las tendencias profundas del espíritu de quien se expresa. “ El estilo es la expresión última del significado, es significado y no ornamento, y es también el instrumento hermenéutico por excelencia”[32].
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del mundo, obligó al Concilio a seguir sus reglas. El Vaticano II moduló su mensaje tomando en consideración las exigencias del mundo de la comunicación, pero eso, a su vez, interfiere en la misma naturaleza del mensaje. Hoy, más que en ese entonces, los medios masivos de comunicación están posicionados no sólo en orden a representar la realidad sino a determinarla, gracias al poder y a la fuerza de sugestión que tienen. Cuando los medios masivos de comunicación substituyen al Magisterio de la Iglesia, cuando las impresiones y los sentimientos substituyen las ideas y los principios, cuando cada día trae una novedad y la confusión se difunde, quien no quisiera perder el único camino en el que se encuentra la Verdad y la Vida [35] debe seguir la Sagrada Tradición de la Iglesia que, de Vicario de Cristo en Vicario de Cristo, nos reconduce al mismo Cristo. Debe recordarse, sin embargo, que el término Vicario de Cristo no expresa únicamente el supremo poder de jurisdicción del Papa, sino también los límites de esa jurisdicción, derivados de aquello que esa palabra expresa. El Papa no es el “sucesor” de Cristo sino únicamente su Vicario porque Cristo es solo Él, Fundador, Cabeza y Señor de la Iglesia [36]. El pontificado del papa Francisco se abrió en un clima de incertidumbre y de grandes interrogantes sobre el futuro de la Iglesia, pero el sensus fidei que conservamos nos impone la fidelidad a aquella Tradición que únicamente los Pastores tienen el derecho de aclarar y enseñar, pero que todos los bautizados tienen el derecho de guardar y transmitir como la recibieron.
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porque nosotros no podemos progresar y perfeccionarnos en las cosas que pasan, sino únicamente en aquellas que permanecen. La Tradición no es el pasado, porque el pasado no existe más y no puede volver. La Tradición es aquello del pasado que vive en el presente, aquello que debe vivir para que nuestro presente tenga un futuro. Pero la raíz última de todo lo que es y de lo que será, es el mismo Dios, en quien, pasado, presente y futuro se funden en un único acto infinito de ser. El corazón de la tradición está en el mismo Dios, Ser por esencia, eterno e inmutable. Está en Dios y solamente en Él y en Aquélla que es el eco perfecto de Él, la Santísima Virgen María, en quien los defensores de la Fe y de la Tradición pueden encontrar la fuerza sobrenatural necesaria para enfrentar nuestro tiempo de crisis. La Tradición es aquello que es estable en las perennes alteraciones de las cosas. Es aquello que es inmutable en un mundo que cambia y lo es porque tiene en sí mismo un reflejo de eternidad. Es por eso que las palabras de Santa Teresa resuenan en nuestros corazones como un manifiesto de la Tradición: “ Todo pasa, solo Dios no se muda”. Porque sólo aquello que se fundamenta y reposa en Dios merece ser conservado, transmitido y guardado. Y, en la actual época de Revolución, ¿dónde podrían los hombres y los pueblos buscar la estabilidad y la paz, sino en Aquel que es el principio y el centro de todo lo que existe y que es siempre igual a sí mismo, en la infinidad de sus perfecciones? Al terminar esta presentación, séame permitido dirigirme con devoción a Su Santidad Francisco I, en quien reconozco al sucesor de Pedro y al cual me siento
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CAPÍTULO I LA IGLESIA MILITANTE EN LAS HORAS MÁS DIFÍCILES DE SU HISTORIA
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1. La era de las persecuciones La historia de la Iglesia, a lo largo de dos milenios, nunca fue pacífica ni tranquila. Ella ha conocido persecuciones externas y crisis internas y siempre las ha afrontado con espíritu militante. La primera crisis interna ocurrió en el Concilio de Jerusalén del año 50, en el cual el Apóstol San Pablo “ resistió en la cara” (Gal. 2,11) al jefe de los Apóstoles Pedro, reprobándole la conducta en las confrontaciones con los paganos. De ese modo, como observa Romano Amerio, la Iglesia naciente, a través de la separación entre la Sinagoga y el Cristianismo, refutó toda forma de sincretismo entre el Evangelio y la Torá judía, y afirmó su misión universal [39]. Jesucristo, Hijo de Dios, y Dios Él mismo, fundador y cabeza de la Iglesia católica, confió a sus discípulos la misión de llevar la palabra del Evangelio no sólo a todo hombre, sino a todas las naciones ( Mt. 28, 19; Rm. 1, 5). Esto podría haberse desarrollado no en oposición sino en colaboración con la autoridad temporal del mundo, porque Jesús afirmó la distinción entre el orden religioso y el civil, entre la Iglesia y el Estado. El Imperio romano, sin embargo, instigado por el Sanedrín, no sólo condenó a la muerte a Jesús sino que, con un senado-consulto, al cual solían recurrir todos los perseguidores, negó derecho de ciudadanía al Cristianismo y, con Nerón, inició la primera persecución cruenta[40]. El Imperio, que en el Panteón igualaba a todas las sectas, negó al Cristianismo el derecho de presentarse como la Verdad salvífica absoluta. Pero los cristianos no renunciaron a testimoniar públicamente su fe, recordando las palabras
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de Constantino hubo un giro radical en la historia. Gracias a ello los cristianos abandonaron las catacumbas para ocupar los espacios públicos con sus basílicas, sus ceremonias, su clero y sus propios fieles. Sin embargo, precisamente en ese momento, el Cristianismo tuvo que enfrentar una de las más terribles crisis de su historia. No era sólo el enfrentamiento contra el paganismo sobreviviente que, con Juliano el Apóstata, intentaba la última revancha. Se trató sobre todo de la lucha contra el primer gran enemigo interno de la Iglesia, el arrianismo.
