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Farm and Forestry Production and Marketing M arketing Profle or
Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia)
By Janice Y. Uchida
USES AND PRODUCTS Te highly aromatic, cured pod (or “bean”) o the vanilla orchid (Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) planifolia) is the primary product. Vanilla owes its properties to vanillin, a compound that is ormed during pod maturation and in the curing process. Vanillin is believed to be one o most popular scents in the world. Natural vanillin is expensive by weight, but when used as a avoring it is aordable. Vanilla is used extensively to avor ice cream, chocolate, cho colate, beverages, candies, cakes, puddings, custards, and many other conections. In Hawai‘i, ches add it to seaood dishes and other non-dessert dishes. Commercial C ommercial products include: •
Whole cured vanilla beans
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Extractions (usually in a minimum 35% alcohol)
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Powder o ground, cured beans
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Paste (minimum 12.5% ground cured beans be ans with sugar syrup, starch, or other ingredients) Seeds
As an aromatic, vanilla is included in products such as perumes, cosmetics, lotions, detergents, abric soeners, air resheners, aroma therapy, therapy, and many others. It is also widely used in rubber manuacture and in the abrication o other items with unpleasant odors. While the traditions surrounding vanilla are lled with reerences o the ritualistic and healing powers o this spice, there are ew well documented studies to veriy these characteristics. Recently, some evidence o anticarcinogenic (intererence with cancer ormation) and anticlastogenic (promotion o chromosome repair) activity o vanillin has
been ound. Te anticlastogenic eect o vanillin has been documented in the protection that it provides to cells that are exposed to ultraviolet (UV) radiation and X-rays. When vanillin was added to cell cultures, mutatio mutation n was signicantly reduced ollowing exposure to radiation. Tis study clearly provides evidence that there are antimutagenic antimutagenic properties o vanillin. In addition, there is evidence that vanillin has strong antimicrobial properties (Bythrow 2005). Tis may open doors or the use o vanillin as a natural ood preservative. Whether synthetic vanillin can be used in this way needs to be tested.
SCALE OF COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION Lubinsky et al. (2008) estimates that 5,000–10,000 metric tons (M) o vanilla beans are produced annually with about 95% derived rom V. planifolia. planifolia. In 2006, Madagascar and Indonesia accounted or about 81% o the vanilla produced worldwide. onga produced 144 M and French Polynesia (ahiti) produced 50 M (Lubinsky et al. 2008). Te U.S. is the largest importing country. Te scale o annual worldwide commercial production varies greatly with the weather conditions in the Indian Ocean and in Indonesia. Political turmoil can also aect production. When the weather is poor, such as with strong hurricanes, or ollowing other natural disasters such as earthquakes, the production in Madagascar and Indonesia is greatly aected. Te world supply crashes and prices increase.
Le: Beans in the process o curing to develop optimum favors and aroma. Right: Well labeled bottles o extract (oreground) and vials o single beans (background). (background).
Farm and Forestry Production and Marketing Profle or Vanilla by Janice Y. Uchida
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p laniolia growing on physic nut Le: Vanilla tahitensis has smaller and more pointed leaves compared with V. planifolia . Middle: V. planiolia Jatropha ha curcas). Right: Two clusters o V. planiolia pl aniolia buds, one with two open fowers. ( Jatrop
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
BRIEF BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Preerred scientifc name Vanilla planifolia p lanifolia Jacks.
Te vanilla plant is a eshy vine, which produces elongate leaves and aerial roots at the nodes. Te vine or stem is green and also photosynthesizes along with the lea. One or two aerial roots are ormed at each node, enabling the plant to take up water and nutrients and allowing the vine to climb on supporting trees or other structures. Healthy vines grow or many years and can reach lengths o more than 60 m. In nature, vines grow ar into the canopy o trees. Flowers are ormed on short branches or racemes, with ew to many owers per cluster. Te owers are about 6 cm to 8 cm in length, wavy, pale yellowish green to green with three sepals and two petals that are pale yellowish green to green and with a third petal that is modied into the lip. Te lip surrounds the column, which bears the pollen masses (pollinia) and the sticky stigma. Pollination requires the pollinia to be placed on the t he sticky stigma. Te ruit is a long capsule, which is known as a “bean” and when mature contains thousands o tiny black, round seeds.
Family Orchidaceae Subamily Vanilloideae Non-preerred scientifc names Vanilla fragrans f ragrans Salisb. Common names English: vanilla, “Bourdon” vanilla, “Madagascar “Madagascar-Bourbon” -Bourbon” vanilla, and “Mexican “Mexican”” vanilla (Lubinsky (Lubinsky et al. 2008) French Polynesian: tumu vanira French: vanille vanille,, gousse de vanille (idiom) German: vanille vanille,, vanilleschote (idiom) Italian: vaniglia vaniglia,, baccello di vaniglia (idiom) Portuguese: baunilha baunilha,, fava da baunilha (idiom) Spanish: vainilla vainilla,, mantecado mantecado,, vaina de la vainilla (idiom) Related species Over 100 species o Vanilla o Vanilla are reported (Bory et al. 2008). Most o the cultivated vanilla is Vanilla planifolia although lesser amounts o Vanilla tahitensis and Vanilla pompona are also grown. Vanilla tahitensis is known as “ahitian” vanilla and V. pompano produces “West Indian” vanilla. Other species have importance to the vanilla industry, as some may have characteristics that could provide viral or ungal disease resistance, higher productivity, or increased vine strength.
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DISTRIBUTION Native range For years there has been high interest in the origins o the vanilla that is grown in many parts o the world. In recent chromosome and DNA studies, plants collected rom commercial operations throughout the world (Mexico, Central America, Caribbean, South America, Madagascar, and Indonesia) were discovered to be very similar genetically. Tese studies showed that cultivated vanilla rom dierent parts o the world were all V. planifolia. planifolia. Within Mexico and the Papantla region, there is a greater variation in the Vanilla genus, and since genetic variation is typically greater
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at locations closer to the origin o a species, this region is considered the center o origin o all cultivated V. planifolia.. Researchers believe that V. planifolia originated rom the lia Papantla region o Mexico and cuttings were taken to other parts o the world such as Madagascar (Lubinsky et al. 2008). Te relationship between V. planifolia and V. tahitensis has been investigated. In some older literature, V. tahitensis is believed to be a hybrid o V. o V. planifolia and V. pompona p ompona.. Currently, the combined results o several molecular analyses such as UPGMA (Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic mean) clustering reveals that V. planifolia and V. tahitensis specimens are more closely related to each other than to V. pompona p ompona (Besse et al. 2004). Similar results were obtained by microsatellite markers markers (Bory et al. 2008), RAPD (Random Amplication o Polymorphic DNA), and ISSR (Inter Simple Simple Sequence Repeat) R epeat) also support this nding.
