Ann Roe’s Theory of Career Choice and Personality Development Ann Roe’s Theory focuses on the relationship between occupational choice and personality. In 1990 Roe and Lunnburg describe it as view of individual differences and their relationship to vocational choice and behaviour. Roe liked Maslow’s hypothesis about hierarchy of human needs. Her theory also predicts occupational selection based on individual differences: Biological,Sociological, and Psychological. Following Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Roe proposed seven needs:
1. Physiological Needs 5. Need for Need for information
2. Safety Needs 6. Need for beauty
3. Needs for belongingness 7. Need for selfactualization
4. Need for importance, respect, selfesteem and independence.
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Possible variations of need patterns include the following; 1) Needs satisfied routinely do not become unconscious motivators. 2) Needs which are minimally satisfied will, of lower order, prevent the appearance of higher needs will become dominant motivators. 3) Needs which are satisfied, but only after some delay, will become unconscious and motivator depending on the degree of satisfaction felt. Another thing Roe proposed that the emotional climate in the home that is the relationship between parent and child can be a determining factor in the career choice development. They can be on of the three types: a. Emotional concentration on the child - over protective (warm: indulgent) and over demanding(cold: push to achieve high standards) b. Avoidance of the child - rejection (cold: hostile, critical) or neglect(minimum of care, lack of affection) c. Acceptance of the child - express casually(indulgent, few rules mildly affectionate)or lovingly(warm, helpful, loving attention) Roe gave basic orientation that is toward or away from other person which are related to early childhood experiences which in turn related to occupational choice. She theorized that warm and accepting parents, makes the person to want an occupation which is oriented toward people and will fill the need for belongingness and affection. A person who had cold and rejecting parents will prefer to work alone. Roe proposes occupational groups with examples: 1. Service(maids, firemen, barbers, police, nurses, therapist) 2. Business(peddlers, buyers, salesmen, public relations) 3. Organizations(typists, clerks, owners, accountants, bankers) 4. Technology(laborers, mechanic, aviators, engineers) 5. Outdoor(farmers, miners, forest rangers, landscapers) 6. Science(technicians, pharmacists, scientists, college faculty) 7. Service(maids, firemen, barbers, police, nurses, therapist) 8. Service(maids, firemen, barbers, police, nurses, therapist)
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Roe’s Theory also has six levels of occupations: 1 2 3 4 5
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
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Professional & Managerial 1 Independent responsibility Professional & Managerial 2 Less Independence Semiprofessional Moderate responsibility for others Skilled Training is required. Semiskilled on -the-job training or s Unskilled Little special training is required. Individuals only need to follow basic directions
Roe’s theory has not been validated but her work has contributed to an understanding of the importance of the role of occupation and lives of individuals. Her greatest achievement according to Walsh and Osipo, 1983 may lie in the use of her two way job classification and the concept of people versus ideas 3
meaning that people either have an orientation toward people or an orientation away from people. This two ideas have changed the ways counsellors work with clients. Roe’s theory has an intuitive appeal but it is difficult to test since it would require a long term study of how children have different parental types turn out in adulthood, assuming they could be accurately assessed based on Roe’s typology. Another problem is if a child two parents could have two different parenting styles and not all children have two parents in the home too. The parental behaviors are inconsistent, there are many influences or occupational choice or parenting behaviour and personality. Research has not demonstrated a direct link between parent-child relationship and occupational choice. She has adequately addressed the importance of sociodemographic variables in career choice. Reflection: As I read the context of Ann Roe’s Theory, I have learned that the great factor that influence our personality is based on what we acquire from the people in our home. Our parents are the people who contributed a huge effect of what we are, our personality, and most specially in our views in life. Ann Roe emphasized that our childhood experiences is the basis in developing our career interests, our goals and our decision to make for our future career. Our experiences play a significant role in shaping our career behavior. What we acquire from our relationship with our parents and siblings contributes as to what we will become as an individual. There are lots of factors that will affect us, whether it will mold us to become a better person or to become a failure. Having a good relationship with our family specially with our parents will help us to have a positive outlook in life and will eventually direct us to have a good career in the future. Childhood socialization is also an important consideration when working with at-risk individuals. It's quite obvious that the environment in which we are raised can affect on how we behave. When we grow up in an accepting home, with a warm family, we are most likely not aggressive or defensive, but we are more interested in working with people. Our personality depends on the orientation we get from the people that surrounds us at home. Ann Roe’s theory also emphasized that career choices gratify one's needs. Children whose parents provide a warm, accepting, and protected environment 4
choose person-oriented occupations. Children whose parents were cold or rejecting choose technical or scientific careers. As we have observed, there are lots of people who are so unfortunate to acquire a good career, that absolutely because their parents never motivate them. They don’t have a proper guidance and nurturing from their parents. I, myself have also experienced the same thing as to what my parents guided me. My parents are not a perfect one, but they have taught me to be a value-centered person. They are a warm, indulgent persons, they never neglected me. They let me do things on my own but with their guidance and supervision. They accept what I can do and what I cannot. Even though I have committed lots of mistakes from my childhood years, they still there to guide me and protect me. From that experiences I have gained from them, it then taught me to be wiser in choosing a career. It's important for me to understand that my career choice is not made based on any one factor. Being an educator, is my choice of career and that choices is subject to many influences – individual, cultural, social, and environmental. All of that influences in my decision to be a future educator is not a new situation for me because I am somehow surrounded with people who are also in line with the same field . There may also be multiple options, several "good-fits" for me, but I do only have one choice and that is to become a teacher. I always keep in mind that as I walk the path of that career in the near future,change, learning and experiencing new things, and external factors change, such as the economy, you will continue to revise and fine-tune your career choices. Original theory posits that warm and accepting parents created people who enjoy working with people but has since suggested that more important factors are involved in determine career choice. When studies refuted Roe’s claim that different parentchild interactions result in different vocational choices.Roe modified her theory. She theorized that while the early orientation of a child is important to later major decisions, including occupational choice, other variables not accounted for in her theory are also important factors. Roe’s model was the first to suggest that personality factors, childhood events, parental influences, and psychological needs could be significant in making career choices.Her work stimulated a great deal of research about how and why people choose their occupations. Another thing also that I discovered that Roe’s classification of occupations does not consider the homemaker-mother roles of women. She fails to take into account part-time work, volunteer activities/hobbies, women who stay home but assist their husbands in their work, etc.It need to emphasize the importance of the various roles played by women.
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John Holland’s Personality Theory
John Holland’s Theory can be said and trace back to his military experience during World War II. In his work he hypothesize the people could be classified into relatively small number types. Holland is the Grandfather of careers advice. His matching theory of vocational choice through his RIASEC codes has underpinned scores of career inventories after him. He claimed that both people and work environments can be categorized and then matched to each other. Holland’s theory aims to categories people according to what type of work they are most interested in and then categories occupations under the same scheme to measure their congruence. Holland’s actual scheme was based around a six point hexagon which focuses on six types of person and job which are Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising and Conventional. This can be seen below;
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Realistic [R]: A realistic person prefers concrete tasks. He or she likes working alone or with other realistic people. People who are "independent, stable, persistent, genuine, practical, and thrifty, no-nonsense, down-to-earth individuals, physical, athletic, or mechanical." They prefer "things rather than ideas or people , being outdoors, using tools, operating machines, interacting with animals, and working with their hands." They also value the "natural, concrete, and tangible."Sample majors and careers include:
Aerospace/Aeronautical Engineer (with Investigative) Agriculture, Anthropology/Paleontology (with Investigative) Architect (with Artistic and Enterprising) Astronomy (with Investigative) Carpenter (with Conventional and Investigative) Chef (with Enterprising and Artistic) Chemistry/Chemist (with Investigative and Conventional) Computer engineering/Computer science/Information technology/Computer programmer (with Investigative and Conventional) Dance (with Artistic) Dentist (with Investigative and Social) Engineer (with Investigative and Conventional) Environmental science Fashion design (with Artistic and Enterprising) 7
Fine Artist, Including Painter, Sculptor and Illustrator (with Artistic) Firefighter (with Social and Enterprising) Graphic designer (with Artistic and Enterprising) Law enforcement Interior design(with Artistic) Military science Model (people) (with Artistic and Enterprising) Musician (with Artistic and Enterprising) Nurse (with Social, Conventional, and Investigative) Park Naturalist (with Social and Artistic) Personal trainer (with Enterprising and Social) Photographer (with Artistic and Enterprising) Physical therapy (with Social and Investigative) Driver Surgeon (with Investigative and Social) Veterinarian (with Investigative and Social) Web design/Web Development Specialist (with Artistic) Zoologists and Wildlife Biologists(with Investigative)
Investigative [I]: Someone who is investigative likes to use his or her abstract or analytical skills to figure things out. He or she is a “thinker” who strives to complete tasks and often prefers to do so independently. People who are "intellectual, introspective, inquisitive, curious, methodical, rational, analytical, and logical." They prefer "tasks that are scholarly, scientific, technical, or medical, and activities that involve thought, observation, investigation, exploration, and discovery. They like to solve problems, perform experiments, and conduct research.” Sample majors and careers include:
Actuary(with Conventional and Enterprising) Archivist/Librarian (with Social and Conventional) Carpenter (with Conventional and Realistic) Chemistry/Chemist (with Realistic and Conventional) Computer engineering/Computer science/Information technology/Computer programmer (with Realistic and Conventional) Counselor (with Social and Artistic) Dentist (with Realistic and Social) Dietitian (with Social and Enterprising) Economics (with Conventional and social) Engineer (with Realistic and Conventional) Finance (with Enterprising and Conventional) Lawyer (with Enterprising and Social) Mathematician (with realistic) Nurse (with Realistic, Conventional, and Social) Pharmacist (with Social and Conventional), Physical therapy (with Social and Realistic) Physician (Medical school/Medical research) (with Social) Physics 8
Professor (all fields) Psychology/Psychologist (with Social and Artistic) Surgeon (with Realistic and Social) Technical writer (with Artistic and Conventional) Veterinarian (with Realistic and Social) Zoologists and Wildlife Biologists(with Realistic)
Artistic [A]: The artistic members of our society like to create things. They are imaginative and usually extroverted. People who "are creative, intuitive, sensitive, articulate, expressive, unstructured, original, nonconforming, and innovative, who rely on feelings, imagination, inspiration and…who are spontaneous and open-minded." They prefer to "work with ideas, abstractions, and concepts." They also enjoy work that is "literary, verbal, visual, and aesthetic" and excel in "art, music, dance, drawing, painting, sculpting, drafting, writing, drama, communicating, design, fashion."Sample majors and careers include:
Architect (with Realistic and Enterprising) Broadcast journalism (with Enterprising) Clergy (with Social and Enterprising) Chef (with Enterprising and Realistic) Counselor (with Investigative and Social) Dance (with Realistic) Fashion design (with Realistic and Enterprising) Fine Artist, Including Painter, Sculptor and Illustrator (with Realistic) Graphic designer (with Enterprising and Realistic) Interior design(with Realistic) Model (people) (with Realistic and Enterprising) Musician (with Enterprising and Realistic) Park Naturalist (with Social and Realistic) Psychology/Psychologist (with Social and Investigative); Art therapist/Dance therapy/Drama therapy/Music therapy (with social) Public relations (with Enterprising) Photographer (with Realistic and Enterprising) Teacher (with Social) Technical writer (with Investigative and Conventional) Trainer (business) (with Social and Conventional)
Social [S]: A social person prefers interacting with people. He or she tends to be concerned with social problems and wants to help others.
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People who "are kind, generous, cooperative, patient, caring, helpful, empathetic, tactful, and friendly." They prefer tasks that involve "socializing, helping others, and teaching, teamwork, social interaction, relationship building and humanitarian, educational, philanthropic, interpersonal, and service-oriented." Sample majors and careers include:
Archivist/Librarian (with Conventional and Investigative) Clergy (with Artistic and Enterprising) Community Organizer Counselor (with Investigative and Artistic) Customer service (with Conventional and Enterprising) Dentist (with Investigative and Realistic) Dietitian (with Investigative and Enterprising) Economics (with Investigative and Conventional) Education (Teacher/Counselor/Administration) Educational administration (with Enterprising and Conventional) Firefighter (with Realistic and Enterprising) Fitness Trainer and Aerobics Teacher (with Enterprising and Realistic) Human Resources (with Conventional and Enterprising) Lawyer (with Investigative and Enterprising) Nurse (with Realistic, Conventional, and Investigative) Park Naturalist (with Realistic and Artistic) Pharmacist (with Investigative and Conventional), Physical therapy (with Realistic and Investigative) Physician (Medical school/Medical research) (with Investigative) Psychology/Psychologist (with Investigative and Artistic) Social Advocate Sociology Social Work Surgeon (with Realistic and Investigative) Teacher (Early childhood education, Primary school, Secondary school, Teaching English as a second language, Special Ed, and Substitute teaching) (with Artistic) Trainer (business) (with Artistic and Conventional) Veterinarian (with Investigative and Realistic)
Enterprising [E]: Those who are enterprising lean toward leadership roles. They are willing to take on challenges and are extroverted. They can be aggressive as well. People who "are adventurous, ambitious, assertive, extroverted, energetic, enthusiastic, confident, optimistic, dominant, persuasive, and motivational." They prefer work that involves "leadership, business, politics, public speaking, being in charge, taking risks, debating, and competing."Sample majors and careers include:
Actuary(with Investigative and Conventional) Architect (with Artistic and Realistic) Business Buyer
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Chef(with Realistic and Artistic) Clergy (with Artistic and Social) Customer service (with Conventional and Social) Dietitian (with Social and Investigative) Educational administration (with Social and Conventional) Entrepreneur Fashion design (with Artistic and Realistic) Finance (with Conventional and Investigative) Firefighter (with Social and Realistic) Fitness Trainer and Aerobics Teacher (with Realistic and Social) Fundraising, Graphic designer (with Artistic and Realistic) Human Resources (with Conventional and Social) Broadcast journalism (with Artistic) Lawyer (with Investigative and Social) Management/Management Consultant Market Research Analyst Model (people) (with Artistic and Realistic) Musician (with Artistic and Realistic) Photographer (with Artistic and Realistic) Public relations (with Enterprising) Real Estate (with Conventional)
Conventional [C]: Someone who is conventional prefers structured tasks and tending to details. He or she is often conservative.
People who are "conscientious and conservative, logical, efficient, orderly, organized, thorough, and detail-oriented." They are individuals who "value precision and accuracy." They excel in "practical tasks, quantitative measurements, and structured environments" and who "follow the rules." They prefer work that involves "accounting, statistics, mathematics, numerical activities, and office settings.Sample majors and careers include:
Accounting/Tax advisor Actuary(with Investigative and Enterprising) Archivist/Librarian (with Social and Investigative) Carpenter (with Realistic and Investigative) Chemistry/Chemist (with Investigative and Realistic) Computer engineering/Computer science/Information technology/Computer programmer (with Investigative and Realistic) Customer service (with Enterprising and Social) Economics (with Investigative and Social) Educational administration (with Social and Enterprising) Engineer (with Investigative and Realistic) 11
Finance (with Enterprising and Investigative) Human Resources (with Enterprising and Social) Math teacher Nurse (with Realistic, Social, and Investigative) Pharmacist (with Social and Investigative), Real Estate (with Enterprising) Technical writer (with Artistic and Investigative) Trainer (business) (with Social and Artistic)
Reflection: In the Theory of Holland, I have learned that individuals are attracted to a given career by their particular personalities and numerous variables that constitute their backgrounds.Career choice is an expression of, or extension of, personality into the world of work. Comparison of self with the perception of an occupation is a major determinant in career choice. He proposed that personality types can be arranged in a coded system following his modal-personal-orientation themes. In this way, personality type can be arranged according to dominant combinations. For example, a code of ASI would indicate that an individual is very much like people in Artistic occupations, and somewhat like those in Social and Investigative occupations. A major criticism is that the SDS or Self- Directed Search limits the career considerations for females. Most females tend to score on three personality types like artistic, social, and conventional. Holland suggested that females display a greater interest in female-dominated occupations as a reaction to the contemporary sexist society. Revisions of the VPI (Vocational Preference Inventory) 12
and SDS have corrected items that may have exaggerated the gender difference commonly found in interest profiles. Holland has also failed to discuss the impact of environmental and economic constraints on career development. But still, Holland’s theory is the most influential model of vocational choice making currently in existence.School counselors need to be aware of the possible sex bias of some of the Holland appraisal instruments. They should adjust for this bias in their interpretations of resulting codes and emphasize the expanded career choices for women and girls in contemporary society. His research shows that personalities seek out and flourish in career environments they fit and that jobs and career environments are classifiable by the personalities that flourish in them. Holland also wrote of his theory that "the choice of a vocation is an expression of personality. Furthermore, while Holland suggests that people can be "categorized as one of six types, he also argues that "a six-category scheme built on the assumption that there are only six kinds of people in the world is unacceptable on the strength of common sense alone. But a six category scheme that allows a simple ordering of a person's resemblance to each of the six models provides the possibility of 720 different personality patterns. If we are looking for a job or thinking about our career, we can use Holland’s theory of career choice to help us find a better fit. I’m a fan of lenses to help me get a better perspective or vantage point on my job personality. According to him, if we can match our job to our personality type and our work environment , we can improve our success and satisfaction. From a job personality standpoint, the idea is that “birds of a feather, flock together,” and that people with the same personality type tend to enjoy working with each other. For example, Artistic people enjoy working with other Artistic people. So the result is, when you’re in an environment that supports your job personality, you act and feel more effective. The thing to remember is that job personality types are really justlenses on behavior. Rather than assume you’re just one job personality type, Holland suggests that you have interests with each of the 6 job personality types, in descending order, effectively creating 720 different job personality patterns. People are happiest when they are put in jobs that match their job personality. Because the evidence indicates that employee satisfaction is highest and turnover lowest when personality and occupation are in agreement. social individuals, for instance, should be in social jobs, conventional people in conventional jobs, and so forth.” And yes it is interesting. It’s true that you usually can’t fit yourself into one category. I know I can’t. Another thing is it’s possible for certain traits/personality types/category in one person to evolve and become stronger than the others. I know it sounds like we all have multiple personality disorder … but maybe we do, figuratively!