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2. La crisis arriana del siglo IV Arrio, sacerdote de Alejandría, afirmaba que el Verbo, segunda Persona de la Santísima Trinidad, no era igual al Padre sino creado por Él co mo término medio entre Dios y el hombre, y en consecuencia de substancia difer en difer ente te de la divina del Padre. Constantino convocó en el año 325, en Nicea, el primer gran Concilio ecuménico de la la Iglesia, en el cual, gracias a la contribución decisiva de san Atanasio [42], obispo de Alejandría, fue definida la doctrina de la “consubstancialidad” de naturaleza entre las tres personas de la Santísima Trinidad. Sin embargo, no habían todavía transcurrido diez años después de Nicea, que el arrianismo ya había penetrado profundamente en el interior interio r de la Iglesia, al punto que dos asambleas de obispos, reunidas en Cesarea y en Tiro (334–335), condenaron a Atanasio por rebelión y fanatismo. El campeón de la fe ortodoxa fue depuesto de su
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en Frigia por su fidelidad intransigente a la ortodoxia. En el año 357, el Papa Liberio, vencido por los sufrimientos del exilio y por la insistencia de sus amigos, pero igualmente impulsado por el “amor a la paz”, firmó la fórmula semiarriana de Sirmio [47] y rompió la comunión con San Atanasio declarándolo separado de la Iglesia de Roma por el uso del término “consubstancial”, como lo testimonian cuatro cartas transmitidas por San Hilario [48]. Bajo el pontificado del mismo Liberio, los concilios de Rímini (359) y de Seleucia (359), que constituyeron un único y gran Concilio representando a Occidente y Oriente, abandonaron el término “consubstancial” de Nicea y establecieron una equívoca “tercera vía” entre los arrianos y san Atanasio. Parecía que la inundación de esta herejía había vencido en la Iglesia. San Roberto Belarmino no considera hereje a Liberio, aún cuando admite que él pecó en su comportamiento externo favoreciendo la herejía [49] . Los concilios gemelos de Seleucia y de Rímini, convocados por el emperador y tenidos como ecuménicos, como el
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la fe fue mantenida por una minoría de santos e indómitos obispos, como Atanasio de Alejandría, Hilario de Poitiers, Eusebio de Vercelli y sobre todo por el pueblo fiel, que no acompañaba las diatribas teológicas sino que conservaba, por simple sensus fidei , la buena doctrina. John Henry Newman, en 1859, ya católico hacía 14 años, había escrito en un artículo que durante la crisis arriana la Ecclesia docens no se había mostrado en todas las circunstancias como el activo instrumento de la Iglesia infalible [53]. El joven sacerdote (después Cardenal) Giovanni Battista Franzelin objetó que esa afirmación parecía perjudicar la indefectibilidad de la Iglesia. El cardenal Newman –hoy beato– beato– con ocasión de la tercera edición de Los arrianos del siglo siglo cuarto en 1871, precisó su pensamiento en estos términos: “Quiero decir que en aquel tiempo de inmensa confusión el divino dogma de la divinidad de Nuestro Señor fue proclamado, inculcado, mantenido (humanamente hablando) preservado mucho
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aprendido, esperan que los mismos maestros condenen la herejía contraria a Cristo y hagan huir como una serpiente a todos sus defensores”[57]. Después de haber recordado la frase de san Paulino de Nola: “ Ab omnium fidelium ”, un eminente teólogo ore pendeamus, quia in omnem fidelem Spiritus Sanctus spirat ”, como Matthias Scheeben comenta: “ Indudablemente esta convicción c onvicción de los fieles es, al mismo tiempo, como regla general, el resultado y el eco de la doctrina concordante y expresa del Cuerpo docente, tanto actual como anterior. Pero todo cuanto se puede concluir es que la misma también constituye un signo y una prueba de la existencia de la enseñanza tradicional propiamente dicha. La misma puede tener una gran importancia cuando su unidad y precisión son, en determinado momento, más demostrativas de la unidad y de la precisión del cuerpo docente; o cuando una parte de este cuerpo pasa a ser infiel a la tradición, como en los tiempos del arrianismo, cuando san Hilario podía decir: ‘Sanctiores sunt aures fideles populi labiis sacerdotum’ (La sacerdotum’ (La fe de los fieles es más sabia que los labios de los sacerdotes) (Contra Aux., n. 6 ); o ); o también cuando una parte del cuerpo docente, antes de definir solemnemente una doctrina que ha sido contestada durante algún
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3. Sombras y luces de los primeros Concilios Mientras los bárbaros irrumpieron dentro de las fronteras del Imperio, al arrianismo le siguieron nuevos devastadores cismas y herejías. El donatism o, primero un cisma y después una herejía eclesiológica, oponía a la Iglesia institución y a sus sacramentos la
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Santísima Virgen (…)”[63]. En el Concilio de Éfeso, celebrado en el 431, los defensores de la ortodoxia, guiados por Cirilo, patriarca de Alejandría, enfrentaron a los heterodoxos encabezados por Nestorio, en ese entonces patriarca de Constantinopla. C onstantinopla. Después de muchos vaivenes, la ortodoxia triunfó y María fue solemnemente proclamada Theotokos, Madre de Dios.