Current distribution worldwide Vanilla is grown pantropically in Mexico, Central America (Costa Rica, Guatemala, Belize), the Caribbean (Jamaica, rinidad, obago, Puerto Rico), South America (Ecuador, Brazil, Paraguay), Arica, India, Madagascar, Reunion Isles, Mauritius, Seychelles, Southeast Asia, the Pacic region (Indonesia, Vanuatu, Fiji, Niue, onga, Cook Islands, Samoa, French Polynesia, Hawai‘i), and in other countries (Lubinsky et al. 2008). V. pompona is grown in Paraguay and in the Philippines, while V. tahitensis tahiten sis is primarily grown in French Polynesia.
ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES AND TOLERANCES
be longer than 2 months. For vegetative growth, a brie daily shower or a weekly soaking rain with temperatures in the 24–28°C range is ideal. Temperature Mean annual temperature should be 21–32°C, although the vines will tolerate short periods below 14°C (night) and above 32°C.
Soils In the orest or eld, vanilla grows in well drained, loose organic matter. Vanilla plants do not tolerate standing, stagnant, or waterlogged or compacted soils.
PROPAGATION PROPAGA TION AND PLANTING Propagation Vanilla is usually propagated rom stem cuttings. Te size o the cuttings is dependent upon the amount o plant material that is available. Each node will make a new plant but generally at least two or our nodes are use d per cutting. Te cuttings are planted in containers kept in a moist, shady en vironment. New New shoots grow rom the nodes in 2–3 months. Establishment is aster or longer cuttings. I 2–3 m vine sections are used, plants will ower in less than 2 years. Long cuttings can be planted directly in the eld, as long as moderate shade is available. Te roots at the severed end are buried in mulch at the base b ase o a support post or tree. w wine ine is used to hold the roots and vine on the support. Some nurseries oer long cuttings or establishment o new elds, but these are usually expensive.
Warm tropical climates are ideal, with annual rainall o 1,500–2,500 mm per year. A prolonged period o drought, or low temperatures (<14°C) or more than a ew days can negatively impact production. A shady growing environment is required. Many tropical orests and agroorest environments will support the growth o vanilla vines.
Freshly harvested ruits or beans have seeds that are viable. Like most orchids however, these seeds must be planted in agar and nurtured or many months beore tiny plants are ormed. Establishment o these plants rom agar to pot culture can be difcult and takes 6 years or more beore vines are large enough or ruit production.
Climate
Vanilla plants are also propagated commercially via tissue culture, which has the advantage o producing material that is disease ree.
Elevation range Sea level to about 1500 m Mean annual rainfall 1500–3000 mm evenly distributed throughout the year. Irrigation is necessary during dry seasons, especially or young vines. Rainfall pattern Rainall patterns vary among regions. In Hawai Hawai‘i, ‘i, spring and summer rains allow or good growth, with less water needed during the all, which stimulates ower production. Te dry season (less than 50 mm o rainall per month) should not
Farm and Forestry Production and Marketing Profle or Vanilla by Janice Y. Uchida
Planting Aer new shoots have grown to 30–60 cm, the plants can be transplanted to the eld or greenhouse. Te plants must be kept moist and ertilized at least once a month with a balanced granular N-P-K ertilizer (10-10-10). Plants provided with water can grow rapidly in temperatures o 23–27°C. At lower temperatures (15–22°C), growth will be slower. Moderate rainall occurring throughout the year or the rst 1.5–2 years will help cuttings to establish and thrive. New growth is regularly secured to the support and kept at a con venient height or hand pollination. pollination.
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Top le: It is essential to propagate vanilla only rom disease-ree cuttings. Top Top right: Tom Kadooka, a pioneer in commercial vanilla cultivation in Hawai‘i, shows his propagation propagation benches in Kainaliu, Hawai‘i. Hawai‘i. Middle le: Six-mon Six-month-old th-old vines. Middle right and bottom le: Progression o vine growth on wood supports in containers. Bottom right: Healthy vines growing on untreated wood poles under shade cloth in other commercial c ommercial operations. operations.
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Organic amendments Organic matter can be used directly as a growth medium (e.g., coconut husk, banana trunk) or composted (e.g., leaves, twigs, grass trimmings, ood waste). Vermicompost (worm compost) can also be a valuable addition to ertility maintenance. Fertilization Fertilizer rates depend on the environment. Plant growth should be kept vigorous and leaves a uniorm green. Granular N-P-K ertilizer (10-10-10) is oen added once per month or a slow release ormulatio ormulation n every ever y 3 months. I available, sh emulsion or oliar ertilizer can be applied every 2 weeks. Foliar ertilizers eed the aerial sections o the vine, which is especially benecial be necial or long vines on supports. Flowering and ruiting Flowers orm on mature vines aer at least 2 years o growth. Flower initiation can be the most difcult part o growing vanilla. Continuous watering and ertilization will keep the plant growing vegetatively without ower ormation. Some experimentation may be needed by growers in new environments. In rain-ed outdoor cultivation, a dry period o 1–2 months will initiate ower production. In c ontainer culture, growers can reduce water and eliminate ertilizer or 1–2 months during the autumn period (October–December in
Hawai‘i). Flowers are initiated and racemes will orm 1–2 months later. A Melipo Melipona na bee is the only insect known to pollinate vanilla owers in Mexico. In Hawai‘i and other areas o the Pacic where Melipo where Melipona na are absent, a ew beans sometimes orm on vines high in trees, suggesting that other insects or organisms also pollinate vanilla owers, but at a very low rate. For commercial production, owers must be hand pollinated, preerably in the morning just aer the ower opens. Pollination tips 1. Find the anther with the pollen sacs. Remove Remove the two pollen sacs using a toothpick, small bamboo stick, directly on a ngertip, or another convenient means.