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Frank Parsons Theory of Career Development
Frank Parsons is regarded as the founder of the vocational guidance movement. He developed the talent-matching approach, which was later developed into the Trait and Factor Theory of Occupational Choice. At the centre of Parsons' theory is the concept of matching. Trait-Factor Theory: The Trait-Factor theory of career development is associated mostly strongly with vocational theorists Frank Parsons and E.G. Williamson. Some of the basic assumptions that underlie this theory are: 1. Every person has a unique pattern of traits made up of their interests, values, abilities and personality characteristics, these traits can be objectively identified and profiled to represent an individual’s potential 2. Every occupation is made up of factors required for the successful performance of that occupation. These factors can be objectively identified and represented as an occupational profile 3. It is possible to identify a fit or match between individual traits and job factors using a straight forward problem-solving/decision making process.
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4. The closer the match between personal traits and job factors the greater the likelihood for successful job performance and satisfaction. Franks Parson Trait and Factor Theory was developed in 1908. Parsons states that occupational decision making occurs when people have achieved:
an accurate understanding of their individual traits (aptitudes, interests, personal abilities) a knowledge of jobs and the labor market rational and objective judgment about the relationship between their individual traits, and the labor market
This three-part theory still governs most current practice. The trait and factor theory operates under the premise that it is possible to measure both individual talents and the attributes required in particular jobs. It also assumes that people may be matched to an occupation that's a good fit. Parsons suggests that when individuals are in jobs best suited to their abilities they perform best and their productivity is highest. In his book, 'Choosing a Vocation', Parsons maintains that personal counsel is fundamental to the career search. In particular, he notes seven stages for a career counsellor to work through with clients: 1. Personal data: create a statement of key facts about the person, remembering to include every fact that has bearing on the vocational problem. 2. Self-analysis: a self-examination is done in private and under the instruction of the counsellor. Every tendency and interest that might impact on the choice of a life work should be recorded. 3. The client’s own choice and decision: this may show itself in the first two stages. The counsellor must bear in mind that the choice of vocation should be made by the client, with the counsellor acting as guide. 4. Counsellor’s analysis: the counsellor tests the client’s decision to see if it is in line with the “main quest”. 5. Outlook on the vocational field: the counselor should be familiar with industrial knowledge such as lists and classifications of industries and vocations, in addition to locations of training and apprenticeships. 6. Induction and advice: a broad-minded attitude coupled with logical and clear reasoning are critical at this stage. 7. General helpfulness: the counselor helps the client to fit into the chosen work, and to reflect on the decision. Much of Parsons’ work still guides career counseling today, though it is not without criticism. Matching assumes a degree of stability within the labor market. However, the reality is that the market’s volatility means individuals must be prepared to change and adapt to their circumstances. As already stated, when Parsons and other career counselors began helping young people, they had very little resources available to them, e.g. testing methods, and so relied solely on interviewing clients. They would ask the client about interests, and how well the client performed with these (aptitude and achievement) and also about 15
their values and personality. The counseling interview does continue to be a very valuable method of gathering information, however, as trait and factor theory evolved, more test methods were discovered. Psychometric tests were developed to include intelligence and aptitude tests; vocational tests; and personality inventories. All of these can be used by counselors applying the trait and factor theory to their clients. But how effective is this as a method to understand their career trajectory? It can be argued that it is effective to a certain extent. The testing methods are an efficient way of extracting information from the client and this information is already very beneficially organized and so easier to use for reflection for both the interviewer and the client. However, it can also be argued that trait and factor theory focuses too much on testing methods. Whilst the theory focuses on learning about client’s traits, i.e. aptitudes, achievements, interests, values and personality, the theory merely focuses on these traits and factors. It does not really focus on the applicability of the theory as a career counseling approach. Therefore it can be argued that this approach to career guidance theory is too scientific to provide a holistic vision of a person’s career journey. Also the emphasis of this theory is on a one off matching session with the client; so how can a person’s entire career trajectory be explained if the counselor is only seeing them once? It seems that although trait and factor theory is the oldest and most well known theory of career development, it has many limitations. Perhaps other theories, such as developmental theory, could explain a person’s career decisions more fully, as this approach focuses on seeing the client on various occasions in their lifetime and considers factors out with occupation, so gives a fuller account of their career decisions.
Trait-factor theory has been around for a long time and is still being used by many career practitioners in one form or another. Many of the aptitude, personality and interest tests and occupational information materials that emerged from this approach have evolved and remain in use today. (e.g., True Colors, General Aptitude Test Battery, DataPeople-Things Interest Test, Occupational profiles and the ever expanding computer-based career guidance programs.
Gold
Guardian
Blue
Idealist
Orange
Artisan
Green
Rational
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Reflection: As I have learned about this theory, the basis of Parsons’ study on vocation was the fact that society, economy, and science are constantly changing. Therefore, approaches and interventions in career development should also continue to change. Counselors must face the challenge of becoming versed in the various interventions and determining the most profitable path for each client, unless the counselor resembles the client and is uncertain of their vocational identity. It is imperative for every career counselor – past, present, or future – to embrace change. Many people, if not all, make career decisions based on their value systems. A counselor must be able to guide a client so that the person is able to articulate his or her values. When this occurs, the client will be able to evaluate clearly the decisions or choices that need to be made. This will empower, enlighten, and engage them to fulfill the steps required to ascertain the right career. The trait and factor theory operates under the premise that it is possible to measure both individual talents and the attributes required in particular jobs. It also assumes that people may be matched to an occupation that's a good fit. Parsons suggests that when individuals are in jobs best suited to their abilities they perform best and their productivity is highest. As i have noticed, much of Parsons’ work still guides career counselling today, though it is not without criticism. Matching assumes a degree of stability within the labour market. However, the reality is that the market’s volatility means individuals must be prepared to change and adapt to their circumstances. In his theory, Parsons states that an individual has a degree of free will. Every person according to his model has the capacity to act. Choosing a career plays a crucial part in an individuals life .More often than not we come across people who are unsuccessful or unhappy in their work life in spite of working hard. They feel as if the work is a burden and they do it mechanically without any interest and thus they are not enjoying it at all. It seems that they are not fit somehow for the 17
kind of work they are doing and that they are caught on the wrong foot. Most of these miseries are due to wrong career choices that they have made due to a variety of reasons. In our country career counseling is not very much in vogue and wherever it is happening it is only limited to disbursing the information related to various career options available. In these circumstances a student who has to take such a crucial decision on which his future depends turns for advice to his parents, peers and teachers who do their best to advise him based on their own perspectives and prejudices. Young people become aware of the career opportunities and choices around them as they become exposed to friends and people around them,parents' occupations, role models, television programs, school programs and counselling, church etc
Also the glamour of some the most popular professions or institutions attract him and he ends up being lured by either of these. In this scenario which is completely bereft of any scientific method making a right career choice is almost impossible. For students like me, whose backgrounds don't provide a rich variety of role models and opportunities, making this choice is even more critical. At this stage, the focus needs to be on self-knowledge-such as recognizing their own personality and appreciating what that means in terms of work. Experts in both psychology and career education have spent years looking at personality differences in order to understand how human beings achieve satisfaction in life and in career. After reflecting on this piece, I would have to also say that I can relate to Frank Parson’s Trait and Factor Theory. This theory states that in order to choose a career path, a person must have an understanding of what their abilities consist of, what their interests are, and what they are able to do. I believe that my experience with in the the past employment gave me the opportunity to absorb the knowledge necessary to grasp concepts and better understand what working environment would bring. While reflecting on my past work experiences I strongly agree with Parson’s theory because the main components of the jobs I held in the past are the same factors that I looked for in the future. Parson’s theory also says that “Every occupation is made up of factors required for the successful performance of that occupation. My past experiences, which I reflected on in the analysis paper, show my desire for a teaching profession and the opportunity to help the school I will be working with to improve in any way possible. I just hope that future job experiences with the teaching field have also given me the opportunity to gain knowledge about the area and encouraged me to continue towards the world of educating the children.
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Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
Social learning theory is the initial phase of Bandura's research. He analyzed the foundations of human learning and the willingness of children and adults to imitate behavior observed in others, in particular, aggression. He found that according to Social Learning theory, models are an important source for learning new behaviors and for achieving behavioral change in institutionalized settings. Social learning theory posits that there are three regulatory systems that control behavior. First, the antecedent inducements greatly influence the time and response of behavior. The stimulus that occurs before the behavioral response must be appropriate in relationship to social context and performers. Second, response feedback influences also serve an important function. Following a response, the reinforcements, by experience or observation, will greatly impact the occurrence of the behavior in the future. Third, the importance of cognitive functions in social learning. For example, for aggressive behavior to occur some people become easily angered by the sight or thought of individuals with whom they have had hostile encounters, and this memory is acquired through the learning process. Social learning theory has been applied extensively to the understanding of aggression and psychological disorders, particularly in the context of behavior modification. It is also the theoretical foundation for the technique of behavior modeling which is widely used in training programs. In recent years, Bandura has focused his work on the concept of self-efficacy in a variety of contexts. Example: 19
The most common (and pervasive) examples of social learning situations are television commercials. Commercials suggest that drinking a certain beverage or using a particular hair shampoo will make us popular and win the admiration of attractive people. Depending upon the component processes involved (such as attention or motivation), we may model the behavior shown in the commerical and buy the product being advertised. Principles: 1. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the modeled behavior symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Coding modeled behavior into words, labels or images results in better retention than simply observing. 2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results in outcomes they value. 3. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if the model is similar to the observer and has admired status and the behavior has functional value. The concept of self efficacy is also the focal point of Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory. By means of the self system, individuals exercise control over their thoughts, feelings, and actions. Among the beliefs with which an individual evaluates the control over his/her actions and environment, self-efficacy beliefs are the most influential predictor of human behavior. The level and strength of self-efficacy will determine:
whether coping behavior will be initiated; how much effort will result; how long the effort will be sustained in the face of obstacles.
Self-Efficacy - the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments- is constructed on the basis of: Four most influential sources where self-efficacy is derived: Personal Performance - Accomplishments-previous successes or failures (most influential) Vicarious Experience - Watching others, modeling, mentoring Verbal Persuasion - Verbal encouragement or discouragement Physiological and Emotional Factors - Perceptions of stress reactions in the body Self-Efficacy plays the central role in the cognitive regulation of motivation, because people regulate the level and distribution of effort they will expend in accordance with the effects they are expecting from their actions. It is important to understand the distinction between Self Esteem and Self Efficacy. 20
Self esteem relates to a person’s sense of self worth. Self efficacy relates to a person’s perception of their ability to reach a goal.
How Self Efficacy Affects Human Function Choices regarding behavior-People will be more inclined to take on a task if they believe they can succeed. People generally avoid tasks where their self efficacy is low, but engage when it is high. Self efficacy significantly higher than ability can lead to psychological damage. Significantly low self efficacy leads to an inability to grow and expand skills. Optimum levels of self efficacy are a little above ability, which encourages people to tackle challenging tasks and gain valuable experience. Motivation- People with higher self efficacy in a task are likely to expend more effort and persist longer than with low efficacy. On the other hand, low self efficacy may provide an incentive to learn more and prepare better than a person with higher self efficacy. Thought Patterns and Responses- Low self efficacy can lead people to believe tasks are harder than they actually are. This leads to poor planning and stress. A person with higher self efficacy will attribute a failure to external factors, whereas a person with lower self efficacy will attribute it to low ability. (Example: Math Test) The Destiny Idea- Bandura successfully showed that people with differing selfefficacy perceive the world in fundamentally different ways. People with a high self efficacy are generally of the opinion that they are in control of their own lives: that their own actions and decisions shape their lives. On the other hand, people with low self-efficacy may see their lives as somewhat out of their hands and with fate. Self-beliefs about abilities play a central role in the career decision-making process. People move toward those occupations requiring capabilities they think they either have or can develop. People move away from those occupations requiring capabilities they think they do not possess or they cannot develop. Personal goals also influence career behaviors in important ways. Personal goals relate to one’s determination to engage in certain activities to produce a particular outcome. Goals help to organize and guide behavior over long periods of time. The relationship among goals, self-efficacy, and outcome expectations is complex and occurs within the framework of: Bandura’s Triadic Reciprocal Model of Causality – these factors are all affecting each other simultaneously personal attributes, external environmental factors overt behavior In essence, a person inputs (e.g. gender, race) interact with contextual factors (e.g. 21
culture, family geography) and learning experiences to influence self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations. Self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations in turn shape people’s interests, goals, actions, and eventually their attainments. However, these are also influenced by contextual factors (e.g. job opportunities, access to training opportunities, financial resources). In this theory providing opportunities, experiences and significant adults to impact self-efficacy in all children becomes vital. Strategic career development interventions will positively impact young people in the context of this theory. Reflection: Social cognitive theory is premised on the notion that humans learn by observing and reflecting upon the behaviors of role models. As such, the learner’s internal mental state at the time of observation significantly shapes what is learned. What and how much is learned depends on the degree to which the learner is attentive to the events; learning is likely to be more focused when the role model behaves in intriguing ways, or when there is a novel aspect to what is being observed. Differences in internal states in turn mean that the same observation may prompt rather different responses and lessons for different learners—or for the same learner at different points time. Moreover, the mere fact that something is learned does not necessarily mean that it will affect the learner’s behavior. For the learner’s behavior to change, s/he must be sufficiently motivated to model the learned behavior, and to practice that behavior to improve one’s own skills. Thus, social cognitive theory provides a rather dynamic and multifaceted perspective on human behavior and development. Bandura’s action-oriented, problem-solving framework is embraced especially by those who view behavior as a changeable and redeemable quality over which the individual can exercise great control, rather than as a predetermined and largely inalterable entity. Learning nowadays is very much different from what we normally went through for the past decades. There are many aspects in learning which have evolved and emerged to make learning more effective and meaningful to the learner. Learners’ role emerged from passively receiving information to actively participating in their own learning. Teachers’ role from delivering direct instruction to facilitating one’s learning. Learning theories evolved from behaviourism to social constructivism. Learning environment has change from a traditional four wall classroom to virtual online environment. Despite of the change, social and cultural dimensions has always been a very crucial element to take into account to promote better learning in any context at any period of time. In my reflection, I would discuss on the social dimensions of learning. The social learning theory, the learning approaches in line with this dimension and learning in the social context will be deliberated. Besides, I would relate the topics with my own experiences as a learner.r. Social learning theory as proposed by Albert Bandura argued that people learn through observation, imitation and modelling. He proposed that the internal mental processes play important role in learning. He opposed behaviourism that learning must incur change in behaviour whereby he argued that 22
learning does not necessary lead to behavioural change. These three main ideas of Bandura have great impact on the education field nowadays. In order for imitation, observation and modelling to happen, there must be two or more people involved. For example, children imitate family members, their peers and the teacher. This participation leads to interaction in which each individual responses to cues or stimuli according to a particular context. It is a dynamic process as participants need to constantly adopt and adapt own knowledge to response in the particular learning context.... This theory states that the way people behave is dependent on what they observe others doing and the outcomes of others’ actions. I felt like this would be a good topic to choose because I am very interested in the different types of learning. I find the different theories associated with learning very interesting and also very applicable to everyday life. Understanding the social learning theory is highly relevant for today's classroom. As a future educator, I will be teaching social skills. Teaching social skills begins with teacher modeling. Whether we realize it or not, the students watch how the teacher behave and will emulate us in many ways. If kids feel certain behaviors are acceptable because we do them, then it is a certainty that many of them will too. Watching actions performed either in a form of media of in real life then mimicking the observed behavior.Behavioral, cognitive and environmental factors all influence learning behavior. Albert Bandura brought the social learning theory into the forefront of education. The implications of his study are far-reaching for teacher.
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Ginzberg’s Career Development Theory
Eli Ginzberg in 1951 studied the theories of vocations and concluded that the occupational choice is a process of helping a person to develop and accept an integrated and adequate picture of themselves and of their role in the world of work. A central concept is that people develop through stages over their lifetime The choice of career should be seen as a developmental process which already starts before adolescence. He has divided the process of vocation choice into 3 stages. These stages or levels are as follows:
1. Fantasy stage 2. Tentative choice stage 3. Realistic choice
Fantasy Stage: He has said that the vocational development process starts right from the child's birth and it goes on life-long. The study of vocational development is possible only from the child's age of 7 years. The period of fantasy is the child's age of 11 years.
Tentative Choice Stage: The age of tentative choices ranges from 11 to 17 years. According to Ginzberg, the tentative choices stage can also be divided into 3 substages. These sub-stages are:
Interest stage - at this stage, the child develops its interests. Therefore, it is also known as the interest stage. Capacity Stage - after the development of interest stage, the child starts paying attention towards his capacities.
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Value stage - after the capacity stage, the child studies his values and analysis. Hence, it is known as value stage.
Realistic Choice: The age above 17 is known as the age of realistic choice. He has divided this stage into 3 sub-stages. These sub-stages are:
Exploration Stage - at this stage, the child explores various vocations as first of all. Therefore it is known as Exploration stage. Crystalisation Stage - this is the second stage where the child decides about his likings, i.e., at this stage the child, after exploring various vocations, decides in which path he is to move. Specification Stage - this is the last stage where the child adopts the specific group of occupation. Therefore, this age is known as the specification stage. Thus, Eli Ginzberg has stated in his theory that the vocational choice is a process that undergoes the above said 3 stages-Fantasy, Tentative and Realistic stage. Ginzberg further published a restatement of the theory. This restatement quoted below was based upon the series of research work on the theory. The restatement is quoted at length here because of its significance in relations to the theorist's earlier position: The reformation of our theory of occupational choice then follows in brief : Occupational choice is a process that remains open as long as one makes and expects to make decisions about his work and career. In many instances, it is coterminous with his working life. While the successive decisions that a young person makes during the preparatory period will have a shaping influence on his later career, so will the continuing changes that he undergoes in work and life. People make decision about jobs and careers with an aim of optimizing their satisfactions by finding the best possible fit between their priority needs and desires and the opportunities and constraints that they confront in the world of work. The fundamental theory is that occupational choice is a life-long process of decision-making in which the individual seeks to find the optimal fit between his career preparation and goals and the realities of the world of work. 25
While young people who grow up in adverse .circumstances have fewer effective options through which to shape their lives and careers, all people have some options and majority has a great many. Thus the critical issue is whether or not they take advantage of the options.