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principal de las invasiones de los bárbaros debe ser vista, según san Jerónimo, en los propios pecados de Occidente. “ Desgraciados nosotros –exclamaba– que nos hicimos tan poco queridos por Dios. Su ira se abatió sobre nosotros a través de la violencia de los bárbaros”[69]. El siglo VI, bajo ciertos aspectos, fue incluso peor que el precedente. Desaparecido
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Calcedonia en su canon 28 repitió ese error. A partir de entonces se iniciaron las desavenencias entre la Iglesia de Roma y la de Oriente. También en los siglos V y VI, la Iglesia católica, desolada en Italia por las guerras góticas, dilacerada en Oriente por la actitud cismática de los Griegos, perseguida en África por los Vándalos y en Armenia por los Persas, dio vida en la Galia a la primera nación europea: la Francia de Clodoveo
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4. “Error cui no resistitur approbatur” A inicios del siglo VII, San Gregorio Magno (590–604) levantó la bandera del Papado, mientras una legión de monjes benedictinos se lanzaba a la conquista del mundo. El injerto del Cristianismo en la cultura romana pro du jo espléndidos frutos. Pero
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6. ¿Qué es la Tradición? La palabra Tradición ha asumido, en el curso de la historia, muchos significados que han adulterado su significado primero y más verdadero. Basta pensar en el uso que de la misma se está haciendo en los ambientes gnósticos y esotéricos que se refieren a una presunta “Tradición primordial” primordia l”,, de la cual derivaría una sincrética “unidad trascendental de las religiones”. En lugar de ello, a única Tradición que a nosotros nos interesa es la Tradición en el sentido específico en el cual la entiende la Iglesia católica[235] . A diferencia de toda otra tradición, la de la Iglesia tiene un origen y un contenido preciso sobre el cual ningún equívoco es posible. La Tradición católica se inicia con la propia Iglesia, cuando Jesucristo, su Jefe y Fundador, transmite a sus discípulos un depósito de verdad a ser difundido en el curso de los siglos, hasta los últimos confines de la tierra. Estas verdades, comunicadas por Jesús durante su vida terrena, fueron por Él explicitadas, explicadas y profundizadas en los cuarenta días que transcurrieron entre la Resurrección y su Ascensión al cielo. El Evangelio no nos dice mucho acerca de este período, pero sabemos que Él apareció varias veces a los Apóstoles, obrando milagros, como la pesca milagrosa del lago de Tiberíades y el llamado a Simón Pedro que concluye el Evangelio de San Juan (21, 1-25). Podemos imaginar cuán íntimas, densas y fecundas para el alma de los discípulos debieron ser sus conversaciones que ininterrumpidamente se prolongaron en aquellos días. Él les hablaba del Reino de Dios, algunas veces explicando lo que había dicho, sin ser enteramente comprendido, primero de su muerte; otras veces revelando misterios y secretos relativos a los Sacramentos y sobre todo al Santo Santo Sacrificio de la Misa; otras veces también esclareciendo su sentido profundo de las Sagradas Escrituras. Continuamente pues los reanimaba, infundiendo paz y consolación en sus corazones. No se debe descuidar la misión oculta de Nuestra Señora, Madre de la Iglesia, para fortalecer, sustentar y esclarecer la transmisión de estas verdades durante su vida terrena. En los primeros treinta años de la vida de la Iglesia, no hubo sino tradición o el testimonio y la enseñanza de los apóstoles. La Tradición católica por tanto no es sino la enseñanza de Jesús transmitida a los Apóstoles y por ellos retransmitida de generación en generación. La verdad divina transmitida por Cristo a los Apóstoles y por los Apóstoles a la Iglesia es definida por los teólogos como traditio apostolica o depositum apostolicum[236]. A esta tradición hace referencia San Pablo, recomendando a Timoteo ser fiel a cuanto ha recibido y que él mismo debería enseñar: “Timoteo, guarda el depósito. Evita las palabrerías profanas, y también las objeciones de la falsa ciencia; algunos que la profesaban se han apartado de la fe” (1 Tim. 6, 20).
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symbola fidei, es decir, de aquellas fórmulas verbales, confirmadas por la autoridad eclesiástica, destinadas a la profesión pública de la fe. La traditio se expresa en la transmisión de las verdades destinadas a formar el depositum fidei, pero es también la búsqueda de las formas en que esta verdad viene siendo transmitida y la búsqueda de los símbolos y de los ritos que esas verdades eficazmente expresan. Toda verdad, en efecto, se traduce en una liturgia, según la célebre fórmula de Próspero de Aquitania, lex orandi, lex credendi (o legem credendi lex statuat supplicandi)[238]. Los primeros cristianos se presentaron unidos de ese modo en la doctrina de la fe y en el culto: ellos “ perseveraban en la doctrina de los apóstoles y en e n la comunión, en la escribía San racción del pan y en las oraciones” ( Hch. Hch. 2, 42). “ Esta doctrina y esta fe – escribía Irineo–, la Iglesia diseminada por toda la tierra la custodia diligentemente formando casi una única familia: la misma fe con una sola alma y un solo corazón, la misma redicación, enseñanza, tradición como si tuviese una sola boca. Diversas son las lenguas según las regiones, pero la fuerza de la tradición es una y la misma”[239]. La “ fuerza de la Tradición”, según san Irineo, es por lo tanto la continuidad de la enseñanza de los Apóstoles en la Iglesia por ellos fundada. Todos los Padres de la Iglesia están de acuerdo en este punto: la Tradición es la doctrina apostólica en cuanto transmitida a las generaciones sucesivas, llegando intacta hasta nosotros. La herejía, para los Padres, es aquello que es “nuevo” y se aparta de la Tradición. El criterio de la verdad se fundamenta sobre aquello que, según la célebre fórmula de san Vicente de Lérins, es transmitido en todas partes, en todo tiempo y por todos: “ quod ubique, quod semper, quod ab omnibus”[240]. Para el santo de Lérins, la misión de la teología consiste en conservar el depósito según la prescripción de san Pablo a Timoteo. “ ¿Qué es, entonces, un depósito? El depósito es aquello que has creído, no aquello que ha mudado; aquello que has recibido, no aquello que has pensado (…). Tú no eres el autor de la Tradición sino su custodio. No su maestro, sino su discípulo; no su guía, sino aquel que la sigue”[241]. La reflexión teológica sobre la Tradición surgió sobre todo después de su rechazo por parte de la Revolución protestante. En su IV sesión, celebrada el 8 de abril de 1546, el Concilio de Trento afirmó que el Evangelio de Cristo está contenido “ en los libros escritos y las tradiciones no escritas que, recogidas por los Apóstoles de la boca del mismo Cristo o de los mismos Apóstoles, bajo la inspiración del Espíritu Santo, transmitidas de mano en mano, se han juntado hasta nosotros”[242]. El Concilio Vaticano I confirmó esta definición con palabras casi idénticas [243]. Los grandes teólogos de la escuela romana desarrollaron este concepto. El cardenal Billot define la Tradición como “ la regla de fe anterior a todas las otras”, regla de fe no sólo
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asistido infaliblemente, de la divina Revelación en una dimensión espaciotemporal”[42][245].