2. Move the rostellum rostellum away away and place the pollen sac gently on the stigma. Te pollen sac will adhere to the stigma. 3. Te pollen grains germinate germinate and carry the male nucleus nucleus to the emale egg nucleus in the ovary. Te ertilized ovary becomes the seedpod or vanilla bean.
CULTIVATION Prepare holes or pits 30–45 cm wide and 60 cm deep. Keep the holes at least 20–30 cm away rom the base o support trees. Place a layer o volcanic cinder or rock on the bottom o the hole and ll with loose clay loam soil, organic matter, and compost. Te top layer o most orest soils is ideal. Poles
Le: Hand pollination is necessary or production o beans. Right: A bean orms soon aer successul pollination.
Farm and Forestry Production and Marketing Profle or Vanilla by Janice Y. Uchida
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and other support structures should be surrounded with humus and mulch. However, when using support trees, keep the mulch closer to the vanilla vine and not around support trees. Roots do not penetrate deep into the soil but at least 30–45 cm o sandy clay loam is recommended. As the plant grows, the addition o mulch such as coconut leaves and husks, and other leaves and small twigs at the base o the plants is valuable. For greenhouse cultivation, the use o well drained, high organic matter potting mixes is recommended. Some growers use commercial potting mixes based on peat or coconut husk (salt ree). Te eld or greenhouse should provide good drainage, even aer prolonged rains. In cultivation, vines must be kept within reach to allow the armer to hand pollinate the owers and Vanilla grown in cylinders. Right: Close up o a c ylinder. harvest pods. Tus vines must be kept low or ease Le: Vanilla o management.
VALUE-ADDED PROCESSING
Basic crop management within greenhouses In many countries, vanilla cultivation has moved rom the orest into covered greenhouse structures. A structure with 50–70% shade cloth is commonly used. Irrigation is oten necessary or optimal growth and to control owering. Within the greenhouse, the ground should be kept ree rom weeds and algae with a synthetic weed mat or a thick layer o sand or gravel.
In some environments, beans are ready or harvest 7 months aer pollination but usually require 8–9 months, with more time required in cooler environments. Beans should be checked daily and as soon as part o a bean begins to yellow yellow,, it should be harvested with a knie or clipper. I beans are not harvested on time, they will split and their value will be greatly diminished. Harvested too early, the rich avor and aroma o the bean will not develop during curing.
Planting methods Tese methods are applicable to both greenhouses and under living trellis trees.
Processing
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Large containers. Te containers are lled with an appropriate propria te potting or compost mix. Te vines are trained onto a supporting pole. I one vine becomes diseased, the vine can be removed together with the growth medium, allowing or relatively easy sanitation. Raised beds. Using lumber or concrete or sidewalls, beds are built about 35–50 cm deep. Te beds are lled 20 cm deep with clean rocks or gravel. Plastic piping can be inserted in the medium or vine support. Plants are spaced at least 90 cm apart. Cylinders. Cylinders about 8–11 cm in diameter and 2 m tall are ashioned with a wide-mesh wire ence material (e.g., “chicken wire”) and lled with coconut husk and other large pieces o organic matter. matter. Metal bars set in the ground or concrete oundation hold the c ylinder vertical. Te vanilla vines grow in the organic materials within the cylinder. c ylinder.
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Immature beans are uniormly dark green and the tip becomes slightly yellow when the bean begins to ripen. A small amount o reddish-brown liquid called “balsam o vanilla vanilla”” is exuded under high humidity. humidity. Such beans be ans are strongly scented. I le on the vine a ew weeks or months, beans dry completely,, becoming pletely be coming brittle, with diminished scent. o optimize development o aroma, beans are careully har vested, cured, and stored. During the curing process, vanillin is ormed by enzymatic action on the glucosides in the beans. High quality, cured beans are at least 16 cm long, eshy and supple with slightly oily, unblemished and unscarred epidermis, whole (not split), strongly aromatic, and dark brown to almost black. Undesirable beans are hard, brittle, very so or moldy, thin, brown or uneven in color, or weakly aromatic.
Curing Several curing methods have been developed using variations o our undamental processes: 1. Killing or wilting. wilting. Tis process kills kills the cells, turns the pod brown, and initiates the enzymatic reactions.
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Le: Young pods with dried fowers. Middle: Close up o mature beans. Right: Brown mature beans, le too long on the vine or demonstration.
2. Sweating. Te sweating sweating process keeps the temperature temperature warm to encourage the enzymatic process. Aer the sweating stage, the beans are supple and the vanilla aroma develops. 3. Slow drying. In the slow drying stage, the beans are placed in the shade in a well ventilated, clean area to pre vent mold growth or contamina contamination tion with dust. When the beans have lost about two-thirds o their moisture, they are placed in boxes or 3 or more months or the conditioning stage. 4. Conditioning. During this last last phase, the beans develop their ull aroma and vanillin content. Bourbon method Te Bourbon curing method was developed on Reunion Island in the Indian Ocean. It is widely used in Madagascar and the Comoro C omoro and Reunion Islands. Given the reputation
o the Madagascar vanilla beans or high quality, this method has been widely adopted. Beans arrive at the curing actory and are separated by size, stage o maturity, and epidermal integrity and quality. Beans are bundled, placed in open net cylindrical baskets, and blanched by dipping into 63–65°C hot water or 2–3 minutes. Small and split beans are immersed or less than 2 minutes. Te warm beans are quickly drained, wrapped in dark cotton cloth, and are placed in a box or sweating. In Hawai‘i, camping coolers and similar boxes have been used. Aer 24 hours, the beans are inspected, with uniormly brown beans separated and moved to the sun-drying phase. Te heating process is repeated or beans be ans that are not uniormly brown. Te sun-drying phase places the beans on a dark cloth in direct sunlight on a raised surace (table or bench) with good air movement and a clean environment ree o insects. Aer an hour in the sun, the beans are covered with
Le: Sweating a small batch o beans in a plastic bag in the sun. Middle: Beans at the beginning o the sweating process. Right: B eans spread out in the sun or warming aer sweating is complete.
