UNIVERSIDAD CATÓLICA DE CUENCA COMUNIDAD EDUCATIVA AL SERVICIO DEL PUEBLO
MOD MODUL ULO O DE TOP TOPOGR OGRAF AFÍA ÍA
CUEN CU ENCA CA – EC ECUA UADO DOR R 2009 – 2010
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TOPOGRAFÍA INSTRUCCIONES GENERALES
Al inicio del contenido de esta materia el estudiante encontrará los Objetivos Generales de la Asignatura, es decir las metas que deseamos que logre, luego de terminar con el estudio de todas las unidades. El examen examen que los los alumnos alumnos deben deben rendir, rendir, se efectuará efectuará en el el aula y en el el campo (Fuera del aula aula de clases) en el lugar que el profesor de la materia lo indique, previo la presentación de los respectivos pagos de pensiones pensiones que que exige exige la universidad universidad por intermedi intermedioo de la Secretarí Secretaría, a, la misma que que coordinara coordinara con los los alumnos alumnos y con la Facultad Facultad de Ingeniería Ingeniería Civil y Arquite Arquitectura, ctura, para conjuntamente conjuntamente fijar el día y hora del examen los mismos que serán publicados en las carteleras. Para la evaluación de esta Materia se considerará al igual que todas las Materias de campo, el 30% en lo que se refiere al examen que realizaran los alumnos en el aula y en lo que respecta al 60% restante se divide en: trabajos realizados (Practicas), asistencia, consultas, actuación, habilidades, destrezas, destrezas, actitudes, actitudes, ortografía ortografía y otras otras obligacione obligacioness que tiene tiene el alumno. alumno. Para la la nota de de Coevaluación Coevaluación se considera considera el 10% que será dividido dividido en 5% 5% que es la nota nota que pone pone la Unidad Académica de Ingeniería Civil y Arquitectura (de acuerdo a pagos de pensiones, asistencia a compromisos de la Universidad, participación en Seminarios y otros eventos culturales y sociales) y 5% nota del profesor (presentación, puntualidad, ortografía, criterio, y otros aspectos que considere el profesor etc.) Es su obligación obligación solicita solicitarr instruccione instruccioness y ayuda ayuda al facilitad facilitador or de la asignat asignatura ura para que pueda familiarizarse con los instrumentos y procedimientos topográficos diversos.
RECOMENDACIONES
Le recordamos que en los Estudios de Topografía o de cualquier otra materia presencial, el alumno estudiante es responsable directo de su aprendizaje.
Trate de asistir a todas las clases, y sobre todo a las clases prácticas de grupo ya que es muy difícil realizar o igualarse una clase práctica perdida.
Es importante que al inicio del estudio de esta materia, revise completamente el material para que se familiarice con todas sus partes, es decir con estas instrucciones, relacionándolas con los
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Realice un calendario y distribución adecuada de su tiempo de estudio, trabajo y demás actividades.
No intente investigar un nuevo tema sin estar seguro de haber aprendido el anterior.
Efectúe paulatinamente las actividades descritas en cada Unidad.
Haga reuniones de estudio con sus compañeros del grupo de prácticas, en ellas comente, discuta sobre los contenidos y realice los autocontroles indicados.
Se le recuerda, que antes del examen de evaluación de la asignatura deberá entregar al profesor de la cátedra una carpeta con todas las prácticas y actividades detalladas en cada unidad.
Se tomará en cuenta la originalidad, contenido, buena presentación, redacción y ortografía. Incluya también los autocontroles correspondientes.
Es necesario que los dibujos topográficos que se tratan en Topografía, sean realizados manualmente manualmente y luego en computado computadora, ra, en en virtud virtud de que la la mayoría mayoría de de las institucion instituciones es u organismos en las que usted podría trabajar como profesional, no todos disponen de equipo ni de programas de computación para realizar este tipo de trabajos.
Esta asignatura es eminentemente práctica, en tal virtud usted debe encontrar las facilidades de acceso a organismos o instituciones que posean los aparatos necesarios empleados para realizar dichas prácticas topográficas. Caso contrario debe establecer contacto con el coordinador de la carrera para que efectúe sus prácticas en las horas de clases establecidas por la Universidad Católica de Cuenca o que solicite los equipos por intermedio de Secretaria y si es el caso tendrá que alquilar los equipos topográficos, en casos eventuales que no concluyan las practicas en los tiempos establecidos y calculados.
El tomar tomar en cuenta cuenta las recomend recomendaci acione oness dadas, dadas, el estud estudiar iar con esfuerzo esfuerzo y respo responsa nsabil bilida idad, d, permitirá que usted culmine con éxito el aprendizaje de la asignatura de la Topografía.
Trate de hacer hábito hábito de estudio estudio esto es todos los los días, a la misma misma hora en en el mismo mismo lugar, lugar, recuerde que los hábitos conducen a las costumbres, éstas a los estilos de vida.