Reflection: Eli Ginzberg has stated in his theory that the vocational choice is a Occupational Choice. He emphasized that occupational choice is not a one-time decision. Rather, it is a developmental process occurring over several stages and substages of a person's life. This examines a specific theoretical approach to the study of career development. Specifically, the author expounds upon the work done by Eli Ginzberg in the late 1940s. In his theory, Ginzberg proposes that adolescents develop through a tentative stage of career development. This paper describes the nature of the tentative stage, its usefulness as 26
a theory, and its application in the real world. The study of human development is complex and demanding discipline. It requires researchers to develop theoretical frameworks that are capable of accounting for a myriad of environmental, social, cultural, economic, and even genetic factors. This is no easy task. Therefore, the creation of a theoretical approach to development, in any specific regard, is important if that theory can stand up to critical scrutiny. This importance is evident when we consider the study of how career choices are made by growing individuals through the eyes of a developmental psychologist. The purpose of this study is to examine one specific element of Eli Ginzberg's theory on career choice. He and his research associates developed this theory and published their findings in 1949. Ginzberg approached the question of how individuals choose careers for themselves by isolating the developmental process that leads up to the actual decision. Ginzberg’s work had weaknesses, one of which was the failure to take into account the very significant existing body of information about educational and vocational development.It is also arguing that occupa- 15 Effective Career Guidance tional preferences and competencies, individual’s life situations (and hence their selfconcepts) all change with time and experience. He also developed the concept of vocational maturity, which may or may not correspond to chronological age. His student, Super (1957) extended Ginzberg’s three life stages to five, with slightly different substages. He also developed the concept of vocational maturity, which may or may not correspond to chronological age. A time perspective was always centrally important to the career development process: It has always seemed important to maintain three time perspectives: the past, from which one has come; the present, in which one currently functions; and the future, toward which one is moving. All three are of indisputable importance, for the past shapes the present and the present is the basis for the future. But if I were forced to declare a preference in orientation to time, it would be for the future - even after more than fifty years of work experience. It emphasised the importance the different roles that individuals played at different stages of their life (specifically child, student, leisurite, citizen, worker, spouse, homemaker, parent, pensioner) and the concept of life space (i.e. four major life theatres: home, community, education, work). It should be developed over a fifty year period, with the lifecareer rainbow representing a significant advance. It must emphasised the importance the different roles that individuals played at different stages of their life (specifically child, student, leisurite, citizen, worker, spouse, homemaker, parent, pensioner) and the concept of life space (i.e. four major life theatres: home, community, education, work).
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Super then, used the concept of `roles’ to describe the many aspects of careers throughout an individual’s lifespan. Some key ideas include: the number of roles an individual plays will vary; all roles are not `played’ by everyone; each role has differing importance at different times for individuals (e.g student); and success in one role tends to facilitate success in others (& vice versa). The development of his ideas about self-concept and vocational adjustment resulted in a redefinition of vocational guidance as: the process of helping a person to develop an integrated and adequate picture of himself and of his role in the world of work, to test this concept against reality and to convert it into a reality, with satisfaction to himself and benefits to society.
Super’s Developmental SelfConcept Theory Vocational development is the process of developing and implementing a selfconcept. As the self-concept becomes more realistic and stable, so does vocational choice and behavior. People choose occupations that permit them to express their self-concepts. Work satisfaction is related to the degree that they’ve been able to 28
implement their self-concepts. Career Maturity - Similarity between one’s actual vocational behavior and what is expected for that stage of development. Career maturity includes readiness to cope with developmental tasks at a given stage. It is both affective and cognitive. Most career education programs have been affected by Super’s ideas. They provide gradual exposure to self-concepts and work concepts in curriculum that represents Super’s ideas of career development/vocational maturity. (National Career Development Guideline Standards) Stages Growth (Birth to mid teens) - Major developmental tasks are to develop a selfconcept and to move from play to work orientation. Sub stages
Fantasy (4-10 years old) - needs dominate career fantasies and little reality orientation.
Interest (11-12 years old) - identifies likes/dislikes as basis for career choices
Capacity (13-14 years old) - more reality incorporated; can relate own skills to specific requirements of jobs. (Vocationalizing the self concept)
Exploration (Mid teens through early 20’s) - major tasks are to develop a realistic self-concept and implement a vocational preference though role tryouts and exploration; there is a gradual narrowing of choices leading to implementation of a preference. Preferences become CHOICES when acted upon. Sub Stages
Tentative (15-17 years old) - tentative choices incorporating needs, interests, abilities are tried out in fantasy, coursework, part time work, volunteer, shadowing. o May identify field and level of work at this sub stage.
Crystallization of Preference (18-21 years old) - General preference is converted into specific choice. Reality dominates as one enters the job market or training after high school. Choosing a college major or field of training.
Specifying a Vocational Preference (early 20’s) - trial/little commitment; first job is tried out as life’s work but the implemented choice is provisional and person may cycle back through crystallizing and specifying if not appropriate.
Establishment (mid 20’s through mid 40’s) - major tasks are to find secure niche in one’s field and advance within it.
Sub Stages
Trial and Stabilization (25-30 years old) -
process of settling down, if 29
unsatisfactory may make 1-2 more changes before the right job is found.
Advancement (30-40 years old) - efforts directed at securing one’s position, acquiring seniority, developing skills, demonstrating superior performance, resume building actions.
Maintenance (40’s through early 60’s) - Major task is to preserve one’s gains and develop non-occupational roles for things one always wanted to do; Little new ground is broken, one continues established work patterns. One faces competition from younger workers. Could be a plateau. Disengagement or Decline (Late 60’s through retirement) - Tasks are deceleration of the career, gradual disengagement from world of work and retirement. One is challenged to find other sources of satisfaction. May shift to part time to suit declining capacities. Development Tasks
Crystallization
Forming a general vocational goal
Specification
Move from tentative to specific preference
Implementation
Complete training, enter employment
Stabilization
Confirm choice through work experience
Consolidation
Advance in career
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Implications of Super’s Theory for Career Counseling
Identify the career development stage and set goals for mastery of the tasks unique to each stage.
Help student clarify self-concept because any task that enhances selfknowledge will increase vocational maturity. Then help them relate their selfknowledge to occupational information.
Expose students to a wider range of careers because occupational options narrow over time. Consider lifestyle implications and consider the vocational and avocational relevance of subjects studied in school.
Direct work experiences are vital. Try on roles in real worlds of work.
Reflection: One of Donald Super’s greatest contributions to career development has been his emphasis on the importance of the development of self-concept. According to Super, 31
self-concept changes over time, and develops as a result of experience. As such, career development is lifelong.Findings suggested that self-concepts and concepts of occupational preferences do have a role in career development, though there were some indications that the theory is more applicable to more able youngsters and to those high in self-esteem, than to others. Agreement between ideal-self-concepts and occupational preference concepts was significantly greater than that between actualself-concepts and occupational preference concepts. Super was not satisfied of the theory of Eli, so he developed the theories and work of colleague Eli Ginzberg – he thought that Ginzberg’s work had weaknesses, which he wanted to address. Super extended Ginzberg’s life and career development stages from three to five, and included different substages. Super argues that occupational preferences and competencies, along with an individual’s life situations, all change with time and experience. Super developed the concept of vocational maturity, which may or may not correspond to chronological age: people cycle through each of these stages when they go through career transitions.Super states that in making a vocational choice individuals are expressing their self-concept, or understanding of self, which evolves over time. People seek career satisfaction through work roles in which they can express themselves and further implement and develop their self-concept.Specifically, we will be looking at Super's stages of occupational development, which is a developmental model emphasizing personal growth and experiences, interacting occupational preferences, and competencies. Donald Super crafted this stage theory to explain the changes that occur to someone over a lifetime and how that interacts with one's occupational choices. Many other theories look at just personality and occupation, but this one combines one's developing experiences also into it. A developmental model is something that describes changes over time. This is typically tied to aging groupings. Super's stages first start at age 0 to 14 and the second is 15 to 24. With each stage, there are different things happening: sometimes they can only happen inside one age category, and other times they can happen whenever the person reaches that stage. What makes Super's stages so unique is that it is one of the few that looks at and attempts to explain personal growth and experiences over a lifetime interacting with occupational preferences. Many models attempt to look solely at personality and how that plays into what you chose to do for work. But not Super's; it looks at the whole person, from the time you're very young until you're really old. So, upon reading it all, I could say that aside from the work of Eli Ginzberg, there still more to add to enlighten our personal career development. Super then emphasized the importance of self-concept “the picture we have of who we are”, in which I know it is really an important part of knowing our very own personality. That influences our career choices over the lifespan. Ideally, we are able to implement our self-concept in our career roles in the future. In my case, growing up in a fairly sheltered existence with 4 younger siblings, I have the opportunity to serve as leader or role model to them. Living as the eldest among my siblings, I was able to mentor them and motivate them to have a better 32
wellness habits. While doing so, I began to realize my potential to motivate and inspire them, which is an element of my self-concept further until I went through with my education and started spending away from my family and get married. So, as per mentioned in the review of Super’s theory, “the formation of selfconcept begins when children distinguish that they are separate from their parents, siblings and other people/objectives in their lives. Until then, I realized the potential and importance of those experiences more consciously. Since that point, my key purpose in life has been to motivate and inspire people to self-actualize, discover their own self, and share their uniqueness with the world. According to Super’s theory, the extent to which I am bale to realize these various aspects of my self-concept, the more satisfaction I will gain in life. In other words,if I can help people self-actualize in a creative way using the various qualities that I have, there is good chance that I will be pleased with my career life someday.
Dawis Theory of Work Adjustment Theory of Work Adjustment This is sometimes referred to as the Person–Environment Correspondence. Theory. It was originally developed by René Dawis, George England and Lloyd 33
Lofquist from the University of Minnesota in 1964. Work adjustments is a result of the interaction between person(P) and his/her work environment (E) · The degree to which the requirements (interactions) of the P and the E are met is called correspondence · The process of achieving and maintaining correspondence is work adjustment, indicated by the satisfaction of P with the E, and by satisfaction of the work environment with the individual (individuals satisfactoriness) · Tenure is the result of satisfaction, it is the principal indicator of work adjustment · Four typical response styles of P and E Celerity – quickness of response Pace – intensity of response Rhythm – pattern of response Endurance – persistence of response The more closely a person’s abilities (skills, knowledge, experience, attitude, behaviors, etc.) correspond with the requirements of the role or the organization, the more likely it is that they will perform the job well and be perceived as satisfactory by the employer. Similarly, the more closely the reinforcers (rewards) of the role or organization correspond to the values that a person seeks to satisfy through their work, the more likely it is that the person will perceive the job as satisfying. They list six key values that individuals seek to satisfy: • Achievement — conditions that encourage accomplishment and progress • Comfort — conditions that encourage lack of stress • Status — conditions that provide recognition and prestige • Altruism — conditions that foster harmony and service to others • Safety — conditions that establish predictability and stability •Autonomy — conditions that increase personal control and initiative The degrees of satisfaction and satisfactoriness are seen as predictors of the likelihood that someone will stay in a job, be successful at it and receive advancement. The theory acknowledges that the correspondence between person and environment may not be perfect — perhaps because the person chose the wrong career or the employer chose the wrong candidate. Even a good correspondence may change over time. The person’s skills might develop so that they outgrow their role or their priorities may change because of non-work commitments. The nature of the job or the nature of the rewards an employer is able to offer may also change. The flexibility 34
of a person or an environment will determine the extent to which they can tolerate any lack of correspondence between abilities and requirements and/or values and reinforcers. Flexibility will vary from individual to individual and from environment to environment. Internal factors, such as personality or organizational culture, will influence the level of flexibility, as will external factors, such as the availability of alternative options. When the lack of correspondence is so great that flexibility is no longer viable, some form of adjustment often takes place. • Active adjustment by the individual involves them trying to change their working environment. They may seek to change the content of the job, and therefore its behaviour requirements, to better reflect their abilities. Alternatively, they may try to alter the reinforcements of the job by seeking to gain different rewards, e.g. better working conditions or greater variety or responsibility. Active adjustment by the environment may involve trying to change the person’s abilities through training or trying to change their values or expectations in some way. • Reactive adjustment may involve the individual trying to change their behaviors to better suit the environment or by changing their personal priorities or work values. Similarly, the environment may change the responsibilities of a role to better suit the natural strengths of the individual or change the rewards to attempt to increase job satisfaction. Persistence is defined as the extent to which individuals or environments will keep trying to adjust before giving up. When no further adjustment is possible, something more dramatic happens — the person leaves the job or they are fired.
Reflection: The Theory of Work Adjustment is all about working a job successfully once you've chosen an occupation. Lofquist say that knowing how to meet our physical, social, and psychological needs in a job is just as important as the act of choosing a career. This theory implies that people and their environments interact. This interaction happens because both have needs that have to be satisfied and this often through each other. For people to satisfy the needs of their environments, they will need the right behaviors, flexibility, skills, attitudes, experiences, knowledge and other tools. Satisfaction levels may fluctuate and for environments to satisfy people, they need to provide the right rewards, autonomy, job content, ethics, tools, equipment, etc. For both environment and people to satisfy the other, they need to fulfill each other's requirements as much as possible though it is said that the perfect 35
match does not exist and that people and environments evolve and change due to evolving skills, knowledge and factors affecting the environment. For the employer to perceive the employee as satisfactory, there needs to be a skill set match with the job and the organization. The more the employee's requirements are met, the more the satisfaction he will perceive and therefore feel competent and committed. According to Dawis, Work Adjustment is: “A continuous and dynamic process by which a worker seeks to achieve and maintain correspondence with a work environment.” In simple terms: a worker’s satisfaction (ie. being satisfied with one's work) and the employer’s satisfaction with the individual's performance. For a work environment to be successful, the environment and the individual must meet each other's requirements. Today, the theory is mainly used in vocational psychology, and the basic tenants are fairly simple: A work environment requires that certain tasks be performed, and an individual brings skills to perform these tasks. In exchange, the individual requires compensation for work performance and certain preferred conditions, such as a safe and comfortable place to work. Satisfaction and satisfactoriness result in tenure, the principal indicator of work adjustment. Tenure can be predicted from the correspondence of an individual's work personality with the work environment. Dawis claim that everyone has different values they are seeking to satisfy through work, and the more closely the organization or role satisfies those values, the more likely the person is to perceive the job as satisfying. So, it is also important thing to know that Individuals must be flexible if they aren't finding correspondence with their environment. Someone who is more flexible will have better work tenure. Dawis also say that "Active adjustment by the individual involves them trying to change their working environment. They may seek to change the content of the job, and therefore its behaviour requirements, to better reflect their abilities. Alternatively, they may try to alter the reinforcements of the job by seeking to gain different rewards, e.g. better working conditions or greater variety or responsibility. Active adjustment by the environment may involve trying to change the person’s abilities through training or trying to change their values or expectations in some way. Reactive adjustment may involve the individual trying to change their behaviours to better suit the environment or by changing their personal priorities or work values. Similarly, the environment may change the responsibilities of a role to better suit the natural strengths of the individual or change the rewards to attempt to increase job satisfaction."
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Gottfredson’s Theory of Circumscription and Compromise The theory of circumscription and compromise focuses on how young people gradually come to recognize and deal with, or fail to deal with, the array of vocational choices their society provides. Goals: To
clarify
and
implement
a
vision
of
a
satisfying
career
To encourage realism in career choice without placing limits on options Key Concepts of the Theory of Circumscription And Compromise:
Perceived Accessibility of an Occupation = Obstacles or opportunities in the social or economic environment that affect one’s chances of getting into a particular occupation.
Occupational Alternatives = Career preferences that have been altered by one’s sense of how realistic their choices are. They can be derived from a combination of self compatibility and accessibility.
Social Space- Zone of Acceptable Alternatives = Range of alternate career choices that an individual views as acceptable. It’s a reflection of where the 37
individual
sees
him/herself
as
fitting
into
society.
Occupational Aspiration = The single occupation named as one’s best alternative at any given time.
Four Developmental Cognitive Processes: 1-Cognitive Growth 2-Self-Creation
3-Circumscription
cognitive map of occupations and the self-concept Consistencies in behaviors, beliefs, feelings, and self-insight help one gain a fuller view of self. Our self concept is formed based on what we would Like to be and what we fear to be.
Career choice begins by eliminating options that conflict with self-concept. From an early age, people begin to rule out career options that they see as socially unacceptable for themselves. This is often done without even knowing much about the jobs that are eliminated. 4- Compromise
When one chooses a more accessible career option instead of a preferred career.