Farm and Forestry Production and Marketing Profle or Vanilla by Janice Y. Uchida
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a blanket or towel and le in the sun or another 2 hours, then they are rolled inside the blanket to retain heat, and moved indoors. Tis process is repeated or 6–8 days until the beans are supple. In the third stage, the be ans are spread out in an indoor environment with good air circulation, ree rom insects, dust, and other potential contaminants. Commercially, beans are kept on racks or tables or 2–3 months within large warehouses that are built or this purpose. I the weather becomes wet or more than a ew days, the beans can be placed in ovens at 45–50°C. In the nal conditioning phase, beans are grouped by length and straightened by hand. Tis helps to spread the oil that is released rom the beans. Te beans are tied in groups o 25–50 with a sturdy string, wrapped in wax paper, and placed in a wax paper lined metal conditioning box. At least 3 months are required or this stage with the beans checked requently to remove any that develop mold. Beans that are not progressing well are returned to the sunning step. Beans that have lost about ⅔ o their weight or can be be nt around three ngers are ully cured and can be bundled or sale.
Product quality standards Bourbon vanilla is classied by International Standards based on the Madagascar Classes o vanilla as ollows: Grade
Standard
First
Longer than 14 cm, blemish ree, supple, ull, t an-brow an-brown n uniorm color, good avor, and moisture content o less than 25%
Second
Longer than 14 cm, some scratches or spots, good avor avor,, moisture content o 25–28%
Tird
Longer than 14 cm, good avor, some blemishes and spots, red blemishes and moisture content o 30% or more
Fourth
Shorter than 14 cm, broken or cut, have red blemishes, and with moisture content o 30% or more
Te standards or Australian vanilla also include the Australian Food Standard Code that requires testing o all beans coli) and chemical or bacteria (Salmonella (Salmonella and Escherichia coli) residues. For large sales, the seller oen provides a representative sample to the prospective buyer or conrmation o the grade.
Product storage requirements and shel lie Stored in airtight containers and kept below 20°C, cured beans will last or 1–2 years. Other products with longer shel lie include vanilla paste (ground cured vanilla with sugar syrup); honey-inused with vanilla (whole cured beans placed in honey); vanilla powder (ground cured beans); vanilla powder or seeds mixed with coee; vanilla extracts; and cured beans in alcohol (e.g., vodka).
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Recommended labeling Labeling should include the country o origin, grade, promotional material, and contact inormation. Labeling is crucial or regions that are establishing a unique identity or brand or their product. Many Pacic island nations have government agencies that help communities to grow, process, and market new crops. c rops. Individual growers should also develop their own labels or the retail market. Promotion o the source location (e.g., “Grown in Hawai‘i”) can enhance product value and market potential.
AGROFORESTRY AND ENVIRONMENT ENVI RONMENTAL AL SERVICES In several Pacic island communities, it is common or vanilla to be grown under coconut palms. Since coconuts may not provide enough shade or the vanilla plants, other types o shade trees may need to be planted to protect the vanilla plants. Tis practice is being used in Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, Fiji, onga, Samoa, and ahiti. In ahiti, Tecoma trees are commonly used as the support plants while in ononga, it is physic nut ( Jatr Jatropha opha curcas). curcas ). In addition, nitrogenxing trees such as Gliricidia sepium are excellent support plants. Such support trees can also provide trimmings or mulch, composting, and animal odder. Other potential support trees are citrus, mango, bamboo, neem ( Azadirac Azadirachhta indica), indica), Ficus spp., Plumeria alba, alba, jackruit ( Artocarpus heterophyllus), heterophyllus ), and areca nut palms ( Areca catech catechu u). Te type o support tree selected varies with the environment (Anadaraj et al. 2005). Support plants can help prevent erosion, and, when planted densely along the contour, contribute to terracing slopes. Te brous roots help to retain soil and moisture. In some areas, another cash crop is grown with the vanilla, such as vegetables or other plants that will not compete with the vanilla or light. Tese can be grown as a border around the eld or between the rows o trellised vanilla.
Recommended planting density Depending on the type o support tree used, they are grown in rows that are 1–2.5 m apart and 2.5–3 m between rows. Depending on the species selected, 1,500–2,000 support plants can be grown per hectare and one to three vines can be planted per support plant. Advantages and disadvantages o polyculture Advantages o polycultures such as vanilla growing on support trees include suppression o rapid disease spread and reduced movement o insect pests. Support trees also pro vide shade, add organic matter matter,, and reduce soil erosion. In general, support trees cost less than large greenhouse structures. Te shade provided to the working environment is also comortable or employees and enhances the physical and 9
Top le: Vines growing on physic nut cuttings in agroorest o bananas, coconuts, and other species on Tongatapu, Tonga. Bottom le: Young vines establishing on physic nut cuttings, interplanted with taro on Savai‘i, Samoa. Right: Young vanilla vine planted under a neem tree.
psychological environment. Disadvantages include some competition among the support plants and vanilla vines or nutrients, water, water, and space. Support trees also require pruning, which is additional eld maintenance cost or a grower g rower.. Te biggest disadvantage maybe that the support trees can harbor slugs, snails, insect pests, and are nearly impossible to clean i the crop becomes inested with a pathogen. Also, support trees may encourage enc ourage mosquito populations.
Special horticultural techniques Commercial production begins with disease ree plants that are trained on a support tree or articial trellis. I support trees are used, they need to be planted 3–6 months beore the vanilla. A cluster with about 10 beans will usually orm mostly long beans (which have the highest market value) depending on the environment e nvironment and the health o the vanilla crop. Many growers pollinate all owers and are happy with shorter beans in the early crop cycle.
Farm and Forestry Production and Marketing Profle or Vanilla by Janice Y. Uchida
PESTS AND DISEASES Pests Occurrence o pests depends on the region. Pests include slugs and snails, which are common in many orests and ecosystems with support trees. Tese pests eed on the tender shoots, oral buds, young beans, and roots o vanilla vines. Tey have been b een reported rom Arica, the South Pacic, India, and are likely to occur everywhere in moist en vironments. Insects such as the Lamellicron beetle (Hoplia retusa)) and the ashy-gray weevil (Cratopus retusa (Cratopus retuse) retuse) produce holes in owers, preventing bean ormation. Te sucking bug (Halyomorpha (Halyomorpha sp.) inests young shoots and oral buds and kills them (Anandaraj et al. 2005). S cales and thrips can also cause damage. However, However, most insects can be controlled with appropriate insecticides, with availability varying by country. Chicken, snakes, and crabs have been reported to cause damage to vines also. Many o these pests also spread viral diseases.