Es necesario que desarrolle todos los autocontroles, y adjunte informes fotográficos en los días indicados por el facilitador.
Las prácticas prácticas serán entregadas entregadas en carpetas carpetas tamaño INEM y respaldadas respaldadas con con informació informaciónn magnética. (Power Point o CAD de dibujo).
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UNIDADES A continuación usted tendrá las unidades de aprendizaje, las mismas que deben ser investigadas, analizadas y estudiadas progresivamente de acuerdo a las Unidades programadas en coordinación con el profesor o facilitador de la materia:
UNIDAD # 1
REGISTROS DE CAMPO
UNIDAD # 2
MEDICIONES CON CINTA
UNIDAD # 3
EL TEODOLITO
UNIDAD # 4
DIVERSOS USOS DEL TEODOLITO
UNIDAD # 5
TAQUIMETRÍA
UNIDAD # 6
NIVELACIÓN NIVELACIÓN TRIGONOMETR TRIGONOMETRICA ICA Y NIVELACIO NIVELACION N GEOMÉTRICA
UNIDAD # 7
CURVAS DE NIVEL Y EL PERFIL
Cada unidad consta de: Objetivos Terminales: Terminales: Que dice lo que usted logrará, una vez que haya terminado el estudio de la unidad. unidad. Contenidos: Incluye Incluye los temas y sub-temas que que serán investigad investigados. os. Actividades: Actividades: Que se deberán desarrollar para que faciliten y dinamicen el aprendizaje. Desarrollo Pedagógico: Pedagógico: En el que consta todo el contenido científico de la materia (Introducción a la Topografía SERIE, SCHAUM, Topografía de TORRES, Álvaro Y VILLATE,
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Al término del material se encuentra la bibliografía básica, con las principales obras, donde pueda consultar, éstas servirán de apoyo para el aprendizaje de la materia.
I IN INTR TROD ODUC UCC CIÓN IÓN El área de estudio de “Topografía “es indispensable para los estudiantes, por cuanto cuanto esta contiene los fundamentos fundamentos requerido requeridoss que permitirán permitirán al estudia estudiante nte prepararse prepararse profesion profesionalmen almente, te, debido debido a que es un recurso de uso cotidiano cotidiano en el campo profesion profesional al y en la que se sustenta toda toda obra arquitectóni arquitectónica, ca, civil ,etc. La Topografía, Topografía, es una ciencia ciencia auxiliar auxiliar muy importante importante de la arquitectura arquitectura,, ingeniería. ingeniería. Agronomía, Agronomía, minería, minería, arqueología arqueología,, cartografía cartografía,, y otras ciencia, ciencia, ya que todo todo proyecto proyecto debe debe ser ser ejecutado ejecutado sobre un levant levantamie amiento nto topog topográfi ráfico. co. La práct práctica ica topog topográf ráfica ica,, precis precisaa de conocim conocimien ientos tos de Geometr Geometría, ía, Trigonometrí Trigonometría, a, Matemática Matemática y Dibujo Técnico, Técnico, así como de mucho ingenio ingenio y habilidad habilidad en la planificación planificación de trabajos, de suficiente experiencia y técnica en el conocimiento y manejo de los aparatos de topografía y en la toma de datos de campo. Por otra parte quién realice un estudio topográfico debe tener la responsabilidad suficiente y la paciencia necesaria que le permita realizar las comprobaciones en el campo y la entrega correcta de datos; toda vez que del levantamiento depende la precisión del proyecto a realizarse y su correcto replanteo posterior para efectos de planificación, es por este motivo que las tres primeras Unidades tienen íntima relación con lo mencionado. La topografía topografía es una de las cienci ciencias as más antiguas antiguas e importante importantess que practica practica el hombre, hombre, porque porque desde los tiempos más primitivos primitivos ha sido necesario marcar límites y dividir dividir terreno. En la actualidad la topografía se utiliza universalmente valiéndose de equipos sofisticados esto veremos en la Unidad tres y cuatro. En las Unidades cinco y seis veremos que los sistemas ordinarios de medición sobre el terreno son de uso cotidiano, pero los métodos de topografía aérea y por satélite artificial, que provienen del desarrollo de los sistemas tecnológicos modernos de defensa y exploración espacial, también son ahora de uso uso frecuent frecuente, e, además estaciones estaciones totales, totales, GPS. GPS. Y otros, utilizando utilizando los los resulta resultados dos de los los levantamientos topográficos para: (a) elaborar planos de la superficie terrestre, arriba y abajo del nivel del mar; (b) trazar cartas de navegación para uso en el aire, en la tierra, en el mar; (c) construir bancos de datos con información sobre recursos naturales y de utilización de la tierra, para ayudar a la mejor administración y aprovechamiento de nuestro ambiente físico; (d) evaluar datos sobre tamaño, forma, forma, gravedad y campo magnético magnético de la tierra; tierra; (e) obtener registros registros astronómicos astronómicos de la Luna y de los planetas. La topografía tiene un papel extremadamente importante en muchas ramas de la ingeniería y arquitectura. Todos los arquitectos e ingenieros, deben tener una perfecta compresión de los métodos e instrumentos a utilizar, inclusive sus alcances y sus limitaciones. Por último en la Unidad siete hablaremos de la importancia de representar el terreno en tres dimensiones y dibujar en el plano por medio de sus curvas de nivel, aprenderemos a interpretar y trabajar sobre ellas utilizando diferentes métodos.