Stages of Development: 1. Orientation to Size and Power (ages 3-5) Children begin to understand the concept of being an adult. They view occupations as adult roles. 2. Orientation to sex roles (ages 6-8) Gender self-image emerges 3. Orientation to social valuation (ages 9-13) An individual better understands social class and ability and how that determines social behavior and expectations. 4. Orientation to internal, unique self (around age 14) A person becomes more attuned to internal feelings. Personal interests, values, and competencies become more clear in which an individual can begin to decide what field of work they would like. Interventions Techniques:
Written exercises to enhance personal reflection Provide individualized interpretation and freed back Provide practical information about world of work Encourage opportunities to observe role models who are successful in their career Attention to building social support for choices
Interventions Goals: 38
1. Optimize Learning = Encouragement to explore and gather information about self. It’s important for the counselor to reduce the complexity of this task to meet the client’s needs. 2. Optimize Experience = Exposure to a wide variety of occupations and promote awareness of the active role the client can take in shaping their experience. 3. Optimize Self-Insight = Encourage clients to take into account what they already know about themselves. Encouragement to think of making the choice of an occupation within the broader context of other factors (i.e., other life roles that come with career role) 4. Optimize Self-Investment = Compromise may occur because of perceived inaccessibility or unrealism. The counselor should support and encourage new options as well as determine next steps and possible challenges one might encounter in pursuing the career of choice. Applications to Counseling: Gottfredson challenges us as counselors to find necessity in fairly weighing a client or student's abilities (Cochran, Wang, Stevenson, Johnson, & Crews, 2011). Three confrontations with reality (Cochran et al., 2011): 1) Exploration of aspirations 2) Narrow list to a couple of options, begin assessing for ability 3) Make a plan B Aspirations do not necessarily predict what career one will attain. A study of 1,394 white males found that participants were more likely to change their aspiration to match their career rather than change careers to match aspirations in order to reach aspiration-career congruence (Gottfredson, 1981). Multicultural Considerations: Prescod & Daire, 2013: Identity as a young, unwed mother with little to no resources negatively impacts one's self-concept. Combined Gottfredson's theory of self-concept with the DSM-IV's Outline For Cultural Formation model: 1) self & culture: young black mother 2) self & culture concept of career paths 3) self in cultural context 4) cultural dynamics in the therapeutic relationship 5) overall assessment for career planning with a culturally sensitive emphasis Ivers, Milsome, & Newsome, 2012: 39
Application of "premature circumscription" and "early compromise (Ivers et al. 2012, p. 233) in counseling Latino youth facing language barriers and racial discrimination in schools. Counselors should: 1) Assess for circumscription 2) Provide one-on-one assistance in formulating life goals 3) Offer information for goal attainment
Reflection: In her theory, Gottfredson seeks to answer “Where do interests, abilities, and other determinants of vocational choice come from?” Essentially, why do we choose to do what we do? The proposed answer lies in first understanding how we develop our selfconcept. We then consider how we eliminate occupational alternatives that conflict with this self-concept through a process called circumscription. We are complex creatures, made up of personalities, strengths, interests, skills, talents, and beliefs. This identity is defined by our genetic make-up, our environment and surrounding culture and relationships, and our experiences. But to what extent are we truly in control of defining who we are? Gottfredson cites research that indicates our self-concept is culturally contingent and experience dependent. On the one hand, our interests, attitudes, and particular skills are strongly influenced by shared environments. On the other hand, we remain active agents of our own creation within the constraints of our genetic inheritance. Our genetic compass urges, not commands, us in some directions rather than others. Our genetic inclination competes with culture, operating like a gyroscope guiding us towards one path over another. Our path is constrained by choices available in our culture and past choices we have made. For example, nothing in my genetic make-up or cultural environment would lead me to be a reggae singer and my past career choices preclude me from an easy transition into engineering. This is not to say we are powerless to our genetic make-up and cultural influences. We become who we are through experience, and come to know ourselves through engaging with the world. Through these experiences, we find ways to reflect, reinforce, and better resonate with our personal tendencies. We often hear of people who begin to redefine who they are one small experience at a time, creating a new self-image that is the sum of these new
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experiences. These redefining moments can come at different stages in our lives as our genetic makeup changes as we age. In the classic debate of nature versus nurture, nature trumps in defining our selfconcept. Socialisation theory, which proposes we are defined largely by our environment, has proven to be false. The older we get, the more our self-concept aligns with our genetic pre-disposition. We also become more familiar with who we are and adapt at working within our environment to suit who we are. Our genetics, environment and experiences frame a circumscription (limiting or restriction) process where we eliminate occupational alternatives that conflict with our self-concept. I considered this in my recent research into gender inequality. One of the contributing factors in the gender inequality debate is the fact that 60% of primary carers in Australia are female and over half of women with children under the age of two are not employed in the workforce. Another factor is that all but two of the top nine industries by earning potential are male-dominated. When I raise these statistics to my female friends, a response I get back is “Yes, but what if I want to stay home with the children?” or “I want to work in my femaledominated industry”. I do not disagree with their preference, but ask why do you want it? Is it really your choice, or is it what you have chosen based on cultural influences? So with the four stages of circumscription by which we eliminate occupations we deem unacceptable, compromise is the process by which we relinquish our most preferred alternatives for less compatible but more accessible ones. Within the roles we have short-listed based on perceived effort, prestige and gender, we select those positions within our social space based on what is available. We then define what is “good enough” and what is not “good enough”. If our desired role is not available, we compromise on prestige rather than adjusting across gender roles.
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William Glasser Choice Theory
Figurehead & Roots: William Glasser Theory Development Control Theory Reality Therapy--1965 Reality Therapy: A New Approach to Psychiatry Choice Theory--1990s Choice Theory: A New Psychology of Personal Freedom Counseling with Choice Theory: The New Reality Therapy (2001) Major Premise : People are responsible for their own choices, decisions, goals, and the general degree of happiness in their lives. An internal control psychology, it explains why and how we make the choices that determine the course of our lives. Choice Theory and Human Nature:
Phenomenological People have freedom to make choices People must take responsibility for choices Behavior should be considered in its totality The capacity to change is in ourselves (we are only victims if we choose to be)
Key concepts of Choice Theory: we ever do is behave (good or bad) We are externally motivated by the world around us. If we are sad, unhappy, or depressed, it is because we choose to feel and behave that way. We are not victims of our past unless we choose to be. We are constantly seeking to live in our “quality world.” Choice Theory Basic Concepts: 42
Quality World (People, Things, and Beliefs) Relationships Existing Desired Material Goods Systems of Belief Religious Political Personal The quality world is our personal Shangri-la --- the ideal of what we want our life to be. It fulfills our most basic needs by placing the actual people we want to love in our quality world. People who come to counseling either have no one in their quality world or are experiencing conflict between their quality world and their “real” world. Total Behavior Acting Thinking Feeling Physiology We can control acting and thinking. Feeling and physiology will follow. We choose our behaviors. The only behavior an individual can control is his or her own. The Language of Choice Theory Headaching Angering Depressing – most common choice Restrains anger of frustrating relationships Asking for help without begging Avoidance of responsibility through self-chosen mental illness Control/Choice Theory – Five Needs Survival (Work) Love and Belonging Power (Self-Determination or Autonomy) Freedom Fun (Leisure) When these needs are not met… Psychological problems result When an individual is unable to fulfill a basic need, he or she will often choose a symptom behavior as a way to cope.
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Basic Concepts of Choice Theory: 10 Axioms 1. 2. 3.
The only person whose behavior we can control is our own. External Control—When individuals try to control others, it is at the expense of an effective working relationship. All we can get from other people is information. How we deal with that information is our choice or their choice. All long-lasting psychological problems are relationship problems .
Axioms of Choice Theory (cont.) 4. 5.
The problem relationship is always part of our present lives. What happened in the past that was painful has a great deal to do with what we are today, but revisiting this painful past contributes little, if anything to what we need to do now --- improve an important relationship. 6. We can only satisfy our needs by satisfying the pictures in our Quality World. 7. All we do is behave 8. All behavior is Total Behavior and is made up of four components: acting, thinking, feeling and physiology. 9. All Total Behavior is chosen, but we only have direct control over the acting and thinking components. We can only control our feeling and physiology indirectly through how we choose to act and think. 10. All Total Behavior is designated by verbs and named by the part that is the most recognizable. Therapeutic Frame of Reference Focus is on the present. Avoid discussing the past because most human difficulties are believed to be rooted in current relationship problems. Role of Therapist Responsible for establishing a counseling environment in which client can embrace change. Work as a collaborator with the client Help the client to understand how she/he is doing Role expectation—must define who you are as a counselor Very conversational & interactive This can lead to boundary issues if counselor does not adhere to strict professional conduct—onus of responsibility lies with counselor Effective therapists: Qualities: -Congruence -Energy -Empathy
Characteristics: -Ability to reframe -Ability to communicate hope -Ability to define a problem in solvable terms 44
-Having a positive view of human nature -Belief in the potential for change -Being culturally sensitive
-Ability to use metaphors -Being ethical -Being culturally sensitive
Therapeutic Objective: To help an individual to determine whether his or her current actions and decisions will lead them to the goals or success he or she wants for himself or herself. Teaching process—Seeks to teach clients better ways to meet their needs. To help clients understand & take responsibility for the choices they make. To help clients strengthen their relationships through personal change in a safe environment. Function of Symptoms Symptoms and complaints are viewed as creative ways individuals choose to deal with current relationship problems. External Control “ coercing, controlling, relationship-destroying psychology (used when) having difficulty getting along with someone else” 1 st False Belief – We are made to behave. 2 nd False Belief – You can control someone. 3 rd False Belief – We know what’s right for all. Seven Deadly Habits of External Control : Deadly 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Criticizing – most deadly Blaming Complaining Nagging Threatening Punishing Rewarding to control
Alternatives to the Seven Habits Supporting Encouraging Listening Accepting Trusting Respecting Negotiating Differences
Contributions of Glasser’s Work Short-term focus Deals with conscious behavioral problems Client responsible for self-evaluation as well as commitment; pressure off counselor! Change is measurable and overt Counselor is encouraging and empathetic; confrontive, yet gentle
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Reflection: Choice involves mentally making a decision: judging the merits of multiple options and selecting one or more of them. One can make a choice between imagined options ("what would I do if ...?") or between real options followed by the corresponding action. For example, a traveller might choose a route for a journey based on the preference of arriving at a given destination as soon as possible. The preferred (and therefore chosen) route can then follow from information such as the length of each of the possible routes, traffic conditions, etc. If the arrival at a choice includes more complex motivators, cognition, instinct and feeling can become more intertwined. Simple choices might include what to eat for dinner or what to wear on a Saturday morning - choices that have relatively low-impact on the chooser's life overall. More complex choices might involve (for example) what candidate to vote for in an election, what profession to pursue, a life partner, etc choices based on multiple influences and having larger ramifications. Most people[quantify] regard having choices as a good thing, though a severely limited or artificially restricted choice can lead to discomfort with choosing, and possibly an unsatisfactory outcome. In contrast, a choice with excessively numerous options may lead to confusion, regret of the alternatives not taken, and indifference in an unstructured existence and the illusion that choosing an object or a course leads necessarily to control of that object or course can cause psychological problems As I read this theory, I have learned that Choice Theory emphasized the existence of a "Quality World." The phrase "Quality World" represents a person's "perfect" world, as it relates to people, possessions, beliefs, etc. Starting from birth and continuing throughout our lives, we place the people who are important to us, things we prize, and systems of belief (religion, cultural values, and icons, etc.) within the framework of our "Quality World." Glasser also posits a "Comparing Place" in which we compare and contrast our perceptions against our Quality World perspective. We behave to achieve as best we can a real world experience consistent with our Quality World. Behavior ("Total Behavior" in Glasser's terms) is made up of these four components: acting, thinking, feeling, and physiology. Glasser suggests that we have considerable control or choice over the first two of these, and little ability to directly choose the latter two. As these four components are closely intertwined, the choices we make in our thinking and acting greatly affect our feeling and physiology. The source of much unhappiness is the failing or failed relationships with those who are important to us: spouses, parents, children, friends and colleagues. The symptoms of unhappiness are widely variable and are often seen as mental illness. Glasser believed that "pleasure" and "happiness" are related but are far from 46
synonymous. Sex, for example, is a "pleasure" but may well be divorced from a "satisfactory relationship" which is a precondition for lasting "happiness" in life. Hence the intense focus on the improvement of relationships in counseling with Choice Theory—the "new Reality Therapy". Choice Theory also propose that most mental illness is, in fact, an expression of unhappiness and that we are able to learn how to choose alternate behaviors that will result in greater satisfaction. Reality Therapy is the Choice Theory-based counseling process focused on helping clients to learn to make those self-optimizing choices. William Glasser’s Choice Theory is the theory that we all choose how to behave at any time, and that we cannot control anyone’s behavior but our own. Glasser also believed in the vitality of classroom meetings that are held for communication and solving problems. In the classroom it will be important for teachers to “help students envision a quality existence in school and plan the choices that lead to it. For example, Jade is an 18-year-old high school senior and plans on attending college to become a computer programmer. Glasser suggests that Jade should be learning as much as he can about computers instead of reading Plato. This concept is called quality curriculum, which consists of topics students find useful and enjoyable. Under Glasser’s strategy, the teacher would hold discussions with students when introducing new topics and ask them to identify what they would like to explore in depth. As part of the process, students need to explain why the material is valuable in life.
The Generation Template Theory of Alexa A. Abrenica
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It is very important that one is able to choose what is related to his/ her abilities, competencies, interests and Personality so that one can meet the demands of the job, thereby, is more or less assured of a satisfying work life. . Socialization, positive experience and availability of successful models in one family are important ingredients in choosing a career. . The child is able to develop mental schemata by observing parents career of occupation. . Self efficacy will be formed if there is the presence 1.
When one joins the work force he/she spends most of his /her waking hours on the job. It thus the very important that one is able to choose what is related to his/ her abilities, competence, interest and personality so that one can meet the demand of the job. Thereby, be more or less assured of a satisfying work life.
2.
Socialization positive experience, and availability of successful models in one`s are important ingredients in choosing a career.
3.
Socialization is important in introducing the child to the ways of living in one`s culture.
4.
Parents is the first agent of socialization. The child imitates what they do and say and this process of acquiring knowledge about the culture is well-ingrained in the mind of a child.
5. The cultural stamp continues to influence behavior even with adults who may be in a different environment. 6.
The career or occupation of the parents or other significant individuals are well observed at close range, thus, the child is able to develop mental schemata that are well imprinted in the mind, allowing for greater appreciation, understanding and imitation of actions or behaviors.
7.
Positive experiences with imitation, manifested in play activities imprint the schemata further and eventually lead the way to choosing similar career options.
8.
The presence of successful models and positive experiences with the activities of the role model enable an individual to do self-evaluation and increase one`s self-confidence that such activities are within one`s competencies. Self-efficacy is thus formed.
9.
These cognitive processes lead to the inclusion of similar career options, even if not the same career choices, regardless of what career path one takes. 48
10. Circuitous career pathing can be explained by lack of sufficient career information, lack of knowledge about oneself and one`s immediate environment. In other words, lack of career guidance. 11. Counselors can employ the following steps: 11.1. Asses client`s abilities and competencies 11.2. Collect information about client`s personality 11.3. Surface information about immediate family environments and consider these in broadening CAREER CHOICES 11.4.
Provide information about career requirements and opportunities
11.5.
Integrate the data so that choices can be narrowed down.
Reflection: In this theory, I can say that when one joins the work force he spends most of his waking hours on the JOB. Socialization, positive experience, and availability of successful models in one’s family are important INGREDIENTS in choosing a career. SOCIALIZATION is important in introducing the child to the ways of living one’s 49
culture. PARENTS are the first agents of socialization. The CULTURAL STAMP continues to influence behavior. The CAREER of the parents or other significant individuals are well observed at close range. POSITIVE EXPERIENCES with the imitation imprint the schemata further and lead the way to choosing similar career options. The presence of SUCCESSFUL MODELS and positive experiences enable an individual to do self-evaluation and increase one’s self-confidence. These COGNITIVE PROCESSES lead to the inclusion of similar career options. Circuitous career pathing can be explained by lack of CAREER GUIDANCE. Assess client’s abilities and competencies. Collect information about the client’s personality. Surface information about immediate family environments in broadening career choices. Provide information about career requirements and opportunities Integrate the data so that choices can be narrowed down.
John Krumboltz -Social Learning Theory of Career Choice He developed a theory of career decision making and development based on social learning. Career decisions are the product of an uncountable number of learning experiences made possible by encounters with the people, institutions and events in a person's particular environment. In other words people choose their careers based on what they have learned. Krumboltz proposed that: • The four main factors that influence career choice are genetic influences, environmental conditions and events, learning 50
experiences and task approach skills (e.g., self-observation, goal setting and information seeking). • The consequences of these factors and most particularly learning experiences lead people to develop beliefs about the nature of careers and their role in life (self-observational generalizations). These beliefs, whether realistic or not, influence career choices and work related behaviour. • Learning experiences, especially observational learning stemming from significant role models (e.g., parents, teachers, heroes), have a powerful influence on career decisions, making some occupations more attractive than others. • Positive modelling, reward and reinforcement will likely lead to the development of appropriate career planning skills and career behaviour. Primary role of counselors is to help clients learn to create more satisfying lives for themselves Research found that all found their current occupation as a result of a series of unplanned events Counsellor’s job- get the clients actively engaged in tasks that help them learn how to generate unplanned career opportunities. Learning Theory of Career Counseling (LTCC): John Krumboltz
Four factors: genetic endowments and special abilities, environmental conditions and events, learning experiences, task approach skills Emphasis on learning experiences throughout the life span Career counselors are professionals who promote client learning
Happenstance – John Krumboltz (Planned Happenstance is an amendment to LTCC) o Unplanned events are opportunities for learning o Open-mindedness displaces indecision Happenstance – term refers to maintaining an exploratory attitude while encountering unexpected events “Indecision” is an unavoidable yet acceptable condition, but should be labelled as “open-mindedness” The pace of 21st century and the uncertainties in our lives make it impossible to have a specific plan laid out in advance CDP could take on the role of “encourager of exploration” Application of John Krumboltz Learning Theory 51
Action Steps 1. 1. 2. 3.
Finding out client’s concerns Actively listening to their experiences, thoughts, and feelings Brainstorm some ideas about next possible actions that the clients could take o Building a resume, moving to another town, asking friends for advice o Taking a night school course, Creating a portfolio 4. Ask to pick one task client would be willing to do and ask for a dateline 5. Build on what client’s learned and repeat the process to determine the next action step 6. Provide continuous support for client’s active exploration * Focus on learning process and how it affects vocational choice and change Development Theory Development Theory focuses on how careers unfold over the life span Believes that the factors that contributed to growth and maturity are complex and multifaceted Assumptions Life can be divided into a specific number of age-related stages. Each stage has a list of specific tasks that should be accomplished during that stage. If the tasks of a given stage are accomplished, an individual is developmentally on schedule or mature, and is, therefore more likely to accomplish the tasks of the next life stage. If the tasks of a given stage are not accomplished during the appropriate time, however, the individual is developmentally off schedule and may have difficulty in the life stages that follow.