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Diseases Diseases are caused by viruses, ungi, bacteria, and nematodes. Viruses and ungi cause the most serious problems or vanilla. vanilla. Viruses Six viruses have been reported or vanilla, although not all are severe. Both Cymbidium mosaic virus (CyMV) and Odontoglossum ring spot virus (ORSV) are common on ornamental orchids in many parts o the world. Vanilla vines can be inected with CyMV CyMV,, but show virtually no symptom sy mptomss and remain highly productive, or the virus can be associated with chlorotic and necrotic ecks on leaves (Grisoni 2004). In French Polynesia and in Reunion, 44% and 32% o the plants, respectively, were inected with various potexvirus with CyMV present at both locations and ORSV, a tobamo virus, ound on Reunion only (McGrath 2008).
Management of viral diseases A viral inection means that the entire plant has the virus and it is incurable. Viral diseases must be detected and any plants with CMV, VanMV, or WMV-II should be destroyed immediately and new plantings should be started with virus-ree stock plants. Keep all ornamental orchids and crops such as cucumber, mung bean, pepper pe pper,, tomato and tobacco away rom vanilla elds. Older vines should be tested or viral diseases beore using or propagation. propagation.
Vanilla mosaic virus (VanMV) causes lea mosaic and severe malormations on V. tahitensis and V. pompona in French Polynesia. VanMV causes a severe mosaic, blistering, and lea distortion with over 30% o the elds in French Polynesia inected (Wisler et al. 1987). Tis virus is serologically related to Dasheen mosaic virus (DsMV), extremely common in taro (Colocasia (Colocasia esculenta), esculenta), but has a dierent host range. Pearson and Pone (1988) reported another potyvirus in onga, the Vanilla necrosis potyvirus (VNV) that caused signicant losses in the South Pacic in 1988. Wang et al. (1993) reported that the protein coat gene o VNV had a 97% sequence homology with watermelon mosaic virus II (WMV-II) (WMV -II) rom the U.S. and 93% sequence homology with watermelon mosaic virus rom Australia. Te name Watermelon mosaic Virus II onga onga (WMV II I I onga) onga) was suggested. sug gested. Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) was recently ound in vanilla causing lea distortion and stunting. In French Polynesia, 23% o plants surveyed showed virus-like symptoms and contained CMV. Te Vanilla tahitensis plants were severely stunted with distortions o the leaves and stems. Flowers were sterile and production was greatly impacted. Tis virus has an extremely large host range and inects over 800 plant species, with the vanilla isolates able to inect Chenopodiaceae (Chenopodium (Chenopodium), ), Cucurbitaceae (cucumber), Fabaceae (mung bean), and Solanaceae (pepper, tomato, and tobacco). CMV is divided into two major subgroups (I and II) and subgroup I is urther divided into two groups (IA and IB) by phylogenetic analysis. Te V. planifolia isolates belong to subgroup IB in India (Madhubala) and subgroup I rom French Polynesia and Reunion Island (Farreyrol) or V. planifolia planif olia and V. tahitensis, respectively. An unknown rhabdovirus-like particles or “bullet shaped” virus has also been ound in vanilla rom Fiji and Vanuatu. Top: Young shoot eaten by caterpillar. Middle: Scales on lea. Bottom: Slug damage.
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For many viral diseases, the virus is present in the sap and movement o this sap rom a diseased disease d plant to a healthy plant will transer the disease. When trimming vanilla vines, wash the clipper or knie between vines and dip in a 20% solution o bleach. I washing the blade is not practical, then the blade should be wiped dry beore dipping into the bleach, otherwise sap will prevent sterilization. I any plant is observed with lea mottling, blisters, or deormity, it should be tested or virus. In general, because there are many unknown viruses, any plant with deormities or blisters should be destroyed. Vanilla plants that have CyMV can still produce top quality beans with high vanillin content. In Hawai‘i, billions o Vanda (now Papilionanthe Papilionanthe)) orchid blossoms have been produced on CyMV-inected plants. Tese plants have no deormities or distortions and are known as symptomless carriers o the virus. It is important to know i vanilla plants are inected to avoid transmission o the virus to other orchids that will show symptoms. However, However, total eld destruction o plants with this virus is not warranted at this time. Fungal diseases In general, ungal diseases present the greatest problems to vanilla crops and occur throughout the world. Common pathogens are discussed below below.. Fusarium Fusarium species cause the most destructive diseases o vanilla in the world. Oen undiagnosed, these diseases will kill many plants beore the problem is recognized. Growers believe that their plants are “in decline.” Beginning in the late 1980s, millions o orchids were exported rom Southeast Asian countries. Tis introduced several Fusarium species into the orchid trade in Hawai‘i, but the diseases they caused were not recognized. On some o the orchids, such as Cattleya, Fusarium blackens the sheath but requently does not do more damage.
Fusarium orms an abundance o spores on the surace o diseased tissue, which look gray, grainy, or mealy. Tese spores splash or are blown to healthy leaves and other plants such as vanilla. Te ungus spore germinates when moisture is present. Te entire vanilla plant is susceptible to inection, with disease requently beginning on the aerial roots. Inected aerial roots become brown and die but do not look very dierent rom roots that have died rom injury or lack o moisture. Fusarium enters the stem rom the inected roots and causes stem rot. With time, movement o nutrients and water is inhibited by a section o dead vine and the rest o the vine, although not inected, has pale, o-green leaves. Tese vines can be used or propagation but only the tips are taken and absolutely no part o propagation material material can have a brown spot or blemish o any kind.