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7. La Tradición y la Iglesia Al único sentido objetivo de Tradición como sagrado depósito transmitido por la Iglesia, los teólogos de los siglos XIX y XX han agregado el de Tradición “subjetiva” y “activa”[246]. La Tradición objetiva, que es aquello en lo cual se se cree y se transmite, equivale al “depositum Fidei”. La Tradición subjetiva, que los teólogos prefieren llamar “activa”, es aquella que se refiere al acto de transmisión o al mismo sujeto que la transmite[247]. Este Este acto acto algunos lo hacen coincidir con el Magisterio de la Iglesia, pero se trata de una identificación ind i ndebida. ebida. El Magisterio es, de hecho, el poder de enseñanza de la Iglesia. Pero la Tradición no es tan sólo “enseñada” y “definida”, es también custodiada y creída: y si el acto de enseñar es reservado sólo a la Iglesia docente, el de creer y custodiar com com pete a toda la Iglesia, docente y discente. Sería incluso reduccionista definir el Magisterio como la única voz e incluso “regla” próxima exclusiva de la Tradición. Más precisamente Melchor Cano, aunque también, substancialmente, Scheeben y Franzelin, definieron “órgano” de la Tradición no al Magisterio, sino al sujeto Iglesia en su totalidad, que ejecuta su munus sea a través del Magisterio cuando enseña, sea a través del “ sensus fidei” cuando cree: “ La Iglesia escribe a su vez el teólogo Schmaus– Schmaus– es el entera, el pueblo de Dios en su conjunto – escribe sujeto de la Tradición oral, aunque no todos los miembros ejercitan el mismo oficio”[248]. El vínculo indisociable de la sucesión apostólica une a la Iglesia con la Tradición. San Irineo, por ejemplo, recuerda así la figura de san Policarpo: “ Él no fue solamente discípulo de los Apóstoles y amigo íntimo de muchos que habían visto al Señor, sino que fue constituido por los mismos Apóstoles obispo de la Iglesia de Smirnia en Asia. Yo pude conocerlo en mi juventud porque tuvo una vida longeva y era bastante viejo cuando murió con glorioso e ilustre martirio. Ahora bien, él siempre enseñó aquello que había aprendido de los Apóstoles y ésta es todavía la doctrina transmitida por la Iglesia y es la única verdadera. Esto afirman concordemente concordemente todas las iglesias de Asia y aquellos que hasta hoy sucedieron a Policarpo” Policarpo”[249].
El Concilio Concilio de Trento, definiendo la Tradición, indica como criterio de autenticidad el carácter apostólico: “ ella est á siendo transmitida, casi de mano en mano, desde los apóstoles hasta nosotros”[250]. “Verdadera es solamente la Tradición que se apoya en la Tradición apostólica” , afirma la teología romana contemporánea, con mons. Gherardini[251]. Eso significa que el Romano Pontífice, sucesor de Pedro, príncipe de los Apóstoles, es el garante por excelencia de la Tradición de la Iglesia. Pero significa también que, en ningún caso, el objeto de la fe puede exceder aquello que es dado por el testimonio de los Apóstoles. “ No hay y ni puede haber algo algo más allá de la experiencia apostólica, algo más allá del conocimiento que ellos han tenido de Cristo”[252]. “La Iglesia no conoce “novedad”, sino solo la explicitación, el esclarecimiento y la
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formal[253]. Esta Tradición, a pesar de ser transmitida por hombres, no es puramente humana, sino sobrenatural, garantizada por el Espíritu Santo. Scheeben escribe que el principal, aunque no el único representante de la Tradición es la Sede apostólica romana. “ La tradición decisiva y constante de la Iglesia romana – explica– puede subsistir y tener todo su valor aunque el Papa no la reproduzca en todos sus actos, incluso si la contradice en alguno, con la condición de que no sean jurídicos” y agrega en una nota: “ Es por lo tanto absurdo y odioso colocar esta palabra en boca de Pío IX, a propósito de la infalibilidad dogmática: ¡La tradición soy yo!”[254]. La Iglesia no es infalible porque ejerce una autoridad, sino porque transmite una doctrina. Además de la Sede Apostólica, centro y canal principal de la Tradición, existen guías y canales secundarios, que aun cuando no representan la Tradición desde un punto de vista jurídico y oficial, la representan desde un punto de vista moral [255]. La doctrina de los Santos Padres y de los Doctores de la Iglesia, enseñada de manera uniforme y constante, representa la misma enseñanza del Espíritu Santo que se comunica y conserva en la Iglesia por influencia sobrenatural [256]. A la misma va añadido el consenso de los teólogos y la liturgia que en virtud de su naturaleza cultural puede ser definida como una rotestatio fidei, una forma “doxológica” de la profesión de fe de la Iglesia [257].