Krumboltz saw his theory as a way of explaining the origin of career choice and a guide to how career practitioners might tackle career related problems. The practitioner starts with understanding how a client came to their career related view of themselves and the world and what is limiting or problematic about this view. Once this has been established, the practitioner and client identify what career relevant learning experiences, modeling or skill building will help them reframe their view. Using Krumboltz’s approach a practitioner plays a major role in dealing with all career problems, not just occupational selection.
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Reflection: John Krumboltz’s theory of career looks to challenge conventional views around indecision. In traditional theories of career which focus on planning and strategy (think John Holland or Watts DOTS model) indecision is viewed as a bad thing as it stops you moving towards your goal. Central to this traditional view is the belief that the future is predictable or to some sense controllable. Indecision must therefore be “wrong” as it stops you from taking control of the future. Krumboltz counters this claiming that indecision is a sensible response to the complex and changing world in which we live. Krumboltz claims that complexity radically reduces the usefulness of career planning in a traditional sense and instead we must consider how we can utilise ideas around luck and happenstance. Krumboltz claims that external factors, chance events 53
and the unexpected dominate our lives and our careers. We are often unprepared for the unexpected because we expect to be able to plan and control everything. Krumboltz states that job of the careers advisor is to help clients recognise chance as a key factor in their careers and to help them become “lucky”, people who are prepared for and have positive response to the unexpected. His theory has some obvious strong points and a criticism which I would like to raise. Firstly the movement away from prediction is very helpful. Life doesn’t always go as planned and planning is overly relied upon tool still in careers work. Krumboltz helpfully point out the limits of this and points to a powerful and useful alternative. This can often be freeing for clients and re-positions people away from needing a “right” answer and instead towards what they could do. Secondly I find Krumboltz helpful in how he focuses on attitudes. More rational approaches tend to focus on more objective information, “have you made a decision?”, “do you have a plan to get there?” Krumboltz is helpful in looking at a set of attitudes and approaches that can make a big difference in someone’s career. Krumboltz opens up an extra dimension often overlooked with work with clients. I do have one slightly criticism of Krumboltz which is not so much a criticism of his theory but of how I see some people putting it into practice. I have heard people give the impression that what people need to do is engage in career, take a flexible approach, step out and do some experience without any planning at all. I just feel that this complete rejection of planning is not helpful. Sometimes planning is necessary. Take some careers for example, things like medicine, law and teaching have quite structured routes than need to be planned to get to, strategy is an important part of success in these areas. Other areas like film and politics require a great sense of focus and planning to be successful in. Though change always needs to be considered some careers are very hard to access without a sense of focus and strategy.
I frequently encounter people struggling with a career decision they believe they have to get “right” or disaster is surely imminent. “What if I take this job and I hate it?” they might say. But this idea of right and wrong in your career path is a fallacy. There are only choices, and with every choice comes an opportunity.There is no right and wrong; there are only choices, and with every choice comes an opportunity. Deciding to join a committee could give you an opportunity to network. Deciding to apply for another position with your current company could give you an opportunity to advance faster than staying in your current role. For example, let’s say you’re trying to decide if you should apply for a new position. With a limited mindset, you might think, “I’m interested in this new position, but I have security where I am. I can apply for that job or I can stay where I know I have a steady paycheck and am on track for a raise next year.” When you substitute “and,” it sounds like this: “I’m interested in this new position, and I like the security of my current position.” From this shift, you realize you’d need to ask some pointed questions about salary and prepare to negotiate if you pursue the new position. Suddenly, considering the role doesn’t have to mean sacrificing stability.
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This simple change in the way you think and talk about your options strips away limitations and opens your eyes to new possibilities.
Robert J. Havighurst Developmental Task Theory
Although many theorists are responsible for contributing to the Developmental Tasks Theory, it was Robert J. Havighurst who elaborated on this theory in the most systematic and extensive manner. Havighurst’s main assertion is that development is continuous throughout the entire lifespan, occurring in stages, where the individual moves from one stage to the next by means of successful resolution of problems or performance of developmental tasks. These tasks are those that are typically encountered by most people in the culture where the individual belongs. If the person successfully accomplishes and masters the developmental task, he feels pride and satisfaction, and consequently earns his community or society’s approval. This success provides a sound foundation which allows the individual to accomplish tasks to be encountered at later stages. Conversely, if the individual is not successful at accomplishing a task, he is unhappy and is not accorded the desired approval by society, resulting in the subsequent experience of difficulty when faced with succeeding developmental tasks. This theory presents the individual as an active learner who continually interacts with a similarly active social environment.
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Havighurst proposed a bio psychosocial model of development, wherein the developmental tasks at each stage are influenced by the individual’s biology (physiological maturation and genetic makeup), his psychology (personal values and goals) and sociology (specific culture to which the individual belongs). Some developmental tasks evolve out of the biological character of humans and are therefore faced similarly by all individuals from any culture. An example of this is learning how to walk for infants. Being a skill that depends on maturation and genetically determined factors, the mechanics involved in learning how to walk are virtually the same and occur at generally the same time for children from all cultures. Other tasks that stem from biological mechanisms include learning to talk, exercising control over bodily functions, learning skills typically utilized in children’s games, and coping with physiological changes related to aging, to name a few. Havighurst stressed the importance of sensitive periods which he considered to be the ideal teachable moments during which an individual demonstrates maturation at a level that is most conducive to learning and successfully performing the developmental tasks. Psychological factors that emerge from the individual’s maturing personality and psyche are embodied in personal values and goals. These values and goals are another source of some developmental tasks such as establishing one’s self-concept, developing relationships with peers of both sexes and adjusting to retirement or to the loss of a spouse. There are other tasks, however, that arise from the unique cultural standards of a given society and as such, may be observed in different forms in varying societies or, alternatively, may be observed is some cultures but not in others. One such task would be preparing oneself for an occupation. An individual who belongs to an agricultural community, for instance, might make the preparations for an occupation such as becoming a farmer at an early age, possibly in middle childhood or in adolescence. A member of an industrialized society, on the other hand, requires longer and more specialized preparation for an occupation, thus, embarking on this developmental task sometime during early adulthood. Other culturally-based tasks include achieving gender-appropriate roles and becoming a responsible citizen. An enumeration of developmental tasks, therefore, will differ across cultures. Nevertheless, Havighurst did propose a list of common critical developmental tasks, categorized into six stages of development which offers a rough picture of what these specific developmental tasks are. Below is a partial list of Havighurst’s developmental tasks. Infancy and Early Childhood – birth to 5 years Learning to walk Learning to control bodily wastes Learning to talk Learning to form relationships with family members Middle Childhood – 6 – 12 years
Learning physical skills for playing games Developing school-related skills such as reading , writing, and counting 56
Developing conscience and values Attaining independence Adolescence – 13 – 17 years
Establishing emotional independence from parents Equipping self with skills needed for productive occupation Achieving gender-based social role Establishing mature relationships with peers of both sexes Early Adulthood – 18 – 35 years
Choosing a partner Establishing a family Managing a home Establishing a career Middle Age – 36 – 60 years
Maintaining economic standard of living Performing civic and social responsibilities Relating to spouse as a person Adjusting to physiological changes
Later Maturity – over 60 years
Adjusting to deteriorating health and physical strength Adjusting to retirement Meeting social and civil obligations Adjusting to death or loss of spouse
The assertions and principles presented by Havighurst are quite easily understandable and clear. The applications of the theory extend to the field of education and have asserted influence over educators and psychologists worldwide. Although the theory has its roots in the 1930s, it continues to stimulate the insights of contemporary psychologists, prompting the publication of new manuscripts and books based on the concepts of the developmental task theory. Over the years, the reception and interpretation of Havighurst’s theory of developmental tasks have evolved with the upsurge of new findings. Nevertheless, this theory has remained robust in its testimony that development is continuous throughout the entire lifespan.
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Reflection: In Robert Havighurst theory, he shows that the term “developmental task” refers to tasks which arise in a social context during an individual lifetime. The concept of developmental -tasks has become an important theoritical approach in educational science and in theories of growth and development but not in social work and social pedagogy. It is part of basic task of family education hat children learn to embed their physical desires such as eating, sleeping, drinking, playing within a time structure. Just like a family situation, in which the family and the boy could not cope with the task in a case where he has no older sister who is role model to him and that the mother, sue to her daily worries and stress, does not have the necessary tolerance of frustration to manage the boy’s demands. She might, in order to avoid stress, provide the boy with sweets in advance. It may also be that this family has a chaotic time structure in which the demands of each person are, if possible, satisfied on an ad hoc basis. We would then-or at the latest when the boy starts with school - have a social pedagogical problem. The mother would then perhaps ask for some help at an Education Advisory Center or Counselling Center. So according to Havighurst theory of developmental task, an individual has to and wants to solve in a particular life-period. A developmental task is the midway between an individual need and a social demand. It assumes an active learner interacting with an active social environment. This task is fruitful in many ways. The idea of concept is that children and young people want to solve problems themselves. It is the concept of physical and psychical maturation process as well as socially influenced development and education are being taken into consideration. The developmental task concept assumes that social and educational arrangements impede or support the corresponding tasks. There are different type of tasks. One distinguishes individual or group specific developmental-tasks general, cross-cultural 58
developmental-tasks. Learning how to use theses patterns to postpone basic needs could be an example of a general developmental-task. Besides this, there are developmental-tasks which can only be solved under certain social circumstances. Here we might be thinking about specific standards of everyday behavior. A successful socialization Depends on whether one can successfully cope with the general developmentaltasks. The everyday gestures of a way of life in which the growing individual is being integrated. Children are confronted with gaining new abilities, new learning tasks. As i have described it, learning how to adapt and use patterns to desire is integrated in the pedagogical social setting inside of the family. Parents are the mediators, but sometimes they tend not to cope with general developmental-tasks and thus get into social difficulties. For some reasons, it might be that the child themselves who has a problem or the parents. The growing child for instance, may not cope with the tasks set due to his physical of psychical constitution and needs support by a pedagogical setting. Thus, we can see the case in which there are children who have mental pr physical handicapped. The fact that children are not able to deal with certain developmental tasks is not necessarily something originating in themselves. It can also be generated in the pedagogical environments in which they have been growing up. Social difficulties occur when a pedagogical surrounding, like family, does not sufficiently support the abilities of the individual, it may transmit activities which are socially unacceptable or exceed the capabilities of the child. It is then that we face a social-structural problem and youth welfare services have to act. As what i have known, there are social-pedagogical organisations have been supporting families to solve developmental-tasks-not only since the introduction of the children’s and youth welfare acts at the beginning of the 19 th century. They have, infact, been supporting them much longer. This suggests the importance of social workers knowing the developmental-tasks with which children and young people struggle.
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Duane Brown- Values Based, Holistic Model of Career and Life-Role Choices and Satisfaction D. Brown formulated a model of career development based on the importance of values in career decision making. *His values-based model draws upon the work of Rokeach (1973) Super (1953,1990) and Beck (1987). ***Rokeach beleived that values are beliefs containing cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions. ***Brown pointed out that values serve as standards by which people evaluate their own actions and the actions of others. Value-based Career Decision Making – Brown’s Approach Learning about one’s values is critically important to one’s feeling of satisfaction on the job Believes that values guide decision making, provide standards by which judge our actions and those of others, and help us to determine how our needs are met . Values are solidified in the early adult years and tend to remain stable over time; however, age, experience and traumatic life events can modify them Good decision making will be difficult or impossible if one is not yet able to identify one’s values
Basically, values direct our behavior in specific directions and toward particular goals. I like the theory because it includes our cultural and work values. Brown theorized that values are shaped by genetics and environment--as a result of genetic and environmental influences, specific values become more important than others. As values become crystallized and prioritized, people use them to guide and explain their 60
behavior. Thus, "Values orient individuals to those aspects of their environment that may provide desired outcomes" (Brown and Crace, 1996, p.216)
The Values Based Model of Career Choice is based on 7 propositions as stated by Brown and Crace (1996) 1.
Values with high priorities are the most important determinants of choices made,providing that the individuals have more than one alternative available that will satisfy their values.
2.
The values included in the values system are acquired from society, and each person develops a small number of values.
3. Culture, sex, and socioeconomic status influence opportunities and social interaction, and thus considerable variation in the values of subgroups in U.S. society can be expected. 4.
Making choices that coincide with values is essential to satisfaction.
5.
The result of role interaction is life satisfaction, which differs from the sum of the marital, job, leisure, and other role satisfaction indices taken separately.
6.
High-functioning people have well-developed and prioritized values.
7. Success in any role depends on the abilities and the aptitudes required to perform the functions of that role. (pp. 212-220). When clients have crystallized and prioritized their values, they then focus on career decision making. To help facilitate the clarity in values Brown uses the "why" technique of challenging his clients to understand why they are making specific statements. He will also use a values sorting list by Niles (2000).
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Reflection: I have learned that values are widely viewed as central to the selection of, and subsequent satisfaction with, life roles. It is are cognized representations of needs that, when developed, provide standards for behavior, orient people to desired end states , and form the basis for goal setting. Values are the major factor in motivation because they form the basis for attributing worth to situations and objects A subset of values "represent these perspectives as applied to work settings, which suggests that not all values should be classified as work values. Values determine the way needs are met in the family, at work, and in the community. As individuals develop values, they store them in their memories as interrelated hierarchically arranged entities that a dynamically reorganized depending on environmental circumstances. Values function to ensure that biological needs are met and to facilitate human interaction. Values are tied to the normative structure of the social institutions (e.g. family, school) where they were acquired, which is one feature that distinguishes them from needs. Moreover, unlike needs, which can be situational and transitory, values transcend objects and situations. For example, altruism, a widely held value among school counselors, will influence counselors' functioning in many situations and with various objects. Interests may also become cognized representations of needs, may provide a guide to action, and may allow people to compare themselves with others. But interests cannot be viewed as internalized standards against which people may judge their own actions or their attainment of idealized end states or goals. Additionally, each person develops a relatively small number of values but may develop dozens of interests Values with high priorities are the most important determinants of choices made, providing that the individuals have more than one alternative available that will satisfy their values. If this is not the case, people will make choices on the basis of the option that least conflicts with their values. Fundamental to this model is the understanding that each person develops a relatively small number of values 'as a result of the interaction between inherited characteristics and experience. Cultural background, gender, and socioeconomic status influence opportunities and social interaction and thus there is a variation of values both within and between subgroups of society. Life-role salience and values must be viewed within specific developmental and cultural contexts. In diverse settings, and with different groups, there are sex differences related to the relative importance of life roles and values.
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Brown’s Values-Based, Holistic Theory offers a more recently conceived theory of career choice and development that centers on values. His theory, similar to others, values are conceptualized as having behavioral, affective, and cognitive components that guide behavior. Both personal and work values are considered in the application of Brown’s theory. The main premise of Brown’s ValuesBased, Holistic theory is that individuals make career choices based on their values with the expectation that they will achieve satisfaction. Moreover, Brown’s theory assumes that individuals are motivated by expected outcomes, such as job satisfaction. Like Super’s theory, Brown suggests that life roles influence career choice and development. Specifically, life satisfaction is dependent upon fulfilling values related to 7 multiple life roles. Therefore, the fulfillment of work values that are central to one’s role as a worker is related to that individual’s overall life satisfaction. Brown’s theory includes discussion of the importance of the role of worker compared to other life roles. As Brown notes, the more importance placed on a role, the more influence values related to that role can have on the individual’s satisfaction. As such, there is support for the influence of work values on career decision making processes, the relation between work values and job satisfaction , and the relation between participating in important life roles and life satisfaction.
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Mark Savickas - Career Construction Theory
“Careers do not unfold, they are constructed” Provides a way of thinking about how an individual choose and use work. Three perspectives on vocational behavior: 1. 2. 3.
individual differences psychology Developmental psychology narrative psychology
Changes made to Super’s theory Maintenance stage replaced with management stage . Reframing and unpacking 14 propositions and adding two. Proposition 14: career adaptability – psychological construct Proposition 16: conversations, exercises and activities Particularly appropriate for use in multicultural society Rationale: Q: how can individuals negotiate a lifetime of job changes without losing their sense of self and social identity? To responds to the needs of today’s mobile workers who may feel fragmented and confused. Career = selling services and skills to a series of employers, rather than lifetime commitment to one employer. - focus on how individuals use their vocational personality to adapt to a sequence of job changes, while remaining faithful to oneself and recognizable by others. Focus on the meaning that structures an individual’s career as it plays out across a 64
number of different jobs. People construct their careers in the context that they live in. Builds on Super’s earlier conception of thematic extrapolation. Underlying premise- self-reflection on one’s career behaviour ( objective and subjective career) Epistemological Contextualist world view Particularly appropriate
for
use
in
multicultural
society.
In recent decades South African career practitioners and researchers have been slow to embrace this. South African research: Most of this career research has been confined to thesisdriven research. 21 of the reported studies represented student theses. Over two thirds of this research focused on the concept of career maturity. Implicitly Accepted the validity of Super’s theory. But – Whatson and Steak questions: The indiscriminate and possibly descriptive use of super’s theoryRelevance of super’s developmental stages, constructs of selfconcept development and career maturity – questioned against the context of normative history graded (e.g. apartheid) and non normative factors (e.g. depressed economic conditions). Role salience- questioned in relation to the cultural meanings attached to various life roles, in particular the meaning attached to the work role Validation of Super’s theory have mainly been a by product of psychometric design. Recent studies: explored the validity of Super’s career development dimension of childhood. Mcmahon and watson :information sought was not reflective of Super’s sub stages of interests and capacities. Construct of career maturity maintained it’s meaning on a sample of socially deprived coloured students and the childhood career developmental scale Watson, Foxcroft,Mcmahon: Support- study occupational aspirations and gender stereotypes . Evaluation of Super’s Theory Critique from a south african perspective: Langley: need to consider the socioeconomic, sociopolitical and familial factors that are prominent influences in the South African context. More holistic use of the construct of career adaptability and the application of life themes and career storytelling. Solomon : lack of research and assessment of Super’s propositions and the lack of theoretical development of the self concept since super’s original monograph. Career maturity – do not accommodate different cultural contexts. Normative 65
developmental trends of career maturity among ethnic minority groups have not been established Brown: failure to account adequately for the career development of persons from lower socio-economic groups. Osipow and Fitzgerald: In recent years relatively few new empirical tests of the theory have been conducted. Positive evaluations far out weigh the critique Well ordered and systematic formulation of career development. Considerable potential for practice and research. Five decades of research have supported Super’s description of self concept and career development. Some argue that it remains relevant to the new millennium and for diverse countries and cultures. Call’s for further modification – adapt the knowledge to changing realities. CONCLUSION Super’s aim: theory made up of loosely unified theoretical segments. Since his death- effort to cement the different aspects of his theory. Savickas- adapting his global constructs to our local contexts and our changing circumstances. (future goal). South African career practitioners and researchers need to become more involved, we should all become more career adaptable.