Farm and Forestry Production and Marketing Profle or Vanilla by Janice Y. Uchida
Fusarium can survive in dead vine and root tissues or over a year. Tus, all inected vine material should be gathered and burned or discarded. Never add diseased plants to the compost pile. Growers who have Fusarium disease should build a small greenhouse and process cuttings as described below and start a new population o clean, healthy he althy plants. Colletotrichum spp. Colletotrichum species have been reported to cause rots associated with lea and stem spots. Spores o this pathogen orm on lea spots and are splashed to healthy tissue. Tis ungus can reduce plant vigor i many leaves are aected. Wet, cool seasons avor this disease. Sclerotium sp. Tis species rots leaves, stems, and roots, requently producing a thick mat o white ungal threads. Aer a ew days, tiny, round mustard-seed-like bodies are ormed. Tese are the spores that spread the disease and enable the ungus to survive dry periods without a host. Sclerotium is a known wound pathogen, so growers need to check their transplants and new cuttings or symptom symptoms. s. Te white to pink mycelial (thread) mats are a clue to its presence. Phytophthora spp. Tese species cause lea, stem, oral, bean, and root rots. Te lea and bean rots are requently black and expand rapidly. White uy cotton-like growth is oen ormed on the surace o rotted tissue in moist weather. Phytophthora root and stem rots weaken and kill vines. Tis pathogen grows rapidly in wet weather and thousands o spores are ormed in a ew hours. Root rots increase i heavy rains lead to standing water in the eld. Phytophthora also produces another type o spherical spore called the chlamydospor ch lamydospore, e, that has a thickened wall which allows the spores to persist in soil or up to a year. When plants are replanted in an area contaminated with chlamydospores, the nutrients released by the roots stimulate the chlamydospores to germinate and inect the roots. Inected plants should be gathered, burned, buried deep in the ground, or removed rom the eld.
Management o ungal diseases Plants should be careully inspected or symptoms beore purchase. issue cultured, virus-ree plants may be the best option. New plants that are brought onto a arm should be kept away rom any established plants. Plants should always be propagated using tip cuttings rom healthy plants. I using 2–3 node cuttings, growers should select material that is blemish ree, as even small rots can indicate the presence o pathogens. Cuttings should be dipped in a 10% solution o household bleach (one part bleach to nine parts water) with a little detergent added, or 30–60 seconds. Cool, clean ltered water can be used to rinse the
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Lef: Fusarium inection o a young cutting. Middle: Advanced rot or blight caused by Fusarium. Right: Phytoxicity damage rom use o pesticides.
cutting, although rinsing is not necessary. Te bleach will kill spores on the surace o the plant. However, any Fusarium or other pathogens living within the plant will survive bleach treatment. A ew disease-ree plants rom which to restart the eld are more important than many plants with a ew that are contaminat contaminated. ed. Contaminated plants insure that the problem will recur. New elds should be started at least 1–2 kilometers rom old diseased elds. Be sure water does not run o rom an old or existing eld to a new eld. Even clean pieces o vine rom an old, diseased eld should not b e introduced directly into a new eld. Instead, cut into 2–3 node pieces, surace disinect in bleach, and root in pots beore replanting into the new eld.
eld such as baskets, gloves, clothing, aprons, and ootwear should be washed with bleach. Washing and soaking in salt water will also kill pathogens, reducing the need or bleach treatment. Both prevention and sanitation are sustainable methods to control disease. Chemicals In some countries, ungicides are permitted or use on vanilla. In India, carbendazin at 0.2% is sprayed on the plant or Fusarium rots, and roots are drenched with 0.2% carbendazim, 0.25% copper oxychloride, or a mixture o 0.25% carbendazim and mancozeb. Phytophthora is treated with a 1% bordeaux mixture or mancozeb. Metalaxyl is highly eective or Phytophthora but is allowed only in certain countries.
Pest and disease prevention Vanilla plants should have good air circulation and reely draining, well aerated growth media. A gentle slope usually ensures good drainage when planted in soil. Areas with potential or standing water should be avoided or drains need to be built. Te growth medium should be loose and high in organic matter. matter. Plants should be b e protected rom high winds and direct sunlight.
Fungicides registered or orchids may not be allowed or vanilla since systemic ungicides could remain in the vanilla bean aer harvest or others may adhere to the bean surace, contaminatingg it or ood contaminatin oo d uses.
For commercial operations, certied virus-ree plants should be used or the eld establishment. Pathogens that may be present on plants propagated rom cuttings will disseminate to the tissue-cultured vines. Tis has happened or growers and tender tissue-cultured plants were killed in high numbers.
Potential or invasiveness
Other orchid species should not be grown in the same greenhouse with vanilla. Even orchids that appear to be healthy, such as Cattleya Cattleya,, are requently contaminated with Fusarium and other pathogens. Sanitation All diseased vines should be removed rom the cultivation area, burned, or buried in a deep pit. Items used in the Specialty Crops or Pacifc Island Agroorestry (http://agroorestry.net/scps (http://agroorestry.net/scps))
Growers who spray herbicides or weed killers need to be aware that some o these poisons will harm their vanilla plants. Glyphosate, or example, can cause damage when the wind carries a mist o the spray onto the vanilla plant oliage. Potential or invasiveness is low. However, vanilla vines do persist aer a plantation is abandoned. It has naturalized in several countries but growth is slow and non-problematic.
SMALL SCALE PRODUCTION AND SPECIALTY MARKETS Because vanilla can grow in shallow soils and containers, it is an ideal crop or small arms having poor soils. Home gardens and small urban lots can produce a steady supply o beans. Growers can cure, add value in various ways, and sell beans or other products at retail. Because o the high value
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o each bean, this can be protable, especially i the product line is diversied.
tail area or sale o vanilla products as well as other products such as chocolate, coee, nuts, jellies, and jams.
Communities can also work together on processing, marketing, and product development. For the export market, small growers may have a greater chance or success by collaborating on processing and marketing as a g roup roup..
Some vanilla growers also sell plant materials to new growers. Products include small rooted plants and long cuttings.
It is difcult to estimate the compara comparative tive values o green and cured beans. For the household producer who is selling vanilla beans directly to consumers, the value o cured beans can be high, especially with high-quality processing and packaging. Good quality beans can be stored or months. For growers who sell green beans to a processor (commodity market), the value is much lower than or cured beans, but the work and time involv involved ed in curing is avoided. ourists are ascinated by the vanilla vine, and how t he beans are produced. A successul model is a acility tour with a re-
Import replacement Locally grown vanilla could easily replace most o the vanilla imported to the Pacic islands. Since local consumption is a small part o the amily ood budget, homegrown vanilla would presumabl presumablyy have minimal impact on amily economies, unless it is sold or traded.
YIELDS Expected range o yields per plant Yields vary tremendously over time depending on the length o the vine used to initiate the crop, environmental conditions, maintenance, and attention to pollination and harvesting. In some Asian countries, the crop produces 500–800 kg/ha/yr o cured beans and the expected crop lie is 7 years. In India, 300–600 kg/ha/yr o cured beans are produced in elds up to 12–14 years old, while in Uganda, 400–600 kg/ha/yr o cured beans are produced and the eld remains productive or 6–8 years.