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8. La Iglesia, Cuerpo místico de Cristo La Iglesia una, santa, católica y apostólica, no se deja encerrar en una rígida categoría conceptual, porque, como observa el cardenal Journet, “ es demasiado rica ara reducirse a un solo concepto y para responder a un solo nombre”[258]. Sin embargo, según Pío XII, queriendo definir y describir la Iglesia católica, “ nada se encuentra de más noble, de más grande, de más divino que aquella expresión con la cual la misma es denominada el Cuerpo Místico de Cristo”[259]. Siendo un Cuerpo, la Iglesia visible constituye, por voluntad divina, una sociedad, o sea un organismo compuesto de una pluralidad de hombres sometidos a una misma autoridad y unidos por el vínculo de un mismo derecho [260]. Ella consta consta de un elemento humano, visible y externo, dada la gran multitud de hombres que la componen, y de un elemento divino, espiritual e invisible, dado por los dones sobrenaturales que colocan a la sociedad humana bajo la influencia del Espíritu Santo, alma y principio unitivo de todo el organismo [261]. Pío XII recuerda las palabras de san Pablo: “ Porque así como en un solo cuerpo tenemos muchos miembros y no todos los miembros tienen las mismas unciones, también todos nosotros formamos un solo Cuerpo en Cristo, y somos miembros los unos de los otros” ( Rm. Rm. 12, 4). La Iglesia no es una sociedad igualitaria, en la cual todos los miembros tienen iguales deberes e idéntic idént icos os derechos. Su constitución es jerárquica porque el mandato de gobernarla ha sido confiado por Cristo a Pedro y a los Apóstoles, que lo han transmitido sin interrupción a sus sucesores. Ella se distingue en Iglesia docente e Iglesia discente, la primera constituida por los Pastores y su jefe, que es el es el Papa; la segunda por los fieles sometidos a sus legítimos Pastores. El Concilio de Trento, en el decreto s decreto sobre obre el orden sagrado del 15 de julio de 1563, anatematiza a quien niega que “ en la Iglesia católica existe una jerarquía, instituida por disposición divina, que se compone de obispos, de sacerdotes y de ministros”[262]. El Espíritu Santo no asiste sin embargo sólo a la Iglesia docente sino a todo el organismo social, que forma “ un solo cuerpo y un solo espíritu” unido por unido por “un solo Señor, una sola
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9. El poder del Magisterio La jerarquía apostólica ejerce en la Iglesia dos poderes misteriosamente unidos en la misma persona: la potestad de orden y la potestad de jurisdicción [263]. La distinción entre poder sacramental y poder de jurisdicción es claramente expuesta por santo Tomás [264] y es, como observa Scheeben, profunda y rica en importantes consecuencias [265]. Ambos poderes se dirigen a alcanzar los fines específicos de la Iglesia, Igles ia, pero cada uno con características propias, que q ue distinguen profundamente uno del otro: la potestas ordinis es el poder de distribuir los medios de la gracia divina y se refiere a la administración de los sacramentos y al ejercicio del culto oficial; la potestas iurisdictionis es el poder de gobernar la institución eclesiástica y a los fieles individuales [266]. El Magisterio es aquella parte de la potestad de jurisdicción que consiste en el derecho y deber de la Iglesia de enseñar a todos los pueblos la doctrina evangélica según el mandato de su Fundador [267]. Desde su origen de hecho la Iglesia reivindica como su privilegio la plena posesión de la verdad y como su inderogable deber el de anunciarla a los hombres. Es su ministerium verbi ( Hch Hch. 6, 1-7). La doctrina tradicional consider a que el Magisterio no es un poder independiente, sino que está incluido en la potestad de jurisdicción. Así se han expresado canonistas seguros, desde los padres Wernz y Vidal al cardenal Stickler y teólogos de renombre, desde Scheeben al cardenal Journet [268]. Scheeben observa con razón que la antigua división escolástica-canónica potestas ordinis y potestas iurisdictionis es la única formalmente correcta[269]. En verdad el Magisterio, “ considerado de mane manera ra concreta y en cuanto inseparablemente unido al poder de dirigir la obediencia de la fe, no se distingue adecuadamente del poder de jurisdicción; es es por esto que el uso común no reconoce sino dos grandes divisiones del poder eclesiástico, o sea el poder de orden y el oder de jurisdicción”[270]. Esto es demostrado en el ejercicio de jurisdicción de los prelados que no tienen la plenitud del poder poder de orden, como fue el caso de algunos Papas que, por no ser obispos en el momento de su elección, ejercieron la juri sdicción, sdicción, incluso antes de haber sido consagrados obispos.
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10. Tradición y Magisterio No es necesario por tanto confundir el Magisterio, entendido como ejercicio de un poder perteneciente a la esfera de la jurisdicción, con el sujeto que lo ejerce, la Iglesia, y con su objeto, el depositum fidei et morum, el tesoro de la fe y de la moral entregado por Cristo a la Iglesia. Si el Magisterio se refiere sobre todo a la autoridad que en el curso de los siglos garantiza la objetiva verdad transmitida, entonces el Magisterio tiende a identificarse con la Iglesia o, más precisamente, con las personas físicas o morales, que poseen la función: el Papa o los Obispos [274], en este sentido se ha hablado del Magisterio como “regla próxima” de la fe. La Tradición n o puede ser no obstante identificada con la prédica actual de la Iglesia, ni el Magisterio puede constituir la única e inmediata regla de fe. Siendo el Magisterio el poder de enseñanza de la Iglesia, se distingue de la Tradición, porque se fundamenta sobre la Tradición objetiva y depende de la Tradición activa, que es la Iglesia. El Magisterio no es la Tradición, porque la recibe y es ejercido para garantizarla. Si se identificara con la Tradición, podría “crearla” o de otra forma “mejorar” la Revelación, en vez vez de limitarse a a recibirla y a transmitirla. Por esto el Padre Holstein escribe que “ el Magisterio no es la Tradición, no la hace, no la cambia, ero la discierne y expresa”[275]. El Magisterio no es ni siquiera la Iglesia, porque de la misma constituye una función y por Ella es ejercida para enseñar la Verdad revelada. La unificación de los tres sujetos –Tradición, Iglesia, Magisterio–, que la constitución Dei Verbum del Concilio Vaticano II parece propon prop oner, er, crea una gravísima confusión, aun si la constitución conciliar especifica, en el n º 10, que el “ Magisterio, evidentemente, no está sobre la alabra de Dios, sino que la sirve, enseñando solamente lo que le ha sido confiado, por mandato divino y con la asistencia del Espíritu Santo la oye con piedad, la guarda con exactitud y la expone con fidelidad ”[276].