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II OBJETIV OBJETIVOS OS GENERAL GENERALES ES
Al terminar el estudio de la asignatura de Topografía el alumno estará en condiciones de:
Realizar Realizar todo tipo tipo de levantamient levantamientos os planimétricos planimétricos,, procesar procesar datos, datos, y manejar de los instrumentos instrumentos que se requieren para esta actividad. actividad.
Realizar todo tipo de levantamientos taquimétricos.
elaborar elaborar croquis croquis de los terrenos terrenos de los diferen diferentes tes proyectos proyectos
Distinguir diferentes tipos de cintas.
Realizar diferentes tipos de formatos para llevar los registros de campo adecuadamente
Realizar Realizar diferentes diferentes tipos de trabajos utilizando utilizando la cinta únicamente, únicamente, como por Ej. Colocación Colocación de laterales, levantar y bajar perpendiculares, medida de ángulos, etc.
Reconocer, e identificar los diferentes tipos de equipos topográficos: teodolitos, estaciones totales, totales, niveles, niveles, GPS y darles el uso uso correspo correspondient ndientee en la planimetría planimetría y altimetría altimetría de los los levantamientos.
Realizar el replanteo en construcciones de edificios, lotizaciones, parques, canchas, etc.
Interpretar los estudios topográficos para urbanizaciones y lotizaciones, sistemas de riego, utilización de tierras, etc.
Colocar las estacas para Urbanizaciones, lotizaciones, ejes de caminos y calles
Realizar Realizar estudios estudios topográficos topográficos para el abastecimient abastecimientoo de agua agua potable potable y alcantarillad alcantarilladoo a poblaciones.
Aplicar Aplicar las curvas curvas de nivel, interpolar, interpolar, representar representar y manejar las mismas, mismas, además además realizar realizar cortes, perfiles a partir de la generación de curvas de nivel.
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III CONTENIDOS UNIDAD # 1
REGISTROS DE CAMPO OBJETIVOS TERMINALES Al finalizar el estudio de esta unidad usted estará en condiciones de: -
Llev Llevar ar adec adecua uada dame ment ntee los los dife difere rent ntes es tipo tiposs de regi regist stro ross de camp campo. o. Realizar sus propios registros de campo Util Utiliz izar ar el inge ingeni nioo e imag imagin inac ació iónn para para empe empezzar los los tra traba bajo joss de de camp campoo Recor ecorda darr los los requ requiisito sitoss para para efec efectu tuaar buen buenas as anot anotac acio ione ness Definir las clases de anotaciones Reco Record rdar ar los los fun funda dame ment ntos os técn técnic icos os de los los lev levan anta tami mien ento toss top topog ográ ráfifico coss Recor ecorddar los los conc concep epto toss de de Topo Topogr graf afía ía,, Geo Geode desi sia, a, y Agrim grimen ensu sura ra Disti isting ngui uirr las las dife difere rent ntes es unid unidaades des emp emple lead adas as en Topo Topogr graf afía ía Reco Record rdar ar la divi divisió siónn de de la la Top Topog ograf rafía ía y la la col colabo abora raci ción ón de las las otr otras as materi materias as que recib recibee Identificar la las cl clases de de le levantamientos Adqu Adquir irir ir adies adiestra tramie mient ntoo y práct práctic icaa par paraa rea realiliza zarr est estac acado ados, s, absc abscis isad ados, os, y refere referenc ncia iado doss Distinguir la la pl planimet metría de de la la Al Altimet metría Adqui dquiri rirr con conocim ocimie ienntos tos para para rea realilizzar los los dib dibuj ujos os res respe pect ctiv ivos os
CONTENIDOS 1.1 Nocion Nociones es generale generaless 1.1.1 Justificación para llevar los registros de campo 1.2.2 Requisitos para efectuar buenas anotaciones 1.2.3 Clases de anotaciones 1.2.4 Fundamentos técnicos
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DESARROLLO 1.1 REGISTROS DE CAMPO 1.1.1 JUSTIFICAC JUSTIFICACIÓN IÓN PARA LLEVAR LLEVAR REGISTROS REGISTROS DE CAMPO. CAMPO. Las anotaciones de campo realizadas por los topógrafos son los únicos registros permanentes del trabajo que se efectuó en el campo, un registro o libreta de campo con anotaciones de varios días por lo tanto llegará a costar cientos de dólares. Las libretas de campo deben contener un registro completo de varias medidas realizadas durante el levantamiento y también todos los diagramas, croquis o narraciones que ayuden para la comprensión de las anotaciones efectuadas. Generalmente el personal de oficina utiliza estos registros por lo que es necesario que estos sean claros y legibles de tal forma que cualquier persona pueda entenderlos, además las libretas de campo son documentos legales y se utilizan con frecuencia en los Juzgados para esclarecer los límites de propiedades, propiedades, siendo siendo trascendentales trascendentales en estos litigios. litigios. Las anotaciones anotaciones no deberán realizarse realizarse en papeles separados o de desecho para posteriormente tratar de pasarlos a la libreta de campo en forma forma ordenada ordenada,, estos estos errores errores son cometi cometidos dos ocasio ocasional nalment mentee por personas personas de experie experiencia ncia,, considerándose como una mala práctica. 1.1.2 REQUISITOS PARA EFECTUAR BUENAS ANOTACIONES.