MARKETS Local markets Vanilla can be sold to local restaurants, retailers, organic produce stores, bakeries, county retail outlets, and at armers markets. Some vanilla growers also sell small rooted plants and longer cuttings. Plants in small pots generally retail or $12–15 with higher prices or larger plants. Quality is essential or direct retail sales. Unblemished pods etch premium prices. Beans that are short or blemished can be made into other value-added products or sold in bulk. Export markets Te U.S. is the largest market or vanilla and imports more than hal o world vanilla production. France, Germany Ge rmany,, and the United Kingdom are other top importers.
Top: For small-scale production, it is easy to keep an eye out or fowers to pollinate when the plant is situated right outside the home. Bottom: A large number o beans can be produced even on one healthy vine.
Farm and Forestry Production and Marketing Profle or Vanilla by Janice Y. Uchida
Branding and labeling possibilities Several vanilla growing regions have developed their own brand identity. Hawai‘i is the only place in the U.S. where vanilla is grown commercially, and the “Grow “Grown n in Hawa Hawai‘i” i‘i” name carries the Hawai‘i mystique and a perception o quality. However, delivering consistently high quality and reliable supply are the most important selling eatures o any specialty crop.
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Potential or Internet sales For armers in Hawai‘i and regions with good Internet ser vices, potential or Internet sales s ales is excellent. Vanilla products are generally lightweight, o high value per unit weight, and non-perishable.
ECONOMIC ANAL ANALYSIS YSIS Expenses Costs to establish a vanilla arm vary tremendously. Households and small growers who own their land and use support trees will have the lowest cost. Expenses E xpenses include cost o support trees, mulch or planting, poultry manure or ertilizer, organic matter, tools, vanilla cuttings, and possibly encing to keep out animal or human intruders. Labor L abor will likely be provided by the amily amily,, including clearing the planting area, preparing the ground, planting the support trees and vines, removing weeds, maintaining the vines, pollinating owers, harvesting, curing, packaging, and marketing. For those growers who decide to grow vanilla in greenhouses, inrastructure costs are higher, including ground clearing and grading, greenhouse and vine support structures, organic matter or compost, the vanilla plants, tools (hoes, clippers, etc.), and possibly encing. Te ground must be kept clean, thus sand, gravel, or weed mat should be used. Maintenance includes irrigation, ertilization, crop monitoring and cleanup o diseased plants, placing vines on supports, pollination, monitoring o the pods, harvesting, curing, packaging, and marketing. In general, vanilla has seasonally high labor demands.
FURTHER RESEARCH Potential or crop improvement Many aspects o vanilla culture need to be addressed. Agronomic research or growing plants under support trees is needed. Te amount o shade and best shade trees or each environment should be identied. Improving potential or amily or community arming Governments should und and support propagation o virus-ree plants to help small landholders. Disease prevention and availability o ungal ree propagation material is extremely important. A program to encourage community development o compost production and vermiculture are also critical. Any other community-based support such as nancial aid or initiating a vanilla arm or low interest loans or supplies will help this industry.
Specialty Crops or Pacifc Island Agroorestry (http://agroorestry.net/scps (http://agroorestry.net/scps))
Genetic resources A healthy collection o dierent species is needed to preserve genetic diversity. diversity. Hybrids and cultivars should be identied, collected, and maintained. A breeding program to develop cultivars with viral or ungal disease resistance and high quality beans is desperately needed neede d by this industry industr y. Policy Global movement o propagation materials accelerates the movement o pests and pathogens. International regulations regulations need to be developed and implemented to prevent the movement o serious viruses such as the Cucumber Mosaic Virus. New policies could proactively prevent pathogen spread.
REFERENCES CITED AND FURTHER READING Anonymous. Vanilla. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http:// www.kew.org/plants/orchids/vanilla.html [accessed December 8, 2010] Anonymous. Virus Diagnosis and Clonal Fidelity. Consortium on Micropropagation Research and echnology Development. Department o Biotechnology, Ministry o Science and echnology, India. http://dbtmicropropagation.nic.in/virus.htm [accessed December 8, 2010] Ackerman, J. No date. Vanilla in Flora o North America. http://www.eoras.org/orataxon.asp http://www .eoras.org/orataxon.aspx?ora_ x?ora_ id=1&taxon_id=134375 [accessed December 8, 2010] Anadaraj, M., J. Rema, B. Sasikumar, and R. Bhai. 2005. VaVanilla. Printers Castle, Kochi, India. Anilkumar, A. 2004. Vanilla cultivation: A protable agribased enterprise. Kerala Calling: 26–30. Besse, P., D. Da Silva, S. Bory, M. Grisoni, F. Le Bellec, and M.-F. Duval. 2004. RAPD genetic diversity in cultivated vanilla: Vanilla planifolia, planifolia, and relationships with V. tahitensis and V. pompona. pompona. Plant Science 167: 379–385. Bory S, D. Da Silva, A.-M. Risteruccic, M. Grisonia, P. Besseb, and M.-F. Duvald. 2008. Development o microsatellite markers in cultivat cu ltivated ed vanilla: Polymorphi Polymorphism sm and transerability to other vanilla species. Scientia Horticulturae 115:420-425. Bythrow, J. 2005. Vanilla as a Medicinal Plant. Semin Integr Med 3:129–131. Clarke, W.C., and R.R. Taman. 1993. Agroorestry in the Pacic Islands: Systems or Sustainability, United Nations University Press, okyo. Farreyrol, K., Pearson, M., Grisoni, M., and Quillec, F. Leciercq-Le. 2000. Severe stunting o Vanilla tahitensis in French Polynesia caused by Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) and the detection o the virus in V . fragrans in
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Reunion Island. New Disease Reports. British Society or Plant Pathology. Geetha, S., and S. Shetty. 2000. In vitro propagation o Vanilo Vanilla planifo planifolia lia,, a tropical orchid. Current Science 79:886– 889. George, P., and G. Ravishankar. 1997. In vitro multiplication o Vanilla planifo planifolia lia using axillary bud explants. Plant Cell Reports 16:490–494. Grisoni, M., F. Davidson, C. Hyrondelle, K. Farreyrol, M. Caruana, and M. Pearson. 2004. Nature, Incidence, and Symptomatology Symptom atology o viruses inecting inec ting Vanilla tahitensis tahitensi s in French Polynesia. Plant Disease 88:119–124. Grisoni, M., M. Moles, K. Farreyrol, L. Rassaby, R. Davis, and M. Pearson. 2006. Identication o potyviruses inecting vanilla by direct sequencing o a short R-PCR amplicon. Plant Pathology Pathology 55:523–529. Havkin-Frenkel, D., J. French, and D. Joel. 2004. Interrelation o curing and botany in vanilla (Vanilla (Vanilla planifol planifolia ia)) bean. Proc XXVI X XVI IHC Future o Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Acta Hort 629:93–102.