Reflection: I have learned that career construction theory has emerged as a complimentary tool to help conceptualize how people impose meaning on their 66
vocational behavior. It compliments the traditional trait-and-factor approach and challenges that there are normative and predictable stages of career development. In this comprehensive theory, Savickas incorporated Super's innovative ideas with a constructivist perspective to help counselors comprehend clients' career problems. Career construction theory views the client from three perspectives: individual differences in traits, developmental tasks and coping strategies, and psychodynamic motivations. Using these three perspectives, counselors can examine what people prefer to do, how individuals cope with vocational developmental tasks,occupational transitions and work traumas, and why individuals choose to fit work into their lives in specific ways. These perspectives enable counselors to explore how individuals construct their careers to help them cope with feeling fragmented and confused, without losing their sense of self and social identity, as they encounter evolving economic and work life changes in an unsettled economy. Career construction theory, therefore, postulates that regardless of one's socioeconomic status and reason for taking a job or position, work can become meaningful for most people. Career construction theory helps counselors uncover clients' unique approaches to meaning making, purpose, and life direction. The theory is based in constructivism, which focuses on "meaning making and the constructing of the social and psychological worlds through individual, cognitive processes.Thus, a central question that has emerged from constructivist career counseling is: how can individuals negotiate a lifetime of job changes and transitions without losing their sense of self and social identity? Such a change in central tenets prompted a reexamination and transformation of vocational psychology's core concepts, leading to two distinct camps: objectivism and constructivism. As for me, although a traitfactor approach is, and will remain useful from a theoretical, research, and applied point of view, this theory of career construction contended that integrating a constructivist approach with objective career assessment and counselling methods fosters a more holistic and process oriented approach to working with clients. Individuals in the knowledge societies at the beginning of the 21st century must realize that career problems are only a piece of much broader concerns about how to live a life in a postmodern world shaped by a global economy and supported by information technology. For instance, the issue of how to balance work–family activities and interactions is becoming salient in people’s reflections about their competencies and aspirations. Managing interactions between different life domains has become a paramount concern for the many peripheral workers whose employment is contingent, free-lance, temporary, external, part-time, and casual. A major consequence of the interconnectedness between the different life domains is that we can no longer speak con- fidently of ‘‘career development” nor of ‘‘vocational guidance.” Rather, we should envision ‘‘life trajectories” in which individuals progressively design and build their own lives, including their work careers. Not only adolescents will encounter the big question: What am I going to make of my life? This question is at issue for everyone as they negotiate a series of major transitions in their lives occasioned by changes in health, employment, and intimate relationships. Such ethical considerations in constructing and building one’s own life are not new. At the beginning of the generation, these considerations were probably present in the reflections of young people pondering their occupational choices. Yet in our current society, ethical considerations are of a much higher psychological priority. First, individuals nowadays are forced to reflect on what 67
matters most to them, because as Giddens (1991, pp. 33–34) noted: ‘‘the individual feels bereft and alone in a world in which she or he lacks the psychological supports and the sense of security provided by more traditional settings.” This loss of bearings necessitates reflection on one’s life orientation. Second, people are increasingly aware of the new risks associated with our current way of life. Given these two phenomena, it seems crucial that career specialists try to construct contextualized models. Individuals engaged in the personal project of life building can use these models to understand and cope with their unique contexts. The new relationship between the worker and the work world creates the need to develop and apply new systems of personal promotion. Specifically, vocational interventions should assist individuals to reflect about their ‘‘key goods” as being relative to the context in which they live. The objective of such reflection is to resolve problems that may arise as individuals build their lives, by matching their needs to those of the contexts, in particular the context of work activities.
Tiedeman's Career Development Theory
David V. Tiedeman (1919-2004) designed the blueprint for equipping and building career construction theory. After making significant contributions to the statistical analysis of occupational behavior, he shifted to a constructivist epistemology for comprehending careers as the imposition of direction on vocational behavior. The cornerstones of his theoretical edifice unite the concepts that career emerges from self-organization, purposeful action bridges discontinuity, and decisions evolve through differentiation and integration. His counseling methods help 68
clients reorganize self to better pursue purpose at work and in leisure. Tiedeman's model and methods remain instructive and inspiring to the contemporary theory and practice of career construction. Basic to Tiedeman's approach to career development and decision making is the assumption that one is responsible for one's own behavior because one has the capacity for choice and lives in a world which is not deterministic. Tiedeman, a cognitive-developmental theorist, views continuity of development as internal or psychological while discontinuity has a sociological or environmental basis caused by the nature of the structure of society. In Tiedeman's theory, an instrumental cause behind one's behavior is the experience or anticipation of discontinuity and discomfort which precipitates purposeful action and decision making. Effective resolution of life's discontinuities leads to increased control over one's behavior, or a "sense of agency", and the eventual expression of one's identity through a personally-determined career. In the process of making a decision, an individual progresses through seven sequential stages: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)
Exploration crystallization, choice, clarification, induction, reformation, and Integration.
Decision-making styles may be: planning, intuitive, impulsive, agonizing, delaying, paralytic, fatalistic, and compliant. Planning is viewed as the most effective style with intuitive sometimes being effective.
Another classification, reflecting various degrees of personal responsibility and individual utilization of rational planning strategies, are: (1) planning, (2) intuitive, and (3) dependent. (EA) David Tiedeman
Stresses the importance of ego identity and self-development A decision making paradigm that parallels Erickson’s psychosocial stages
The Tiedeman and O'Har a (1963) model is comprised of two phases:
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anticipation phase - refers to the stages prior to action, and includes four stages: 1. Exploration - during the exploration stage, people investigate possible educational, occupational, and personal alternatives. 2. Crystallization - crystallization begins as individuals attempt to organize, evaluate, and synthesize information about themselves and the world of work. Thoughts begin to stabilize and distinctions between the alternatives occur. 3. Choice - as crystallization takes place, a choice or a decision follows. The degree of clarity, complexity, and freedom available affect the level of motivation and the certainty of carrying through. 4. clarification -during clarification, the client begins to formulate a plan for carrying out his or her choice. 5. accommodation phase - reflects the stages individuals encounter after beginning to implement a decision and is comprised of three stages: 1. Induction - during the induction stage, they are receptive to learning from others to ensure their behaviour meets the standards of the environment. After successfully moving through the induction stage, people become less receptive to learning and more assertive. 2. Reformation - in the reformation stage, they begin to influence their environment. 3. Integration -in the final stage, people experience an integration or a synthesis of their goals with the goals of others in the environment. The outcome is a sense of equilibrium and a coherent sense of purpose. He do not believe individuals need to go through all steps in order; instead, they suggest that some steps may occur simultaneously and that decisions may be reversed.
Tiedeman and O'Har a (1963) believe that the process of career development occurs through a continual process of differentiation and reintegration. "Differentiating is a matter of separating experiences; integrating is a matter of structuring them into a mor e comprehensive whole. Hierarchical structuring is what happens when a new and more comprehensive whole is formed from the continuous separating and merging that go on daily and momentarily with each of us " (MillerTiedeman & Tiedeman, 1990, p. 312). The process of occupational change, and change in general, permits opportunities for differentiation and reintegration. Tiedeman's ideas continued to evolve as he began writing with Miller-Tiedeman in the late 1970s. Together they developed the notion of 'LifeCareer' to reflect the idea that life is career and career is life (Miller-Tiedeman, 1988). They went on to suggest that a key task for individuals is to separate personal realities from common realities. Personal realities are defined as acts, thoughts, behaviours, or directions that people feel are right for them. Common realities are what society tells people to do. Miller-Tiedeman and Tiedeman (1990) state that their theory does not predict the behaviour of individuals; instead, it".. . is a value-functioning model that allows a person to put his or her own decision-making activity into perspective for himself or 70
herself (personal reality)" (p. 321). They postulate that an awareness of decision making is related to career advancement. Miller-Tiedeman and Tiedeman (1990) also believe that the language 23 people use to describe their careers mirrors their beliefs about themselves. "Comprehension of the 'lightness' of one's personal reality arises from the evolution of consistency in one's words and actions" (Miller-Tiedeman & Tiedeman, 1990, p, 321).
Reflection: In this theory, I traced three of Tiedeman's most profound truths: career emerges from self-organization, purposeful action bridges discontinuity, and decisions evolve through differentiation and integration. Before doing so, I describe the prehistory of Tiedeman's constructivist model of careers, namely, his contributions to the normal science of vocational psychology as represented by the individual differences tradition of personality types and the developmental tradition of vocational tasks. Some theorist described normal science as the routine work of individuals conducting programmatic research within an established model. This methodical work slowly elaborates the theoretical model by making incremental additions. The work does not challenge the underlying assumptions of the model, as Tiedeman would eventually do, but I am getting ahead of the story of his beginning as a positivist and becoming a constructivist. Tiedeman had enough of "good techniques" and the statistical analysis of complex human choices, so he began to address "good problems." His answers to these good questions provoked a fundamental advance in career theory and practice. Tiedeman's responses initiated a conceptual change in vocational psychology, not an addition to its normal science. He applied a new paradigm to comprehend the psychosocial construction of careers. In so doing, his theory restored to individuals the preponderant role in shaping their own careers as active agents in their own 71
development. In the 1970s, this work accelerated when Tiedeman began to use constructivist and quantum physics ideas introduced to him by his most influential collaborator, they discusses their long and productive collaboration in another article in this special section of The Career Development Quarterly. Tiedeman wanted graduate students to learn as much about the process of careering as they did about the content of personality types and vocational development tasks. He did credit Super with taking a huge step forward in positioning the person as an agent in vocational development. Nevertheless, Tiedeman wanted to position career, not vocation, as the central issue in vocational psychology. He wanted vocational psychology to concentrate on the individual's cultivation of personal structure, what he called career, not the structure of developmental tasks. I agree when he said,cultivation of personal structure implies that the self is a construction and that the individual is a self-organizing system. Self-organization creates a globally coherent pattern from initially independent components such as interest, abilities, needs, and values. The self-organization becomes increasingly complex as the whole intermittently reorganizes its parts. Adaptation may be conceptualized as the fit between a self-organized system and its environment. A stable configuration of the whole, by definition, fits its environment. When the environment changes, requiring further adaptation, the person adjusts to these changes while keeping self-organization intact as much as possible. Thus, the self intermittently rearranges into a more ordered and complex pattern, each pattern attaining a temporary equilibrium before encountering the need for further selforganization. As the self stabilizes in a coherent whole, new properties may emerge. These emergent properties belong to the whole and cannot be reduced to the elements that compose it. Tiedeman conceptualized career as a quality that emerges at more complex and better integrated levels of consciousness. Once emerged, career through downward causation directs and regulates lower level components of vocational behavior. Thus, Tiedeman led vocational psychology, or at least its constructivist branch, to the seminal insight that career, as an emergent property of a selforganizing system, imposes direction on vocational behavior. As Tiedeman (1964) succinctly concluded, "career is guided thought that lends direction to a person's vocational behavior”. Today, we more readily understand that career is constructed linguistically as we talk it into existence and verbally organize it. For Tiedeman, self-concept meant process, not state. Thus, he conceptualized self-concept as a systematizing that enables a person to symbolize experience into less complex and more workable forms. To indicate this process, Tiedeman often used the term self-conceptualizing to denote the process of giving meaning to self-in-experience. He wanted individuals to learn that conceptions of self are just that--concepts for ordering experience and anticipating the future. He also wanted counselors to help clients become aware of how they systematize their experiences into a self and to become conscious of their own consciousness. In an early formulation of his process theory of self and career, he included the terms career consciousness and career constructionism. Even today, some psychologists find it difficult to linguistically explain and operationally define the meaning of career consciousness and construction. In his writing about the "cultivation of career", Tiedeman explained two meanings of career. He reiterated the traditional view of career as a sequence of 72
occupational positions. Then, he redefined career as the person's development of cognitive structures that exercise initiative at work and fulfill desires. This second definition of career moves it to the interior of a person. The logical positivist conception of career comes from the position of an external observer of vocational behavior who can see the progression of occupational positions recorded on an individual's curriculum vitae. Tiedeman's social constructionist model views career from a subjective perspective, emphasizing the continuity that the actor autobiographically imposes on the sequence of occupational positions.
Career Information Processing Perspective: Peterson, Sampson and Reardon
The Cognitive Information Processing (CIP) Approach to Career Development and Services is a theory of career problem solving and decision making that was developed through the joint efforts of a group of researchers at the Florida State University Career Center's Center for the Study of Technology in Counseling and Career Development. CIP theory asserts that the major components involved in determining career decision-making and problem-solving effectiveness are the content and process of career decisions. The importance of the content and process in career decision making can be described by using a metaphor of a recipe. To make a good dish (decision) one must have all necessary ingredients (content), and know how to follow cooking instructions (process). In terms of career problem solving and decision making, the CONTENT includes everything one must KNOW to make an effective decision, including knowledge about oneself (values, interests, skills, employment preferences), knowledge about options; knowledge about decision-making skills—and knowledge about the thoughts, emotions, and metacognitions (self-talk, self-awareness, monitoring and control) that are involved. Each of these areas are categorized into domains of information processing, which include the Knowledge Domain (self-knowledge and options knowledge), the Decision-Making Skills Domain, and the Executive Processing Domain (thoughts, emotions, and metacognitions). An analogy of a computer can be used to describe how these domains interact to determine decision73
making effectiveness. The Knowledge Domain is similar to the files of information stored on a computer, the Decision Making Skills domain is similar to a computer's hardware and software that make use of the files in a meaningful way, and the Executive Processing Domain can be likened to a computer's brain or motherboard that dictates the computer's overall functionality. These domains are depicted through a diagram of a pyramid. The process involves everything one must do to make an effective decision, including: defining the gap between where one is and where one wants to be, gaining a better understanding of oneself and one's options, expanding and narrowing a list of options, valuing and prioritizing remaining options resulting in a first choice, executing the choice by developing a plan of action for implementation, and reflecting back upon the choice. This process can be broken down into five stages (Communication, Analysis, Synthesis,Valuing, Execution) which form the CASVE decision-making cycle that one continually navigates throughout their career development. Practical application of CIP theory[4] has evolved since 1971 into a cost-effective, self-directed approach to career service delivery currently in use at the FSU Career Centerand in many other settings both nationally and globally. The CIP approach is intended to translate theory into practice to help individuals make appropriate current career choices, and learn improved problem-solving and decision-making skills needed for future choices. The CIP approach to career-service delivery includes a number of key elements that can be incorporated by any career center or careerservice program as long as certain assumptions are met (multiple staff members, variety of available resources, etc.). The key elements of the CIP approach are broken down into a seven-step service delivery model: 1. Screen individuals for career decision-making readiness before delivering services.
Increases the likelihood that the services delivered are congruent with individual needs Allows staff to serve more individuals with brief interventions Allows more time to deliver intensive interventions to assist individuals with extensive needs Helps to understand why individuals are seeking career assistance and judge their decision-making readiness If no concrete request for information is made and a potential problems is indicated (indecision, confusion, or disabling emotions), then more comprehensive screening is likely needed
2. Match level of staff assistance to identified individual needs
Individuals who have a high level of readiness for decision making are referred to self-help career services, where they select, locate, sequence, and use needed resources with little assistance from staff
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Individuals who have a moderate level of readiness for decision making are referred to brief staff-assisted services, where the staff member and client collaboratively plan the use of resources and services necessary to solve the career problem Individuals who have a low level of readiness for decision making are ideally referred to individual case-managed services The resulting net effect of the CIP approach is to limit expensive services (in terms of staff resources) to individuals with more extensive needs
3. Use career theory to help individuals understand and manage career decision making
Helps the practitioner decide how much and what type of assistance individuals need to solve career problems Helps individuals understand the content and process of career decision making to create a cognitive framework which helps reduce ambiguity, manage information, and provide clear criteria for self-monitoring of progress.