1.1.2.1 PRESICIÓN. Al efectuar medidas de ángulos y/o distancias defectuosas el levantamiento será incorrecto.
1.1.2.2 LEGIBILIDAD. Una anotación ilegible carece de valor.
1.1.2.3 INTEGRIDAD. Todas las anotaciones de medidas se efectuarán en el momento de las observaciones, un solo detalle que se pase por alto anulará el levantamiento, no se debe inflar las notas para mejorar los cierres, ni alterar las medidas.
1.1.2.4 CLARIDAD. Debe planificarse el levantamiento de forma que las notas no se encuentren amontonadas o existan omisiones en los detalles
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1.1.3.3 DESCRIPCIONES. Las tabulaciones con o sin bosquejo también se pueden completar con descripciones, una descripción puede consistir en una o dos palabras para aclarar las mediciones realizadas, o puede ser una expresión bastante amplia si a de usarse en lo posterior, es preferible contar con información en exceso, que no disponer de la suficiente, en la práctica se debe utilizar las tres clases de anotaciones combinadas.
1.1.3.4 COMO SE LLENA UNA LIBRETA.
Titu Titulo lo.. .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .. Ubicación..... .......... ......... ........ Cli Clima.. ma.... .... .... .... ........ ...... .... .... .... .... .... ...... Equipo uipo utili tilizzado.. o........ ......... Fech Fecha. a... .... .... .... .... ..... ..... ..... ..... .... ..... ..... .... .... Colocar el nombre en la pasta
Nomb Nombre re del del gru grupo po o Bri Briga gada da de trab trabaj ajoo Ubicación y Norte Numer umeroo de hoj hojas as índ índiice Responsabl able Otra Otrass informa informaci cion ones es adicio adiciona nale less indisp indispen ensa sabl bles es
1.1.4 FUNDAMENTOS TECNICOS DE LOS LEVANTAMIENTOS Todo trabajo topográfico está sujeto a errores e imperfecciones debido a factores como: Condiciones atmosféricas Equipos descorregidos Malos manejos Por lo tanto mientras avancen los trabajos de campo las medidas deben ser verificadas para que los datos sean confiables y correctos. En forma simultánea al levantamiento debe elaborarse un croquis lo mas ajustado posible a la realidad, realidad, en el que se ubicarán ubicarán y marcarán con números números todos los puntos puntos correspondiente correspondientess al levantamiento, anotando las distancias medidas, ángulos, cotas, y otros detalles que se requiera, este procedimiento facilitará la representación del dibujo a escala. La Topografía Topografía es una de las ciencias ciencias más antiguas antiguas e importante importantess que practica practica el hombre, hombre, porque porque desde los tiempos más primitivos ha sido necesario marcar límites y dividir terreno, elaborar la cartografía cartografía de las naciones, naciones, los mapas mapas de navegación. navegación. En la actuali actualidad dad la topograf topografía ía se utiliza utiliza universalmente. Los sistemas ordinarios de medición sobre el terreno son de uso cotidiano, pero los métodos de topografía aérea y por satélite artificial, que provienen del desarrollo de los sistemas tecnológicos modernos de defensa y exploración espacial, también son ahora de uso frecuente. Los resultados de los levantamientos topográficos de nuestros días se emplean para: (a) elaborar
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tierra mas o menos extensa, recopilando los los datos necesarios en el campo, para poderlos poderlos representar a escalas posteriormente sobre un plano, ocupándose también de detalles de planimetría y altimetría o de las tres dimensiones, no considera a la Tierra como redonda, sino como plana. 1.2.3 1.2.3 GEODES GEODESIA IA:: Que pudiera llamarse Topografía en gran escala, se ocupa del estudio o medidas de grandes extensiones de tierra y de la Tierra misma en su totalidad considerándola con su verdadera forma, por lo que es colaboradora de la Geografía. HIPOTESIS: HIPOTESIS: Para nuestro estudio se tomara como base las siguientes hipótesis: a) La línea que une dos puntos puntos sobre la superficie superficie de de la Tierra Tierra es una una línea recta. b) La dirección dirección de la plomada, plomada, en dos dos puntos diferentes diferentes cualesquie cualesquiera, ra, son paralela paralelas. s. c) La superficie superficie imaginari imaginariaa de referencia, referencia, respecto respecto a la cual cual se toman toman las alturas, alturas, es una superfi superficie cie plana. d) El ángulo ángulo formado por por las intersecci intersecciones ones de dos líneas líneas sobre sobre la superficie superficie de de la tierra es es un ángulo plano y no esférico.