variations and interrelationships interrelationships in Vanilla planifolia pl anifolia and ew related species as expressed by RAPD R APD polymorphism. Genet Resour Crop Evol 55:459–470. Nzou, G. 2008. Malindi armers commercialize c ommercialize vanilla. Press release. Kenya Horticultural Development Program. USAID. Nairobi, Kenya. Pearson, M., and S. Pone. 1988. Viruses o vanilla in the Kingdom o onga. Australasian Plant Pathology 17:59– 60. Purseglove, J., E. Brown, C. Green, and S. Robbins. 1981. Spices. Volume Volume 2. Longman, L ongman, London. Wang, Y., D. Beck, R. Gardner, and M. Pearson. 1993. Nucleotide sequence, serology and symptomatology symptomatology suggest that vanilla necrosis potyvirus is a strain o watermelon mosaic virus II. Archives o Virol Virology ogy 129:93–103. 129: 93–103. Wisler, G., F. Zettler, and L. Mu. 1987. Virus inections o Vanilla and other orchids in French Polynesia. Plant Disease 71:1125–1129.
Kalimuthu, K., R. Senthilkumar, and N. Murugalatha. 2006. Regeneration and mass multiplication o Vanilla o Vanilla planifo planifolia Andr.—a tropical orchid. Current Science 91:1401– 1403. Kartesz, J. No date. Vanilla mexicana P. Mill. axonomic Serial No.: 505644. IIS Standard Report Page: Vanilla mexicana mexicana.. http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/ SingleRpt?search_topic=SN&search_value=505644 [accessed December 8, 2010] Korthou, H., and R. Verpoorte. 2007. Vanilla. In: R. Berger (ed.). Flavours and Fragrances. Springer, Berlin. Le Roux, K. 2005. Characterisation and detection o viruses (Cucumovirus, Potyvirus) inecting vanilla in Reunion Island and Polynesian Islands. PhD Tesis. University o Auckland. http://researchspace.auckland.ac.nz/handle/ 2292/1289?mode=ull&submit_simple=Show+ull [accessed December 8, 2010] Lubinsky, P., S. Bory, J. Hernandez, S.-C. Kim, and A. Gomez-Pompa. 2008. Origins and dispersal o cultivated vanilla (Vanilla (Vanilla planifo planifolia lia Jacks. [Orchidaceae [Orchidaceae]). ]). Economic Botany 62:127–138. Madhubala, R., V. Bhadramurthy, A.I. Bhat, P.S. Hareesh, S.. Retheesh, and R.S. Bhai. 2005. Occurrence o Cucumber mosaic virus on vanilla (Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia Andrews). India. J. Biosci. 30:339-350. McGrath, P. 2008. Vanilla viruses. New Agriculturist. http:// www.new-agri.co.uk/02-1/ocuson/ocuson5.html [accessed December 8, 2010] Minoo, D., V.N. Jayakumar, S.S. Veena, J. Vimala, A. Basha, K.V. Saji, K. Nirmal Babu, and K.V. Peter. 2007. Genetic Farm and Forestry Production and Marketing Profle or Vanilla by Janice Y. Uchida
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Specialty Crops or Pacifc Island Agroorestry (http://agroorestry.net/scps ( http://agroorestry.net/scps))
Farm and Forestry Production and Marketing Profle or Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) Author: Dr. Janice Y. Uchida, Department o Plant and Environmental Protection Sciences, ropical Plant Pathology Program, 3190 Maile Way, St. John Hall 304, University o Hawai‘i, Honolulu, Hawai‘i 96822; el: 808-956-2827; Email: juchida@ha Email:
[email protected] waii.edu.. Recommended citation: Uchida, J.Y. 2011 (revised). Farm and Forestry Production and Marketing Prole or Vanilla (V ( Vanilla planifolia planifolia). ). In: Elevitch, C.R. (ed.). Specialty Crops or Pacic Island Agroorestry. Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), Holualoa, Hawai‘i. http://agroorestry.net/scps Version history: December 2010, February 2011 Series editor: Craig R. Elevitch Publisher: Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), PO Box 428, Hōlualoa, Hawai‘i 96725, USA; el: 808-324-4427; Fax: 808-324-4129; Email: par@agroorestry.net par@agroorestry.net;; Web: http://www.agroorestry.net http://www.agroorestry.net.. Tis institution is an equal opportunity provider. Acknowledgments: Manuscript review by Scot C. Nelson, Marty Parisien, and Jim Reddekopp is greatly appreciated. Photo contributions by Chris Kadooka and Scot C. Nelson are grateully acknowledged. acknowledged. Reproduction: Copies o this publication can be downloaded rom http://agroorestry.net/scps . Except or electronic archiving with public access (such as web sites, library databases, etc.), reproduction and dissemination o this publication in its entire, unaltered orm or educational or other non-commercial purposes are authorized without any prior written permission rom the copyright holder provided the source is ully acknowledged (see recommended citation above). Use o photographs or reproduction o material in this publication or resale or other commercial purposes is permitted only with written permission o the publisher. © 2010–11 Permanent Agriculturee Resources. All rights reserved. Agricultur Sponsors: Publication was made possible by generous support o the United States Department o Agriculture Western Region Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (USDA-WSARE) Program and the County o Hawai‘i Department o Research and Development in partnership with the Big Island Resource Conservation and Development (RC&D) Council. Tis material is based upon work supported by the Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service, U.S. Department o Agriculture, and Agricultural Experiment Station, Utah State University, under Cooperative Agreement 2007-47001-03798.
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