4. Use print and online career resources within all levels of service delivery
Provides individuals with self-help access to resources that meet identified learning needs Resources should be used to augment brief staff-assisted and individual casemanaged services The effectiveness of a career resource room is dependent on having a classification schema and index for organizing and identifying resources, and a comfortable physical space to use resources
5. Use career resources that are appropriate for diverse individual learners
Resources available in the career resource room should be appropriate for the inherent diversity in individuals’ verbal aptitude, motivation, and learning styles In terms of verbal aptitude, it is particularly important for resources to be available in a wide range of readability In terms of motivation and learning style, traditional text-based resources need to be supplemented with video and interactive computer-based resources that may be more reinforcing for some learners Care also needs to be taken that individuals’ physical disabilities do not prevent them from accessing resources in career resource rooms, and web sites should be accessible through text readers for persons with visual disabilities
6. Use staff teamwork in delivering services to individuals
Clients being served with brief staff-assisted services work with a variety of different staff members to solve a career problem. 75
Continuity in service delivery resides in the collaboratively developed Individualized Learning Plan (ILP) Benefits to the individual include not being restricted to the available appointment times of any one practitioner, and being able to decide how quickly they will use available resources and services Staff members must be able to quickly establish helping relationships, clarify client progress in completing the ILP, and subsequently revise the ILP if new needs emerge
7. Provide common staff training for delivering resources and services
Common training experiences among staff are needed to reduce the likelihood of inconsistent or disjointed service delivery when multiple staff serve one individual All staff must be familiar with the theoretical basis of service delivery to help clients understand and manage the career decision-making process Staff must be competent in the use of career assessment, intervention planning, information, and instructional resources
Reflection: In this theory, I have come up of the reality which I take into words such as “Give people a fish and they eat for a day, but teach them how to fish and they eat for a lifetime”. I adapted this quote from Lao Tzu.. The goal means that individuals learn how to be skillful career problem solvers and decision makers throughout their lives. We cannot avoid the fact that we can encounter various problems in running our career. Career problem solving is a rational process within a social-emotional context (i.e., social constructivism). Career problems are ill-defined and that the capacity for career problem solving can be learned. The learning of career problem solving skills can be generalized to other career problems and even to life problems. So the role of CIP theory in career problem solving are to put form and structure on an ambiguous task, integrate vital components of information processing, make career problem solving an orderly, systematic, reproducible process for novice career problem solvers, and provide a framework for the development of a facilitative learning environment. The career development process is generally thought of as a comprehensive system that includes not only the choice process, but also the implementation of that choice through acquiring or demonstrating the necessary skills and training, seeking employment, and adjusting to employment. However, the literature in the career development field generally tends to reflect a spilt between theories describing how individuals make choices or develop their career paths and the strategies designed to help them locate suitable employment. The CIP approach to counseling as developed by Sampson et al. (2004) is based on two core concepts: (1) the pyramid of information-processing domains, and (2) the CASVE cycle of decision making. This approach focuses on the holistic nature of 76
careers, the process of choosing a career path and the generalizability of the decisionmaking process to areas beyond occupations (Bullock-Yowell et al., 2011). The CASVE cycle refers to a decision-making process that involves five steps to make up the acronym, which are communication, analysis, synthesis, valuing and execution. The first step is communication, which entails identifying what decision needs to be made or “identifying the gap” between where one is and where he or she wants to be following implementation of a decision (Sampson et al., 2004). The following step, analysis, involves one identifying his or her own value as an employee and what he or she wants to receive from a career or job (Sampson et al., 2004). Following this, during synthesis, one elaborates and crystallizes the occupational options available depending on the self-knowledge gained. After identifying top choices, the next step is valuing, in which the individual engages a cost-and-benefit analysis of the options available, and using the self-knowledge gained during analysis, ranks the options that have been identified . The final stage of the CASVE cycle is execution, in which the decider puts his or her action plan into place and carries out the choice or decision made through the process. As I understand this approach,there are many aspects that can affect every individual dealing with their work. Emotions and cognitions can influence career problem solving and decision making. Effective problem solving requires both gaining knowledge and thinking about the knowledge gained. What is known about the self and the environment is constantly interacting and evolving, and organization of this information occurs in complex ways. Career problem solving and career decision making are skills that can be improved through learning and practice. CIP-focused career counseling uses cognitive behavioral-based techniques such as cognitive restructuring, behavioral activation, and homework to facilitate the basic aims of the counseling process. The CIP approach aims to assist people in making appropriate career choices through education and practice of problem-solving and decision-making skills . As the world of work continues to evolve, even for those this new generation, teaching disabled us how to approach this new world is extremely relevant to helping us further adapt to this dynamic environment. Career counseling in general has this goal of assisting clients in recognizing and resolving issues, and the CIP approach provides a standardized outline to address the need.
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Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT): Lent, Brown and Hackett
Derived from Bandura’s General Social Cognitive Theory SCCT subscribes to Bandura’s model of causality (Triadic reciprocal) Three central variables: self-efficacy, outcome expectations, personal goals Additional key terms: personal agency and career beliefs The Towards Working Life (TWL) intervention (one week intensive workshop)
3 “building blocks” of career development Self efficacy Outcome expectations Personal Goals 3 Building Blocks
Self efficacy- beliefs about our abilities to succeed -Primary sources of self efficacy Personal performance and accomplishments Vicarious learning Social persuasion Physiological and affective states Outcome expectations- beliefs about the outcome of performing particular behaviors Personal goals- the determination to engage in a particular activity or to effect a particular outcome Key Constructs: Interest Development Model 78
-We are attracted to activities that we feel we are competent and successful at Attitudes and Values -attitudes and values are tied to self efficacy and outcome expectations Gender and Race/ethnicity -Shape experiences, which influence self efficacy and outcome expectations Choice Model: model for the career choice process -Establishing a goal -Taking action to achieve the goal -Attain a level of performance that determines the direction of future career behavior Performance Model -concerned with quality and persistence of behavior
Empirical Support: Qualitative research on self efficacy has had some consistent, general findings: -It’s predictive -It has a causal relationship with other variables -Gender differences are very influential Social Cognitive Career Theory: Brown, S. and Lent, R. (1996). A social cognitive framework for career choice counseling. The Career Development Quarterly, 44, 355-367 Major Tenets -Some people eliminate possible occupations due to faulty self efficacy beliefs or outcome expectations -The greater the perceived barriers to an occupation, the less likely individuals are to pursue those careers -Modifying faulty self efficacy and outcome expectations can help individuals acquire new successful experiences and open their eyes to new career occupations Counseling Strategies (Brown & Lent, 1996) -1. Identify Foreclosed Occupational Options Help clients construct the broadest possible array of occupational possibilities, even those they may have eliminated as possibilities, or those that are of lower interest Administer assessments (look for interest and aptitude match) -2. Analyze Barrier Perceptions
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Examine barriers, the likelihood the barriers will be encountered, and develop a plan to overcome the barriers -3. Modify self efficacy beliefs Help clients develop new performance experiences to enhance self efficacy related to occupations Reanalyze past experiences and examine the development of faulty self efficacy and/or outcome expectations
Reflection: As I understand the article, Social Cognitive Career Theory is one of the recent approaches to understand career development processes. It is intended to offer a unifying framework for bringing together common pieces, or elements, identified 35 by previous career theories such as trait-factor, developmental and work adjustment and “arranging them into a novel rendering of how people (1) develop vocational interests, (2) make (and remake) occupational choices and, (3) achieve varying levels of career success and stability” CCT is derived primarily from Bandura‟s (1986) general social cognitive theory which emphasizes the interactions among people, their behavior, and environments. More specifically, the theory based on two extensions of Bandura‟s theory, which are Krumboltz and colleagues‟ social learning theory of career decision-making and career decision-making self-efficacy theory. SCCT recognizes the importance of interests, abilities, and values in the career development process as trait-factor theories. In addition, similar to developmental theories, SCCT is interested in how people deal with particular developmental milestones (e.g., career choice) and obstacles (e.g., prematurely eliminated options) which have an important impact on their career futures. In general, trait-factor, developmental and social cognitive approaches are concerned with the prediction and understanding of career development. Although Social Cognitive Career Theory shares certain features and goals with the trait-factor and developmental approaches, it differs in many ways. Unlike the 80
trait-factor theories, SCCT emphasizes dynamic and situation-specific aspects of both people and their environments. In contrast to developmental theories, SCCT does not consider the 36 specified ages and stages of career developmental tasks rather, it is concerned with particular theoretical elements which support effective career behaviors. The theory is predominantly concerned with the roles of three social cognitive mechanisms related to career development: self-efficacy beliefs, outcome expectations, and personal goals. Self-efficacy beliefs refer to “people‟s judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances”. These beliefs are viewed as the most important determinants of thought and action in Bandura‟s (1986) theory. SCCT is closely linked to Taylor and Betz‟s application of the self-efficacy beliefs which have been found to be predictive of academic and career–related choice and performance indices. These beliefs about personal capabilities can be changed and responded to environmental conditions. Four informational sources or types of learning experience may be influence on self-efficacy beliefs: personal performance accomplishments, vicarious learning, social persuasion, and physiological and affective states. As stated by Lent (2005), “the impact of these four informational sources on self-efficacy depends on a variety of factors, such as how individuals attends and interprets them” (p. 104). 37 Another important component in SCCT is outcome expectations “refer to beliefs about the consequences or outcomes of performing particular behaviors”. “Outcome expectations involve imagined consequences of performing particular behaviors such as if I do this, what will happen?” According to Bandura (1986), both self-efficacy and outcome expectations play an important role to determine the behaviors, however, self-efficacy is seen as more influential determinant of behavior. People develop outcome expectations about different academic and career path from a variety of direct and vicarious learning experiences and secondhand information they obtain about different career fields. Social cognitive theory suggests that goals have an important role in the self regulation of behavior. Accordingly, personal goals are defined as “an individual‟s intention to engage in a particular activity or to produce a particular outcome, addressing questions such as, how much and how well do I want to do this?”. SCCT differentiates choice-content goals (the type of activity or career the individual wishes to pursue) and performance goals (the level or quality of performance the individual plans to achieve within a chosen endeavor). By setting personal goals, people organize, direct, and sustain their own behavior, over long periods of time even in the absence of external reinforcement. Such goals can be broadly conceptualized as career plans, decisions, aspirations, and expressed choices. Therefore, social cognitive theory, people‟s choice and performance goals are extremely affected by their self-efficacy and outcome expectations.
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Chaos Theory: Robert Pryor & Jim Bright
The Chaos Theory of Careers (CTC) characterises individuals as complex systems subject to the influence of complex influences and chance events. However, over time patterns emerge in our behaviour that are self-similar but also subject to change. Career trajectories/histories/stories are examples of such complex fractal patterns. Our careers are subject to chance events far more frequently than just about any theory other than CTC and Happenstance Learning Theory would suggest. Our careers are subject to non linear change — sometimes small steps have profound outcomes, and sometimes changing everything changes nothing. Our careers are unpredictable, with most people expressing a degree of surprise/delight or disappointment at where they ended up. Our careers are subject to continual change. Sometimes we experience slow shift (Bright, 2008) that results in us drifting off course without realizing it, and sometimes our careers have dramatic (fast shift) changes which completely turn our world upside down. We (and therefore our careers) take shape and exhibit self-similar patterns, trajectories, traits, narratives, preoccupations over time. We (and therefore our careers) are too complex to be easily captured and put into simple boxes, interest or personality codes. Even much vaunted narrative is an oversimplification.
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Constructivism proposes that we are pattern makers; we can find connections and structure in almost any stimuli. CTC has at it’s heart the idea of emergent patterns. In seeking to understand these exceedingly complex and ever changing patterns we all will construct meaning from our experiences of these patterns and the constructions that we place on our experience of reality (Pryor & Bright, 2003). In contrast with several recent theories, we contend that there is more to reality than just constructions of it (See Pryor & Bright, 2007). In summary, CTC and any counselling process based upon it will have to take into account the following concepts:
Change — e.g. Bright (2008), Jepson & Chouduri (2001) Chance — e.g. Chen (2005), Krumboltz & Levin (2006); Bright et al (2005), Bright, Pryor & Harpham (2005) Complexity — Patton & McMahon (2006); Lent, Brown & Hacket (1996); Bright et al (2005) Fractal patterns — Bright & Pryor (2010); Bright & Pryor (2005); Bloch (2005); Savickas et al (2009) Emergence — Pryor & Bright (2004); Bright & Pryor (2010); Morrowitz (2003) Attractors — Pryor & Bright (2007); Bright & Pryor (2005) Constructivism — Savickas (1997); Savickas et al (2009)
CTC Counselling – A step by step guide What follows is simply an illustration of what I might do with my clients. I do not want to encourage a cook-book approach to counselling, as I vary my approach radically from client to client, day to day. I am not going to bother with the basics like rapport building, etc. I will assume you already know about the critical importance of this element. My typical sessions last 3-4 hours, with a 1 hour follow up a week or so later. For those of you lucky to get 20 minutes, please do read on, there are still effective things you can do in that time frame. I have indicated some ways of saving time for each step. Step 1: Managing expectations. I like to use the question: ‘If everything goes well for you in this how will things be different for you at the end?’ While this might look suspiciously like goal-setting, what I really want to do is to deal with any unrealistic expectations. The most obvious one being: ‘I want you to tell me what I should do.’ I may get out some cards at this stage to assist the process – for instance Signposts cards – a series of colourful images containing trigger phrases such as ‘Standing in uncertainty’, ‘Returning home’, etc., that can reveal true needs.
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Step 2: Assisting clients to understand the chaos in their lives I use questions similar to those on our Exploring Reality Chaos Checklist (Register here to try it for freehttp://www.jimbright.com/tests/ or check out similar questions on this post). This is important because often my clients come to me because they are looking for a certain plan and believe their failures to date have been largely a matter of choosing the wrong plan. They believe the solution is simply to apply the correct plan. I want to dispel this idea and normalise their experiences. Step 3: Discussion of failures Often this initial discussion leads into discussions of failures at work and sometimes, more generally, in life. This doesn’t have to be depressing. Sharing stories of career fiascos can put failure into the context of uncertainty — showing that it is inevitable — and within the context of learning — which can’t happen without it. What I am doing here is gently trying to introduce to the client the ideas of change, chance and uncertainty. Step 4: Patterning. There are several different ways of achieving this that I use. The most common techniques I use are:
Savickas’ Career Style/Story Questions (Savickas, 1997) Amundson’s Metaphor, Pattern Identification, Careerscope/Career Crossroads & Drawing Techniques (Amundson, 2009), Bright & Pryor Circles of Influence (2004). Career Collages (e.g. Adams, 2003; Pryor & Bright, 2010)needed up version.
Step 5: Client Patterning the patterning I ask the clients to describe the repeating pattern (fractal) that they see emerging from these exercises. What are the key themes to emerge? What are the matters of concern and how do they relate to the stated objectives outlined in step 1? It is common here for clients to appreciate that what they claimed they expected to do in our sessions is now less important than working with the emergent patterns that are newly aware of. Step 6: Counsellor Patterning the patterns – gently In an ideal world clients will spontaneously see links and patterns from these exercises, but most fall short of a rich description (I am sure if I saw them for more sessions this would be less of an issue). So at this stage I might gently probe along a few lines of enquiry that have come to me as a result of the patterns I can see. I do not put my ‘cards on the table’ because I want the client to own their interpretation. 84
However I might encourage further exploration with phrases such as: ‘Can you see anything else in that story?’ or ‘Is there another way in which that story/image is important to you?’ I might also encourage the clients to make links between different stories or different images in a collage that they have yet to identify which probes such as ‘How are these two similar?’ etc. Step 7: Identifying the Attractors Throughout steps 4-6 I strive to listen for the characteristic cornerstones of Chaos: change, chance, complexity, emergent patterns and evidence of self-limited thinking associated with an over-reliance on the closed-system attractors Point, Pendulum and Torus. (See the comments on the earlier post or visit The Factory Blog for more information on attractors.) So, I will be listening for evidence of an undue attachment to goal-setting (Point Attractor thinking). In CTC goal setting is not necessarily to be welcomed in all situations, because it may serve to narrow down options, or it can lock people into predictable forms of behaviour that are confounded by a changeable situation. Point attractor thinking may also be in evidence when clients obsess about one particular factor (such as money) to the exclusion of almost everything else. Step 8: Considering the converging qualities of the client with assessment Once I feel I have a good sense of the emerging qualities of the client, I want to not only try to confirm these using radically different methods — what Newell and Simon (1972) call converging operations, but also to get a sense of how the client fits into the rest of the world. For these reasons I give them some psychometric tests to complete.. The LRI measures: Flexibility, Optimism, Strategy, Curiosity, Risk, Persistence, Efficacy and Luckiness. The CPI measures: Continual Change, Need for Control, Small steps (non linearity), Radical change (phase shift), Pattern making (emergence), Driver Goals (Point Attractor), Driver Roles (Pendulum Attractor), Driver Routine (Torus Attractor), Driver Change (Strange Attractor), Bigger Picture (Purpose and Spirituality). Step 9:
Report writing
The focus of this article is on counselling so I am not going into any detail about the client reports that I write. However they are handwritten and reflect the copious notes I’ve taken during the interview and they synthesise the patterns to have emerged there with those revealed by the testing. The document serves as a record of what went on and I try as much as possible to reflect the client’s thinking in this report rather than me ‘diagnosing’. Step 10:- Follow-up discussion 85
I start the follow up session by asking the client to reflect on what happened in the first session. I also want to know how their thinking or indeed circumstances have changed from the first meeting. It is very common for clients to have reflected quite deeply between sessions and some even instigate courses of action before the second session! Occasionally this is a concern as it might reflect a desire to jump to the first or easiest course of action, which may have been one of the underlying issues with the client in the first place. Reflection: I heard this kind of theory just now, and as I read it, I learned that Chaos Theory is a mathematical theory that was developed, among other applications, for use in meteorology. From it arose the term “butterfly effect”—maybe you’ve seen the movie by the same name—which describes the phenomenon of small changes producing drastic results over time. Robert Pryor and Jim Bright have combined chaos and careers in their new book The Chaos Theory of Careers: A New Perspective on Working in the TwentyFirst Century. So how do the two mix? And more importantly, what does it mean for me as a student and a future educator? Maybe we’ve been given the idea that our career path is predictable and measurable. Some theories of career development state that it’s just a matter of measuring all the relevant factors (i.e., your interests, skills, personality traits, and the qualities of different occupations and work environments) and coming up with a good match.But we all know life’s not like that. In fact, there are more unpredictable factors in our lives than predictable ones. We can never know for sure what’s going to change and impact our life’s trajectory suddenly and unexpectedly. We can therefore describe life as non-linear—it doesn’t unfold in a neat and tidy straight line. For example of an analogy explaining Chaos Theory goes something like this: Imagine you drop a ping-pong ball in a closed, empty room.You can easily determine and measure all the factors that will influence the ball’s trajectory and its final resting spot. This can be thought of as a linear system—it’s very predictable and measurable. Now, instead of standing in an empty room, you’re running on a treadmill in the gym. There are people walking around, fans keeping the air circulating, windows open, etc. What happens now when you drop the ping-pong ball? Suddenly it’s much harder to predict where the ball will end up, because there are so many dynamic factors in our non-linear system. A small change in any of those factors could lead to a large change in where the ball ends up (if it stops at all). It doesn’t make sense to apply static ideas to a dynamic, shifting and constantly changing world of work. However, we don’t like uncertainty. We want to know. But maybe it’s not that important to know. Maybe what’s more important is having the courage to drop that ball in the first place, and the flexibility to allow it to follow the path that it will, accepting the fact that much of it is outside your direct control. So what can you do in the face of chaos, when nothing is certain and everything is possible? According to this theory: First is to reframe indecision as openmindedness. Being indecisive fosters a passive attitude, like you’re waiting for something to fall into your lap. Open-mindedness encourages intentional exploration and a more proactive attitude.Second, be curious. What have you been missing out 86
on? Being curious about new things, even if they seem scary, is the first step toward opening new doors that lead to future career possibilities. Third, look for clues. There are all kinds of connections we don’t see in the present that seem easily explainable when we recall them later. Create your own luck! By trying new things, you increase the chance that positive unpredictable events will happen. When something feels right, go for it. Fourth, take lots of small actions. Focus your energy on small things you can do now or in the near future, like volunteering, participating in clubs and groups, or talking to people working in fields you’re curious about. And Fifth is to take stock. Things seem chaotic and unpredictable when you look at them up close, but patterns often emerge as you look at the bigger picture. Chaos theorists call this self-similarity, but it’s easier to think of it as stopping to look at the bigger picture from time to time. Knowing where you’re coming from makes this process much easier, and taking time to reflect on the patterns emerging in your life will give you as great an idea as you’ll ever get of your strengths.