DIVISION BASICA DE LA TOPOGRAFIA PLANIMETRIA Y ALTIMETRIA: La primera se refiere a la representación gráfica de un terreno sin tener en cuenta las distintas alturas que este pueda tener, pero sin olvidar reducir a la horizontal las distancias inclinadas que intervengan en la determinación del plano. La altimetría altimetría en cambio cambio tiene en en cuenta las las mencionadas mencionadas alturas o diferencias diferencias de nivel nivel representándolas por medio de las llamadas curvas de nivel. COLABORACION QUE RECIBE: RECIBE: Existe materias asiduas colaboradoras de la topografía, como son las Matemáticas, Geometría, Trigonometría, Dibujo, prestando esencial ayuda y que sin esta ayuda la Topografía no pudiera existir. CLASES DE LEVANTAMIENTOS. Para la realización de cualquier Proyecto de Ingeniería o de Arquitectura, es necesario previamente contar con los los levantamientos Topográficos, para la delimitación de terrenos, apoyos físicos para estudios de prefactivilidad y de factibilidad de proyectos, replanteo en construcciones; existiendo a además los levantamientos levantamientos topográficos topográficos del tipo general, general, geodésicos, geodésicos, catastrales, catastrales, fotogrametrico fotogrametricos, s, para minas y túneles, hidráulicos, levantamientos de vías de comunicación y transporte. En todos los los levantamientos mencionados el procedimiento a seguirse comprende: el trabajo de campo o recopilaci recopilación ón de datos datos y el trabajo trabajo de gabinete gabinete en el que se realizan realizan cálculos cálculos,, dibujos, dibujos, y proyectos.
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LEVANTAMIENTOS CATASTRALES. Son los que se realizan dentro de las las ciudades en zonas urbanas y de terrenos municipales, con fines catastrales, necesarios para la elaboración de planos de las ciudades, proyectos y rectificación de calles y avenidas, proyectos de construcción de parques, urbanizaciones, áreas de recreo y en general para proyectos y obras de beneficio público.
LEVANTAMIENTOS FOTOGRAMETRICOS. Se basan en la toma de fotografías desde el terreno o desde el aire, tomados desde aviones en vuelo, sobre líneas proyectadas previamente en cartas topográficas denominándose también como aerofotogrametría.
LEVANTAMIENTO DE MINAS Y TUNELES. Estos levantami levantamientos entos tienen tienen por objeto objeto el control de la la posición posición de trabajos trabajos subterráneos, subterráneos, relacionándol relacionándolos os a referencias referencias y controles superficiales. superficiales. Debido Debido a su importancia importancia son trabajos trabajos que deben ser realizados con precisión y según su magnitud se utilizará la triangulación topográfica o geodésica.
LEVANTAMIENTOS HIDRAULICOS. Estos utilizan también la triangulación topográfica cuando tienen que ver con la determinación de los perfiles costaneros, rugosidades o profundidades en los cursos de aguas, lagos, mares, obras portuarias, obras hidroeléctricas, etc.
LEVANTAMIENTOS PARA VIAS DE COMUNICACIÓN. COM UNICACIÓN. Necesarios para el estudio, proyecto y construcción de caminos, carreteras, plataformas de canales, puentes, líneas férreas, líneas de transmisión, aeropuertos, etc.
ACTIVIDADE ACTIVIDADESS DE LA UNIDAD
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Escriba Escriba las definicio definiciones nes de cada cada una de las etapas etapas que se debe seguir seguir en un Lev. Top. Top. Breveme Brevemente nte indiq indique ue el empleo empleo de la la Topogra Topografía fía.. Expliq Explique ue la difere diferenci nciaa entre entre Topografí Topografíaa y Geodesi Geodesia. a. Contes Conteste, te, en qué trabajo trabajoss se se emple empleaa la la topog topografí rafíaa Conteste, Conteste, cuáles cuáles son las ramas ramas en las que que se divide divide la topografía, topografía, explique explique cada cada una de ellas. ellas. Realice Realice diferentes diferentes registro registross de campo en los que Usted Usted pueda almacen almacenar ar datos tomados en en el campo invéntese invéntese nuevos modelos modelos a su criterio. 7. Conteste,cuál Conteste,cuáles es cree que son los requisito requisitoss para efectuar efectuar buenas buenas anotacione anotacioness 8. Indi Indiqu quee las las clas clases es de de leva levant ntami amien ento toss 9. Realic Realicee un plano plano Top. En En el que cons conste te alguna alguna simb simbolo ología gía usada usada en en topogra topografía fía..