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11. El criterio de la Tradición Alguien plantea la pregunta: ¿quién interpreta la Tradición? La pregunta es impropia, siendo la Tradición ante todo regula fidei, es decir, criterio y no objeto de interpretación. Pero a partir de Lutero y de Descartes se hizo camino, camino, aun en el pensamiento católico, un subjetivismo desconocido por los Padres de la Iglesia, en la Escolástica y por los grandes teólogos de la Contra-Reforma. La atención hasta entonces reservada a la objetividad de la cosa conocida se ha desplazado a la actividad del sujeto conocedor. En el conocimiento teológico este proceso cognitivo ha conducido al primado de la epistemología y después de la “hermenéutica” [277]. La interpretación tiende hoy a convertirse en un criterio hermenéutico y saber “quién” interpreta se convirtió en algo más importante que conocer “qué cosa” es interpretada. Nos encontramos frente a aquella “hermenéutica del sujeto” típica del pensamiento moderno y post-moderno, según la cual el sujeto conocedor prevalece sobre el dato objetivo a conocer. Existe también un equívoco en el uso primario del término “interpretar” respecto a aquellos de guardar y de transmitir. La Tradición, en efecto, como cualquier otra verdad, no puede interpretarse, pero en algunos casos esclarecida y definida y, ante todo, recibida y transmitida. La pregunta correcta es entonces: ¿quién transmite la Tradición? Y la respuesta no puede ser sino: la Iglesia, docente y discente, en su totalidad. La Iglesia discente se limita a recibirla, creerla y retransmitirla; la Iglesia docente, sobre todo en la persona del Papa, la proclama, la define, la enseña. Pero el hecho de que la Iglesia transmita la Tradición no significa que pueda “interpretarla” a fin de negarla o contradecirla. Diferente es la pregunta: quién ejerce el Magisteri Magist erioo (o sea: quién “enseña”) en el interior de la Iglesia. Y la respuesta esta vez, no puede sino ser: el Papa y los obispos que forman la Iglesia docente. Pero la Iglesia discente, aunque no teniendo ningún poder de Magisterio, es también asistida por el Espíritu Santo. En este sentido, Melchor Cano afirma que “no sólo la Iglesia universal, es decir, el conjunto de todos los fieles, tiene este eterno Espíritu de Verdad, sino también lo tienen los príncipes y pastores de la
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refiere no al Romano Pontífice, sino a sí mismo... No hay formula más equívoca que aquella según la cual el Magisterio interpreta la Tradición. El término Tradición de hecho es entendido como enseñanza objetiva y circunscripta al pasado: el término Magisterio es, por el contrario, entendido en sentido subjetivo, identificándolo con la autoridad docente que se expresa en el presente. Este Magisterio actual, definido “viviente”, se torna la fuente del Magisterio objetivo, y el Magisterio “viviente” se torna, a su vez, la regla hermenéutica de la Tradición, como si ésta no fuese Magisterio perenne y vivo. El acento se desplaza del objetivo enseñanza transmitida al sujeto que transmite la enseñanza recibida [280]. En realidad, como hemos visto, el Magisterio no es otro más que el poder del que se sirve el sujeto Iglesia para realizar su deber de “enseñar” a los fieles y no puede ser considerado a ningún título un lugar teológico en sí mismo autónomo e independiente. ¿De qué modo podemos decir que no existe Tradición sin el Magisterio de la Iglesia? En el sentido en que para entrar a formar parte de la Tradición, una verdad debe ser enseñada por la Iglesia y enseñada no una tantum, sino de manera constante y coherente; una vez que esta verdad forma parte de la Tradición no puede ser modificada por el sucesivo Magisterio de la Iglesia. En este sentido, es por medio de la Iglesia y de su Magisterio que la Revelación se hace Tradición [281] . Es necesario el Magisterio de la Iglesia, o sea, el acto con el cual la Iglesia docente ejercita su derecho/deber de enseñar, para que una determinada verdad religiosa o moral entre a formar parte de la Tradición de la Iglesia. No hay Tradición, bajo este aspecto, sin Magisterio. Pero el Magisterio, a su vez, se alimenta de la Tradición, que custodia y transmite: depende de ella, no puede crearla, pero debe recibirla; puede aplicarla a las nuevas cuestiones que emergen en la historia, como ocurrió con los problemas morales de la contracepción y de la fecundación in vitro. Pero el criterio objetivo, la regla de fe, es la verdad enseñada y transmitida por el Magisterio, no el Magisterio en sí mismo. En orden de importancia decreciente, primero viene la Tradición, después la Iglesia, y sucesivamente el Magisterio, que es un “poder” que la Iglesia ejercita para perpetuar la
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Iglesia, para que Ella la custodie y la retransmita a través de los siglos; la Tradición es el modo con el cual la Revelación es transmitida, pero es también el contenido o, si se prefiere, el receptáculo de la Revelación. En este sentido, como ha reafirmado Benedicto XVI, “la Tradición viva de la Iglesia constituye la regla suprema de la fe”[282].
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12. Iglesia docente e Iglesia discente La Tradición necesita ciertos órganos: entre estos órganos el primero es la Iglesia. No por casualidad sin embargo, el padre Melchor Cano distingue entre la Iglesia en su totalidad y los Concilios y el Papa. La Iglesia docente, de la cual los Concilios y, in rimis, el Papa, son la suprema expresión, es una parte, aunque la más eminente, de la Iglesia, que es sin embargo un organismo más vasto, comprendiendo también la Iglesia discente. Melchor Cano, como los padres Perrone, Franzelin, Scheeben y la mayor parte de los teólogos, creen que si solo la Iglesia docente tiene el deber de enseñar y definir, también la Iglesia discente tiene el de conservar y transmitir el depositum fidei. Toda la XII tesis del tratado De divina Traditione de Franzelin es dedicada a ilustrar “ como el acuerdo de los fieles sobre las verdades de fe es un criterio de la tradición divina”[283]. La Iglesia en su totalidad, y no apenas la docente, es un “lugar teológico” y puede ser considerada, antes mismo de los Concilios y del Papa, “órgano” auténtico de la Tradición. Debemos reafirmar la distinción de fondo entre la Iglesia docente y la Iglesia discente. La primera está compuesta por quienes tienen el munus docendi: el deber y la misión de enseñar. La segunda está compuesta por toda la Iglesia que recibe la enseñanza de sus Pastores. Solo la Iglesia docente tiene el derecho de explicitar la verdad implícitamente contenida en la doctrina que Ella transmite, en el sentido que es la Iglesia docente la que extrae del patrimonio recibido la verdad implícita que ella explicita. Pero una vez que dichas verdades son explicitadas por el Magisterio extraordinario e infalible