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Sunny Hansen's Integrative Life Planning Integrative Life Planning Model Integrative Life Planning Model Created by Sunny Hansen in the 1990's Based on adult career development The 4 Assumptions Career Development Task What is ILP? 1.Integrative 2.Life 3. Planning The Four Assumptions 1.
Changes in the nature of knowledge support the addition of new ways of knowledge to career development theory, research, and practice.
2.
Career professionals need to help students, clients, and employees develop skills of integrative thinking - seeing connections in their lives and in their local and global communities.
3.
Broader kinds of self-knowledge (beyond interest, abilities, and values) and societal knowledge (beyond occupational and educational information) are critical to an expanded view of career, including multiple roles, identities, and critical life tasks in diverse cultures.
4.
Career counseling needs to focus on career professionals as change agents, helping clients to achieve more holistic lives and become advocates and agents for positive societal change through the choices they have and decisions they make. Career Development Task 1 "finding work that needs doing in changing global contexts" Encourage clients to better the world in addition to bettering themselves Contribute to a goal of a more socially just world by working to preserve the environment, understand and celebrate diversity, advocate for human rights, and explore spirituality Career Development Task 2 88
"Weaving our lives into a meaningful whole" Holistic
and
Emphasis
contextual
on
a
career
view
of
career
choice
being
planning
very
personal
Career is intertwined with every other part of life and other aspects should be taken into account when choosing a career Career Development Task 3 "Connecting Family and Work" Emphasizes life-role integration and negotiation of roles and relationships Highlights the need to examine gender-role expectations and stereotypes Envisions men and women as partners in home and the workplace Values
self-sufficiency
and
connectedness
Career Development Task 4 "Valuing pluralism and inclusivity" It is important for individuals to celebrate diversity and multiculturalism Let's get eclectic! This recognizes the importance of difference. Career Development Task 5 "Managing Personal Transitions and Organizational Change" The
ability
to
cope
is
essential
to
effective
transitions.
Tolerating ambiguity, developing personal flexibility, accessing selfawareness, and using social supports enable smooth life transitions. Incorporating rational and logical decision-making skills with intuitive orientations that value a perspective that is both open and accepting is important. Career Development Task 6 "Exploring spirituality and life purpose" 89
Could
be
considered
religion
but
not
necessarily
Embraces purpose, meaning, connectedness, and a sense of community Career choice is one that are expressions of one's gifts and talents "what does this mean in and for my life?" "What do I want to mean to others through my work?
" Spiritual approaches Common Themes: Careers should be viewed holistically All life experiences provide opportunities for learning Attitude of flexibility and openness fosters development It also provides opportunity for learning and growth Change should be celebrated Interventions engage the client in and draw upon subjective assessment activities .
career
counseling
Reflection: As for my reflection on this theory, I have a realization that all of us encountered different situations in our lives. We have wondered if it is possible to 90
integrate the many, often conflicting elements of your life. The world (of work) known to us today is vastly different from the one our parents and their parents knew. In the course of the previous century, it was common practice to leave school, be trained in a certain discipline, find a job, and retire in the same company forty years later. Work was seen to be the domain of just that: work. There was no time or space for one’s family, your spirituality, or any other related issue to be brought to the office. It was as if we lived two separate lives! Towards the end of the 20th century, a new paradigm started to evolve and this has given rise to an approach known as “Integrative Life Planning”. This approach is relating the societal context to the individual, families, to education, and work. It is seen as a lifelong process where we will be busy identifying our primary needs, roles, and goals and integrating them within ourselves, our work, our family, and the bigger community. This model is based on interaction, is relation oriented, and is aimed at helping us achieve greater meaning, wholeness, satisfaction, and a sense of community in our lives. Finally, this new approach is providing a model through which we can shape the direction of our own lives, assist others to become empowered, to manage change and to contribute to the larger society. By adopting this approach, it becomes possible to develop a big picture perspective – we no longer only live for ourselves, but start doing things, which will benefit our community and bigger society. Now, how do the above aspects take shape in the lives of people? Firstly, there needs to be a move towards integrative thinking. Start by looking at the manner in which learning material is presented: one can no longer get by through linear thinking - you need to think of how various issues could be integrated to take it to the “next level”. We are also encouraged to think about the big picture: the necessity to demonstrate holistic thinking as opposed to traditional reductionist thinking where less is more. More often than not, complex challenges (problems) require complex solutions. One would also need to demonstrate a new kind of selfknowledge, as you need to see where and how you fit into 21st century society. Implementing the process of “Integrative Life Planning” requires hard work, and this is usually structured in terms of six critical tasks for career development and changing life patterns. In following postings, these tasks will be presented in a slightly less abstract manner and some guidelines will be provided as to how these can be implemented.
HOPPOCK'S CAREER DEVELOPMENT THEORY DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Robert Hoppock (1901-1995) 91
born in Lambertville, NJ December 24, 1901 Married to Margaret Emily Thornton Bachelor of Science degree in 1923 Master of Arts in Educational Psychology from Teachers College of Columbia University in 1932 Doctor of Philosophy in Educational Research from Columbia in 1935
Robert Hoppock (1901-1995) Professor Emeritus of Counselor Education at New York University in Vista A specialist in methods of teaching occupations, his publications included Occupational Information, Group Counseling, Job Satisfaction and more than 300 articles in educational, industrial and professional journals. Robert Hoppock (1901-1995) He received the first eminent career award for enduring contributions to the noblest principles of vocational guidance from the National Vocational Guidance Association in 1967 Robert Hoppock (1901-1995)
Dr. Beck's Adviser and Mentor Beck at New York University
Robert Hoppock's Theory stressed the function of the job in satisfying personal needs, but his theory has attained wide popularity also because of his efforts to integrated ideas from a number of other theories. Vocation development begins with the first awareness that a job can help meet one’s needs and continues as the person is better able to anticipate how potentially satisfying a particular career could be as compared with others. Once a person becomes aware of other jobs that could satisfy personal needs, then occupational choices are subject to change. Robert Hoppock's Theory The degree of job satisfaction can be determined by assessing the different between what a person want from job (emotionally, financially, and so forth) and what she or he actually has attained.
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10 BASIC POSTULATE OF HOPPOCK’S THEORY 1. Everyone has needs: basic physical needs Higher-order psychological needs such as: self-esteem Respect self-actualization 2. People tend to gravitate toward occupations that serve their perceived needs. 3. Individuals do not necessarily have to have a clear intellectual awareness of their needs for those needs to affect occupational choices. 4. Life experiences help to develop a pattern of individual occupational preference and, as such, suggest a developmental perspective on vocational choice. 5. Given the great diversity of occupational choices, the individual must develop effective decision-making skills based on solid self-awareness and a rich informational base. 6. Self-understanding is the basis on which occupational choice rests. 7. Understanding the self is only half of the occupational choice process. 8. When a person’s needs are met by a job, then he or she experiences job satisfaction. 9. Individuals can delay need satisfaction if they perceive their job as having the potential to satisfy their needs in the future. 10. If the balance between needs and satisfaction is unfavorable, then a worker will change job if another position appears to offer the potential to meet needs more fully. THE COUNSELORS ROLE 1. Stimulate the client’s self-awareness of interest and needs, including the clarification of values. 2. Promote insight into that which gives life personal meaning. 3.Provide accurate and complete occupational information. 4. Help match the client’s perceived strengths and weaknesses with occupations likely to provide maximum need satisfaction. IMPLICATIONS FOR COUNSELORS 93
1. The counselor should always remember that the needs of the client may differ from the needs of the counselor. 2. The counselor should operate within the framework of the client’s needs. 3. The counselor should provide every possible opportunity for the client to identify and to express his or her own needs. 4. The counselor should be alert in noticing and remembering the needs that the client reveals. 5. The counselor should help the client gather information about occupations that may meet his or her needs. 6. The counselor should help the client to anticipate how well any contemplated occupation will meet the client’s needs. 7. The counselor should stay with the client through the process of placement in order to provide the further counseling that will be needed if the desired job is not available. 8. The counselor should follow-up with the client some months after placement in order to see how well the job is meeting the needs that the clients thought it would meet.
Reflection: Career choice is one of the most important decisions in the life of an individual. It has far-reaching implications on the individual’s future in terms of lifestyle, status, income, security and job satisfaction. Although personal philosophy, achievement and selfimage are important factors in this decision, the external environment is also very influential in characterizing career and shaping aspirations. The values an individual holds, the successes and failures he experiences, the social class in which he has developed and his interests, strengths and capacities are only some of the factors which could affect his selection of a career. Hoppock was of the opinion that a career is chosen to meet certain needs. Based on this, occupations are chosen in the belief that they would best meet the most dominant needs of the individual. Needs may be perceived as intellectual or vaguely felt attractions which draws the person in certain directions. In either case, Hoppock believes that needs may influence choices. 94
Hoppock postulated that career development begins when a person becomes aware that an occupation can assist in meeting his/her needs. This awareness grows and his/her occupational choice improves as the person develops the ability to anticipate how well a prospective occupation will meet those identified needs. Career choice depends on the knowledge of the self, knowledge of occupations and the ability to think clearly. Job satisfaction depends upon the extent to which the job meets the needs that have been identified. So for us to understand the role of occupation in the life of the individual demands a prior understanding of that particular individual and his needs. He suggest that an individual chooses more effectively if he knows his abilities; that fulfillment of his needs are crucial in job satisfaction and that occupational choice reflects one’s personality and needs. This stresses the influence of psychological, social and economic factors in occupational choice. The individual chooses an occupation which best meets his strongest needs ranging from social, psychological to economic. This choice improves once he is able to predict how well a prospective occupation can satisfy his needs. Job satisfaction depends on the extent to which an individual’s occupational needs meet those needs that he considered most important. Thus, an individual’s need is one of the determining factors in career choice. Other factors include important people in our lives, parents, admired works, working experiences and peer influence. The occupation makes possible the playing of a role appropriate to the self-concepts since every occupation requires a characteristic pattern of abilities, interest and personality traits with tolerance wide enough to allow a variety of occupations for each individual and a variety of individuals in each occupation. The selection of an occupation constitutes an implementation of the self-concept construct, requiring a person to recognize himself as a distinctive individual and to be aware of the similarities between himself and others. Thus, knowledge of self is crucial in making an adequate and wise choice; suggesting that career choice is developmental in nature; and not an event, which occurs at a particular point in time. Career choice can also be influenced by interest; as students often indicate that they would like an ‘interesting’ job. Interests are, of course, very personal; to the extent that two people may be interested in the same activity for quite different reasons. Such features as mental stimulation, sense of achievement, excitement and using one’s abilities are central to the description of a career that is interesting. Some effects of interests on career choice are that an interest may be significant in itself and therefore be vital to career choice. It can also point to jobs where similar satisfactions can be derived. Indeed, occupations can be grouped together where they have common interest elements, though one does not need to satisfy all of one’s interests in a job; since some will be achieved through external activities. An individual’s skills and interests are, however, only a part of the picture when making choices about what to do in future. Other factors influencing choice include one’s values and temperament. An individual’s scale of value is usually based on his belief and attitudes about what he considers as important in life. Thus, if one’s values match closely those of his work or colleagues’, one is likely to feel a sense of pride in the chosen career and therefore be happy to devote time and energy to it.
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Contextual Learning Theory: Weinbaum and Rogers
Contextual learning refers to the type of learning that has also been called experiential learning, real-world education, active learning, and learner-centered instruction. Unlike traditional school learning, which is based on the principles of individual learning in a manner that is independent of tools and dependent on symbols. Contextual learning is characterized by the following features: 1) socially shared, 2) thinking shaped by/engaged with tools, 3) learning engaged with objects and events, 4) and situation-specific learning.
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The practical benefits of contextual learning has been documented in case studies of contextual learning in school-based vocational education, the workplace, and the community, as well as in studies of contextual learning as "cognitive apprentices!." Among the main contextual learning-related issues facing teachers are the following: rethinking the areas of curriculum, instruction, and assessment; providing students with hands-on experiences in which they can learn about and participate in the workplace, providing adequate staff development for teachers and employers involved in contextual learning programs, and reorganizing school periods and providing the administrative support required to plan and deliver contextual learning programs. The School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994 offers a chance to bring together partnerships of employers, educators, and others to build an effective school-to-work system that prepares young people for either high-quality jobs or further education and training. The new systems must include the following basic program elements: • work-based learning that provides a planned program of job training or experiences, paid work experience, workplace mentoring, and instruction in general workplace competencies • school-based learning that provides career exploration and counseling, instruction in a career major, and a program of study that is based on high academic and occupational skill standards -connecting activities that bring schools, students, and employers together toconnect the worlds of school and work by matching students with work-based learning opportunities and by training teachers, mentors, and counselors The challenge is to build and implement a new system that moves beyond business as usual for students who are not on the college path. Their transition process from school to work must become the coordinated responsibility of school, family, business, community, and government. No single institution can or should take sole responsibility for or be expected to provide all of the approaches to educating, training, guiding, preparing, and supporting our young people. Within the federal government, a major theme of current education policy is the goal of building bridges between education and employment. The Clinton Administration's School-to- Work Opportunities Act of 1994 proposes three strategies: school- based learning, work-based learning, and activities to connect school and workplace.
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The act defines work-based learning, as follows: • a planned program of job training and experiences, including skills to be mastered at progressively higher levels, that are relevant to a student's career major and lead to the award of a skill certificate • paid work experience • workplace mentoring « instruction in general workplace competencies « broad instruction in a variety of elements of an industry Contextual Learning — From Theory to Practice Across the country, schools, classes, and multischool systems are adopting the principles of contextual learning. The result is an array of practices that are not always easy to label as one thing or another. Some of these practices imply major changes in school organization; others do not. A radical school restructuring is obviously involved when a school reorganizes its curriculum around occupational clusters and abolishes traditional academic departments. A much less sweeping change occurs when an academic teacher visits a vocational classroom to incorporate material into the curriculum. The cases selected below are neither exhaustive nor unique. Rather, they illustrate ways that the philosophy and principles of contextual learning are reshaping education in the United States. The discussion of workbased education efforts is divided into four sections: school-based vocational education, workplace-based education, communitybased education, and classroom-based cognitive apprenticeship approaches. Contextual Learning in School-Based Vocational Education Curricular and pedagogical reforms of school-based vocational programs, in part encouraged and funded by the Perkins Act Amendments, have produced a variety of approaches, some of which integrate contextual learning practices and beliefs. Contextual Learning in the WorkpIace Most work-based educational programs are associated with schoolto-work transition or vocational programs. .Usually, they are part 98
of a broader reform of curriculum and pedagogy. Contextual Learning in the Community A different model for taking education into the community is youth community service. This movement has gained many advocates in the past decade, in part in hopes of responding to the alienation many young people feel toward a society that no longer offers them meaningful roles. Community service offers a sense of accomplishment, a chance to work with others, and opportunities to explore the world of work. Less often emphasized by proponents is the powerful connection between community service and the principles of contextual learning.
Reflection: As we approach the twenty-first century, a large segment of our nation's young people are having a harder and harder time moving from school to work with any reasonable prospect for long-term productive employment. The lack of a comprehensive and effective school-to-work transition system not only frustrates many students but also has substantial costs to business and to our economy as a whole. A skill-deficient work force hampers our nation's economic 99
growth, productivity, and ability to compete in an international economy. New modes of information and technology have forced a restructuring of the home, the school, and the workplace. As a result, there is a critical need to create systems that effectively serve the interests and potential of young people who are not planning to enter college directly after high school. These students need to leave school with the diverse skills, knowledge, abilities, and attitudes necessary for a rapidly changing world of work; community, social, family, and adult responsibilities; and lifelong learning. Learning-in-context is so obvious a notion that the lay person might tend to dismiss its importance. Anyone who has ever endured the first day in a new job, played a pickup game of basketball, maneuvered with an arm in a cast, or repaired a car engine has experienced learning-in-context: that fruitful, if often frustrating, confrontation between a human mind's knowledge and skills and a new set of cognitive, social, physical, or mechanical demands. Yet, education as distinguished from learning, is usually identified by the lay person and educator alike with the traditional classroom environment of lectures and books, rather than with reallife contexts like the workplace or the community- or the basketball court. Many employers dissatisfied with their young employees advocate workplace experiences for students — internships, mentorships, apprenticeships — believing that these experiences might teach the job skills and/or work attitudes that will produce better employees. Critics of current vocational programs in the schools, similarly concerned between many of these programs and the actual human resource needs of the different countries economy, argue that workplace experiences are an essential element of effective vocational preparation. The workplace, however, is only one context. In our national haste to integrate workplace and schooling, it is important that we not lose sight of a broader vision of earning. To make each one of our schools an embryonic community life, active with types of occupations that reflect the life of the larger society and permeated throughout with the spirit of art, history, and science. When the school introduces and trains each child of society into membership within such a little community, saturating him with the spirit of service and providing him with the instruments of effective selfdirection which shall have the deepest and best guaranty of a larger society which is worthy, lovely, and harmonious.
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