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3.3.- Unir Unir lo corre correcto cto:: Topografía
Opera sobre porciones pequeñas de tierra, no teniendo en Cuenta la verdadera forma de esta......
Geodesia
Opera sobre extensiones de área considerable, tomando La verdadera forma de la tierra.....
Agrimensura
Estudiaba pa parte de la topografía como solo pl planimetría
4.- Explique Explique la la diferencia diferencia entre planimetría planimetría y altimetría: altimetría: 5.- Explique Explique cuáles son los requisitos para efectuar buenas anotaciones anotaciones 6.- Cite las las clases de anotaciones anotaciones se deben realizarse realizarse en un lev. Top. Top. 7.- A partir de un ejemplo realizar realizar y ordenar adecuadamente adecuadamente las anotaciones anotaciones de campo
UNIDAD # 2
MEDICIONES CON CINTA OBJETIVOS TERMINALES Al finalizar el estudio de esta unidad usted estará en condiciones de:
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MEDICIONES CON CINTA ELEMENTOS NECESARIOS EN LAS MEDICIONES: a)
Cintas. Medir con cinta se llama Cadenear, el que maneja la cinta se denomina cadenero. Esto se debe a que originalmente se empleaba para medir una cadena de 100 pies de longitud, compuesta de 100 eslabones cada una de 1 pie. Las cintas que se usan en la actualidad están hechas de diferentes materiales, longitudes y pesos, las más comunes son las de tela y las de acero. Las de tela están hechas de material impermeable y llevan refuerzo de delgados hilos (4, 6 u 8 hilos) de acero o de bronce para impedir que se alarguen con el uso. Las cintas de acero se emplean para mediciones de precisión. Las longitudes más comunes en que viene son: de 25, 30, 50 y 100 metros. Son un poco más angostas que las de tela. Tienen desventaja para partirse muy fácilmente. La cinta de invar se emplea para para levantamientos levantamientos de alta alta precisión. precisión. Es una aleación aleación de níquel níquel y acero que tiene una expansión térmica aproximadamente a 1/30 de la de acero, generalmente se emplean aleaciones de 1/10 del coeficiente de expansión del acero.
b)
Piquetes: Son generalmente de unos 25 a 35 cm. de longitud, hechos de varilla de acero y
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d)
Escuadra: de agrimensor: Es un instrumento que se emplea en el levantamiento de poca precisión, para lanzar visuales o para trazar perpendiculares, consta de una caja metálica o de madera y un palo o bastón para apoyarla. Tiene en la caja unas ranuras de 90º por medio de las cuales se puede trazar alineamientos perpend perpendicu icular lares es entre entre si. Algunas Algunas tienen tienen otras otras ranuras ranuras de 45º para trazar trazar aline alineamie amiento ntoss con esa dirección. Su sección es cuadrada u octogonal. Cabe aquí anotar que los jalones se utilizan para realizar vistas con teodolito a largas distancias o para alineaciones que no requieren alta precisión, los jalones han sido substituidos por las plomadas ya que nos es igual tomar vistas en jalones que al hilo de la plomada puesto que el grosor del jalón es mayor que el grosor del hilo de la plomada, sabiendo a demás que la plomada va dirigida al centro de la tierra totalmente perpendicular, en cambio los jalones para aplomar se requiere demasiada precisión. MEDICION DE DISTANCIAS ENTRE DOS PUNTOS FIJOS
a.- En un terreno plano: elementos necesarios: dos o más jalones, jalones, un juego de piquetes, una cinta. Los
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La cinta cinta se debe debe mantener mantener bien bien tensa para evitar evitar que se forme una catenaria catenaria.. Cuando Cuando el terreno terreno es es muy inclinado se mide por partes, tomando tramos tan largos como sea posible, manteniendo la cinta horizontal. Para contabilizar el número de “ cintadas” , recoloca un piquete en B, la proyección de un número completo de metros ; luego el cadenero avanza, le da un piquete al cadenero delantero, y sostiene Jacinta Jacinta sobre B, marcando marcando el mismo número de metros leídos leídos hasta B; avanza avanza el cadenero cadenero delantero delantero hasta completar otro número completo de metros y proyecta sobre C dicha cantidad. Avanza de nuevo el cadenero trasero, le entrega al delantero otro piquete y el delantero sigue hasta completar la cintada, proyectando sobre D el extremo de la cinta. Al llegar al punto D el cadenero trasero ya no entrega ningún piquete; piquete; de esta manera manera se puede puede llevar el control control del del número de “cintada “cintadas” s” con el mismo método anterior “cuando el terreno era plano”. Para mantener la cinta horizontal es mejor llevar el nivel de mano, pues a simple ojo se cometen errores de apreciación en la horizontalidad. Mediciones Mediciones inclinada inclinadas: s: Hay ocasiones ocasiones en las las cuales cuales es más conveniente conveniente medir las las distanci distancias as inclinadas y tomar la pendiente de estas para luego calcular la verdadera distancia horizontal.