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13. La infalibilidad activa y pasiva de d e la Iglesia La fuerza de las definiciones de la Iglesia docente está en proporción a la autoridad que ella se atribuye en el momento en el cual interviene. El grado máximo es la infalibilidad. No se se debe confundir sin embargo la infalibilidad de la Iglesia con su indefectibilidad. La indefectibilidad es la garantía que la Iglesia tiene de su Fundador de permanecer en su identidad hasta el fin de los tiempos, o sea, de perseverar, gracias a la asistencia del Espíritu Santo, “ Espíritu de Verdad ” ( Jn. Jn. 14, 17), en la profesión de la misma fe, de los mismos sacramentos, de la misma sucesión apostólica de gobierno. La infalibilidad es a su vez aquella prerrogativa por la cual la Iglesia y el Papa por una especial asistencia divina, no pueden errar al defender y definir la doctrina revelada. Esta prerrogativa sobrenatural se explica de modo extraordinario cuando el Papa se pronuncia ex cathedra con una sentencia manifiestamente definitiva y destinada a toda la Iglesia[284], o de forma ordinaria, cuando el Papa y los obispos enseñan con continuidad una doctrina. Pero al lado lad o de la infalibilidad de la Iglesia docente, ejercida en el Magisterio extraordinario u ordinario, existe también una infalibilidad de la Iglesia discente en la creencia de esta misma verdad. A la infalibilidad de la Iglesia en su enseñanza se refiere santo Tomás de Aquino cuando afirm a: “e s imposible que el juicio de la Iglesia universal este errado en aquello que se refiere a la fe”[285]. Eso significa que tanto el corpus docendi, investido del poder de enseñar a toda la Iglesia, cuanto la universalidad de los fieles en el creer, no pueden caer en error. Esto no se entiende naturalmente en el sentido de atribuir un rol docente al laicado, como quieren
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14. El sentido cristiano de la fe Órgano de la Tradición, según la buena teología, no es por lo tanto sólo la autoridad de la Iglesia, cuando ejercita su Magisterio, sino también el sensus sensus fidei del pueblo católico[288]. A la infalibilidad de la enseñanza de la Iglesia docente unida a los sucesores de Pedro, corresponde una infalibilidad de creer de la Iglesia discente, basada en el sentido de la fe, que los teólogos Ocáriz y Blanco explican como la “capacidad del creyente, no sólo de creer aquello que es presentado por la Iglesia como verdad de fe, sino y sobre todo la facilidad de discernir, como por intuición, intuición, aquello que está de acuerdo con la fe de aquello que no lo está, y también la facilidad de sacar conclusiones más profundas de la verdad enseñada por el Magisterio , no mediante el razonamiento teológico, sino espontáneamente, por una suerte de conocimiento por connaturalidad. La virtud de la fe (habitus fidei) produce fidei) produce de hecho una una connaturalidad connaturalidad del del espíritu humano con el misterio revelado, que hace que la verdad sobrenatural atraiga al intelecto” intelecto”[289].
La fe no es producto de un mero razonamiento, sino intuición de la verdad divina, “ prueba de las cosas que no se ven” , según una expresión de Benedicto XVI [290]. La doctrina del conocimiento per modum inclinationis o per qu per quan andam dam connaturalitatem[291] es una forma de inteligencia interior que brota de la fe como instinctus o lumen fidei: “ Lumen fidei –escribe Santo Tomás– facit videre v idere ea quae creduntur ”[292]: la luz de la fe muestra aquello que debe ser creído. “ Como a través de los otros hábitos de la virtud el individuo sabe aquello que le conviene de acuerdo con este hábito (habitus) así por
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Un eminente teólogo franciscano, el padre Carlo Balić, Ba lić, lo denomina “ sentido común católico” o también “ sentido cristiano” ( sensus sensus christianus), o “ sentido de la fe ” ( sensus sensus [297] idei) . Gracias a él los fieles perciben la verdad custodiada en el depósito revelado. Se realiza así la promesa de san Juan: “ Vosotros tenéis la unción del Santo, y conocéis c onocéis todas las cosas” (1 Jn. 2, 20). El sentido común ordinario es la inteligencia y la luz ordinaria de las cuales están dotados normalmente los hombres: una cualidad que permite comprender las nociones de bien y de mal, de verdadero y de falso, de bello y de feo [298]. El “sentido común católico”, o sobrenatural, es la razón natural iluminada por la Gracia del Espíritu Santo, que el cristiano recibe con el Bautismo y la Confirmación. Estos sacramentos que infunden el sensus fidei, que es la adhesión a las verdades de fe por instinto sobrenatural, antes que por razonamiento teológico. Del mismo modo que el sentido común es medido por la objetividad de lo real, la fe subjetiva es medida por la regla objetiva de la verdad sobrenatural contenida en la Tradición [299]. Nada tiene que ver este sentido cristiano con el sentimiento religioso de carácter modernista condenado en la encíclica Pascendi de san Pío X y menos aún con la facultas appetendi et affectandi a la que hace referencia la encíclica Humani Generis de Pío XII. El sensus fidei, de hecho, no es fruto de la sensibilidad, sino de la Fe, de la gracia y de los dones del Espíritu Santo que iluminan la inteligencia y mueven la voluntad [300]. “ Ahora bien –escribe bien –escribe el padre Balić– este espíritu de los siete dones que habita en nosotros no como en medio de las ruinas, sino como en un templo (1 Cor. 3, 3, 16–17; 6, 19) 19 ) es el espíritu de Pentecostés, es el
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15. Sensus fidei y y Tradición El Magisterio eclesiástico compete solo a quien, por voluntad de Cristo, tiene el derecho y el oficio de enseñar: los Apóstoles y sus sucesores. La masa de los fieles no tiene parte en esta enseñanza oficial, que se limita a recibir. “Erraría sin embargo – escribe el padre Balić– quien pensase que esta masa se encuentra en un estado meramente pasivo y mecánico en el resguardo de esta doctrina. Y, de hecho, la fe de los ieles, como la doctrina de los pastores, experimentan la influencia del Espíritu Santo, y los fieles, mediante el sentido cristiano y la profesión de fe, contribuyen a exponer, ublicar, manifestar y atestiguar la verdad cristiana”[302]. Los fieles, si bien no tienen la misión de enseñar, tienen sin embargo la función de conservar y propagar su fe. También los grandes teólogos de la escuela romana, como Perrone, Scheeben y Franzelin, destacan el papel del Espíritu Santo en la formación y [303]
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afirma que: “ La totalidad total idad de los fieles, f ieles, habiendo recibido la unción que viene vi ene del Santo (cfr. 1 Jn. 2, Jn. 2, 20 y 27), no puede equivocarse en el creer, y manifiesta esta propiedad peculiar suya mediante el sentido sobrenatural de la fe de todo el pueblo, cuando ‘desde los obispos hasta los últimos fieles laicos’ (22) muestra su consentimiento universal en las cosas de fe y costumbres. Y verdaderamente, por aquel sentido de la fe que es suscitado y sostenido por el Espíritu de verdad, y bajo la guía del magisterio sacro, el cual permite, si se le obedece fielmente, recibir no más una palabra humana sino verdaderamente la palabra de Dios (cfr. 1 Ts. 2, 13) el pueblo de Dios se adhiere indefectiblemente a la fe transmitida a los santos de una vez para siempre» (cfr. Judas 3), penetra más profundamente en ella con recto juicio y la aplica más plenamente en la vida”.