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PRECISIÓN DE LAS MEDICIONES CON CINTA No se acostumbra a hacer correcciones por catenaria, temperatura o tensiones. Generalmente el grado de precisión que se obtiene varía 1/1000 a 1/2300, en la mayor parte de los casos, la longitud de las líneas medidas resulta mayor a la real, pues los errores de mayor magnitud tienden a hacer más corta a la cinta. EQUIVOCACIONES QUE SE PUEDEN PRESENTAR AL CADENEAR 1) Añadir o quitar una “cintada”: Se evita aplicando el método de llevar a la cinta de las cintadas por el sistema de dos piquetes. 2) Añadir 1 metro: Puede ocurrir cuando se mide el extremo de la línea con una fracción de “cintada”, el error se elimina midiendo la línea en el otro sentido o al menos como, la fracción del extremo 3) Cuando se toman otros puntos, diferentes a los marcados en la cinta como origen o extremo de la cinta. 4) Debe tenerse cuidado en leer concienzudamente la cinta para evitar confusiones tales como: leer 68 en vez de 89 o confundir 6 con 9. 5) A dictar cantidades a un anotador se debe estar seguros de que este haya escuchado correctamente y procurar dictar con claridad. MEDICION DE ANGULOS CON CINTA Se trata de medir un ángulo BAC entonces haciendo centro en el vértice A con un radio de 20 m. (o con el radio más conveniente en cada caso) se traza por medio de la cinta un arco cb que corta los lados AB y AC respectivamente en los puntos b y c se mide la longitud de la cuerda bc, se tiene. Sen
2
bc / 2
20
bc
40
Con lo cual queda determinado un ángulo alfa.
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3) Método de la cuerda bisecada: Se toma a ojo un punto C que este sobre una perpendicular AB que pase por D. Haciendo centro en c, se traza un arco que corte a AB; lo corta en E y en F; se mide la cuerda EF EF y se sitúa el punto punto a en la mitad de EF; se una a con con c y se prolonga prolonga;; como lo lo más probable es que no pase D sino por D´ entonces se mide DD´ y se corre el pie de la perpendicular a/AB, una distancia igual a DD´ Luego se comprueba repitiendo el procedimiento.
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las perpendiculares a ojo sin cometer error. Por último, se calcula el área de los triángulos principales, a lo cual se le suma o resta el área de detalles por izquierdas o derechas, según el caso. ANGULOS O DIRECCIONES La principal finalidad de la topografía es la localización de puntos. Un punto se puede determinar si se conoce: 1) Su dirección y distancia, a partir de un punto ya conocido. 2) Sus direcciones desde 2 puntos ya conocidos 3) Sus distancias desde 2 puntos ya conocidos 4) Su dirección desde 1 punto conocido y su distancia desde otro ya conocido. Se llama dirección dirección de una línea, el ángulo horizontal existente existente entre esa línea y otra que se toma como referencia.
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El rumbo puede ser: magnético, verdadero o arbitrario, según se tome respecto al meridiano magnético, verdadero o a una línea cualquiera escogida arbitrariamente como meridiano. Rumb Rumboo de PA = N – 20º – E Rumb Rumboo de PB = S – 10º 10º – E Rumb Rumboo de PC = S – 60º – W Rumb Rumboo de PB = N – 45º – W AZIMUT Azimut de una línea es la dirección de esta respecto al meridiano escogido, pero, medida ya no como el rumbo, por un ángulo ángulo agudo, sino tomada como como el ángulo que existe entre entre la línea y un extremo del meridiano. meridiano. Generalme Generalme toma el norte d el ángulo se mide en el sentido del
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1.- Emplean Empleando do únicamen únicamente te la cinta, cinta, realice realice el el levantam levantamient ientoo topográf topográfico ico de un un parque parque cercano cercano a su lugar de residencia, en el que constará toda su infraestructura, como por ejemplo: pileta, monumento, árboles, bancadas, caminos, juegos infantiles, espacios verdes, etc. Incluya en el levantamiento las calles circundantes al parque. Presente la libreta topográfica en borrador y en limpio con todo lo solicitado. 2.- Calcule Calcule el el área área de espacios espacios verdes verdes en el parque. efectuados.
Presente el desarrollo desarrollo de de los los cálculos
3.- Realice Realice mediciones mediciones con con cinta cinta en un terreno terreno con pendiente muy pronunciada, pronunciada, en el que pueda utilizar jalones, piquetas, y plomadas. 4.- Realice Realice un cuadro cuadro sinóptico sinóptico en el que se pueda explicar explicar cuales son los errores y equivocaciones equivocaciones que se cometen al realizar medidas con cinta y como prevenir los mismos. 5.5.-
Respo Responda nda , qué clase clase de correc correccio ciones nes se deberí deberían an hace hacerr a las las cin cintas tas
6.- Realice Realice mediciones mediciones de ángulos, levante y baje perpendiculares, perpendiculares, salve obstáculo obstáculoss únicamente únicamente con cinta 7.- Realic Realicee el plano plano top. top. De todo todo lo que que se aplic aplicoo en esta esta activi actividad dad
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5.- Describa el el procedimiento procedimiento y trace trace una perpendicular perpendicular al segmento AB AB que pase por el punto D (Método de la cuerda bisecada ) D
A
B
6.- Enumere las equivocaciones equivocaciones que se puede cometer al cadenear 7.- Mida una distancia en presencia de obstáculos, impóngase impóngase los datos que requiera para su explicación
UNIDAD # 3
EL TEODOLITO
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será un arco de circulo. circulo. El tubo tubo está casi lleno lleno de éter sulfúrico sulfúrico o alcohol, alcohol, y el espacio espacio restante restante de aire, formando una burbuja que ocupa la parte mas alta. Una Una recta longitudinal tangente a la curva de la cara interior del tubo en su punto medio de denomina “eje de nivel”. Cuando la burbuja esta “centrada”, el eje del nivel debe estar horizontal. La sensibilidad de un nivel es proporcional al radio de curvatura de la cara interior del tubo. A mayor radio la burbuja ocupa mayor espacio y entonces, a una pequeña inclinación del tubo corresponde un mayor desplazamiento de la burbuja fuera de sus reparos. La sensibilidad sensibilidad es inversamente inversamente proporcio proporcional nal al número de segundos. segundos. Cada división división generalmente generalmente es de 2mm., y los valores más comunes expresan la sensibilidad son 30” para el nivel del anteojo y 75” para los del plato. Al primero corresponden 20 m Y al segundo, 5 m De radio de curvatura.
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b) el que no invierte invierte la imagen imagen la imagen imagen formada formada por el objetiv objetivoo sino que el solo solo lo aumenta. aumenta. Poder de aumento del ocular.- Es la relación existente entre el ángulo gajo, en el cual sé vería el objeto sin anteojo y el ángulo bajo, en el cual se ve la imagen aumentada. El poder poder de aumento de de un telescopio telescopio varía en los teodolito teodolitoss de 20 a 40 diámetros, diámetros, según según sea teodolito de tipo ordinario o de precisión. La línea de vista queda definida por la intersección de los hilos del retículo y el centro del objetivo. Eje óptico es la dirección según la cual un rayo de luz no experimenta desviación alguna al atravesar un lente.
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3.- La línea de vista debe ser perpendicular al eje horizontal del anteojo. Comprobación.-
Se nivela el aparato en 0, se coloca una estaca en A a una distancia aproximada de 100 mts.; se transita el aparato y se coloca una estaca en B a igual distancia aproximadamente; se gira 180º y se mira nuevamente a la estaca; se vuelve a transitar y si la la visual pasa por la estaca B exactamente, se cumple lo enunciado. Corrección.-
Si la visual no pasa por la estaca B sino por otro punto C, hay que corregir corriendo el retículo hasta que la visual pase por un punto punto D situado a ¼ de la distancia CB, a partir del punto C. C.
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2.- Se saca el aparato del estuche y se coloca sobre la mesilla del trípode, sujetándolo por medio de rosca. 3.- Se le coloca la plomada plomada al gancho que para tal fin tiene el aparato, si es que tiene este este tipo de plomada, plomada, o si tiene plomada plomada óptica se procede procede a accionarla accionarla para saber en que momento momento el aparato aparato esta centrado. 4.- Una vez que la la plomada nos indique que estamos dentro de un radio menor de unos 2 cm. del punto estación, procedemos a nivelar el aparato con los tornillos de nivelar, jugando a sí mismo con el centro de gravedad gravedad por medio de las patas del trípode. trípode. 5.- Teniendo el aparato nivelado, observamos que tan lejos quedo el eje vertical del punto estación. Sí esta a una distancia menor de unos 2 cm. podemos soltar el aparato y, deslizándolo sobre la mesilla, hacemos que el eje vertical pase por el punto estación.
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a.- La determinación determinación de la intersección intersección de dos líneas b.- La medición medición de un ángulo cuando el Tránsito no puede ser ser colocado colocado en el vértice c.- La determinación determinación de de la intersección intersección de dos puntos puntos d.- La determinación determinación de una distancia distancia entre dos puntos puntos cuando no puede medirse medirse directamente directamente e.- La prolong prolongació aciónn de una línea línea curva curva f.- La prolong prolongaci ación ón de una línea línea recta recta g.- Trazar una una línea línea recta recta entre entre dos puntos h.- Medición de ángulos ángulos ( Métodos Métodos de de Precisión Precisión ) i.- Intersec Intersecció ciónn de ángulos ángulos 4.- Enliste los métodos métodos para para medir medir un terreno terreno con con teodolito teodolito y cinta
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BE
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5.- Explique Explique si es es posible posible realizar realizar una medida entre entre A y B sin utilizar utilizar la mira mira y que procedimiento procedimiento utilizaría
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