El hecho de que, a veces, de este pasaje se hayan servido los progresistas para contestar la autoridad eclesiástica, no significa que él sea falso y que no pueda ser entendido, como tantos otros pasajes del Concilio, de conformidad con la Tradición. La Tradición es mantenida y transmitida por la Iglesia no sólo por el Magisterio,
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probar el principio de que la Iglesia no puede errar en aquello que cree, Cano ofrece el ejemplo de la verdad de la Inmaculada Concepción y afirma: si la Iglesia universal sostiene tal verdad, la misma debe ser revelada. Si no fuera así, habría que atribuir el error sobre la fe de la Iglesia al mismo Cristo que, como Jefe, mueve y dirige a la Iglesia, su Cuerpo. Por este motivo, aún, los papas Pío IX y Pío XII, antes de la definición de los dogmas de la Inmaculada Concepción y de la Asunción de María Santísima en cuerpo y alma, quisieron consultar a los obispos de todo el mundo los cuales, además de expresar la propia fe, debían dar testimonio de la devoción de sus propios fieles [317]. Arrodillarse delante del Santísimo Sacramento y rechazar la comunión en la mano, creer en la mediación de Nuestra Señora y en la asistencia de los ángeles y de los santos, defender la realeza de Cristo sobre la sociedad, proclamar con el Credo la unicidad de la Iglesia católica fuera de la cual no hay salvación: todo esto se alimenta y nace del
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16. Sensus fidei y y resistencia a la autoridad eclesiástica Según el teólogo dominicano García Extremeño, el sensus fidei, respecto al Magisterio, puede: 1) orientarlo cuando se trata de una verdad puesta en discusión y cuando las opiniones están divididas; 2) despertar el sentido de los Pastores a propósito de la verdad que ellos no hayan tal vez considerado bien; 3) substituir a veces otros argumentos para proceder a la definición solemne de una verdad mantenida por el consenso de los fieles [318]. El sentido común de los fieles debe sin embargo: 1) someterse al juicio del Magisterio; 2) aceptar las las correcciones, la aprobación o el rechazo de las creencias; 3) obedecer plenamente las últimas decisiones del Magisterio, cuando son expresadas con claridad. Sin embargo, el sensus fidei puede llevar a los fieles, en casos excepcionales, a negar su asentimiento a algunos documentos eclesiásticos y aún incluso a colocarse,
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Iglesia pueda engañarse habitualmente en sus juicios o no gozar de la asistencia divina en el ejercicio integral de su misión. La Donum Veritatis recuerda sin embargo la existencia del sensus fidei que “implica, por su misma naturaleza, el acuerdo profundo del espíritu y del corazón con la Iglesia y que siendo que siendo un don de Dios que hace adherirse ersonalmente a la verdad no puede engañarse” (nº 35). Además, el derecho en la Iglesia no está simplemente fundado sobre el uso arbitrario del poder. “ Al contrario – observan observan los canonistas– también la potestad en la Iglesia debe ser justa, y ello es un requerimiento de la esencia de la misma Iglesia, el cual determina los objetivos y los límites de la actividad de la Jerarquía. No cualquier acto de los sagrados Pastores, por el hecho de provenir de ellos, es justo ”[321]. Entre las injusticias eventualmente cometidas por la Jerarquía es necesario ante todo distinguir aquellas que alcanzan a una única persona y aquellas que conciernen al bien común de la Iglesia. Entre éstas, las más graves son aquellas que tocando la fe o la moral, ponen en
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17. ¿Infalibilidad de los Concilios? A esta altura falta examinar la relación de los Concilios con la Tradición. Los Concilios son asambleas de obispos, que se reúnen re únen para deliberar en materia eclesiástica. Como expresión de la Iglesia docente, ellos son ciertamente un “lugar teológico”, pero deben distinguirse, según su importancia, en Concilios generales [325] (o ecuménicos),
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(1415), solemnemente aprobado por los Padres conciliares y ratificado por más de un Romano Pontífice. Según el padre Melchor Cano aquel documento, sin embargo, fue rechazado porque lo que fue aprobado en aquella “sesión” no tuvo la forma dogmática de un “decreto en el cual se obligara a los fieles a creer o se condenaba lo contrario”[330]. Análogamente el cardenal Baudrillart, en el Dictionnaire de Théologie
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18. Qué significa “Magisterio universal” Constituiría un grave error reducir la infalibilidad de la Iglesia al Magisterio extraordinario del Romano Pontífice, unido o no a los obispos. También el Magisterio ordinario tiene su infalibilidad en determinadas condiciones. A la Iglesia no le está garantizada la infalibilidad de cada acto de su Magisterio, pero ella no puede equivocarse
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debido a la continuidad secular de una misma enseñanza. El fundamento doctrinal de este título de infalibilidad es el indicado por el padre de Aldama: si en una larga e ininterrumpida serie de documentos ordinarios sobre un mismo punto los Papas y la Iglesia universal pudieran engañarse, las puertas del infierno habrían prevalecido contra la Esposa de Cristo. Ella se habría transformado en maestra del error, de cuya peligrosa
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