a road oad ma! ma! *or *or ma#i ma#ing ng day day$to$ $to$da day y decisions4 .=0 be internally consistent and have a set o* o!erational de5nitions4 de5nitions4 and .>0 be !arsim !arsimoni onious ous66 or as sim!le sim!le as !ossible2
Di)ensions for a Con*e+t of H()anity Perso ersona nali lity ty theo theori rist sts s have have had had di3e di3errent ent conce!tions o* human nature6 and the authors list list si, si, dime dimens nsio ions ns *or *or com! com!ar arin ing g thes these e conc conce! e!ti tion ons2 s2 Thes These e dime dimens nsio ions ns incl includ ude e deter determin minism ism versu versus s *ree *ree choice choice66 !essim !essimism ism versus versus o!timism6 o!timism6 causalit causality y versus versus teleology teleology66 conscious versus unconscious determinants o* behavior6 biological versus social inuences on !ersonality6 and uni?ueness versus similarities among !eo!le2 Resear*h in Personality Theory In resear researching ching human human behavior behavior66 !ersonal !ersonality ity theo theorrists ists o*te o*ten n use var various ious measu easurring ing !roce !rocedur dures6 es6 and these these !roce !rocedur dures es must must be both reliable and valid2 Reliability re*ers to a measurin measuring g instrumen instrument7s t7s consiste consistency ncy -hereas -hereas validity re*ers to its accuracy accuracy or truth*ulness2
PSYCHODYNA&IC PSYCHODYNA&IC THEORIES FREUD, PSYCHOANALYSIS Over Overvi view ew of Fre(# re(#%s %s Psy* Psy*ho hoan anal alyt yti* i* Theory igmund Freud7s !sychoanalysis has endured because it ./0 !ostulated the !rimacy o* se, and and aggr aggres essi sion on 9 t-o t-o univ univer ersa sall lly y !o!u !o!ula larr themes6 .10 attra attracte cted d a grou! grou! o* *ollo*ollo-ers ers -ho -ho -ere -ere dedi dedica cate ted d to s!rea !read ding ing !syc !sycho hoa analy nalyttic doctrine6 and .;0 .;0 adva advanc nced ed the the noti notion on o* unco uncons nsci ciou ous s motives6 -hich !ermit varying e,!lanations e,!lanations *or the same observations2 -io.ra+hy of Si.)(n# Fre(# &orn in the '8ech Re!ublic in /@=>6 igmund Freud s!ent most o* his li*e in ienna2 In his !rac !racti tice ce as a !syc !sychi hiat atri rist st66 he -as -as mor more intereste interested d in learning learning about about the unconscio unconscious us motives motives o* !atients !atients than in curing curing neuroses neuroses22 "arly in his !ro*essional career6 Freud Freud believed that that hyster hysteria ia -as a resul resultt o* being being seduce seduced d during childhood by a se,ually mature !erson6 o*ten a !arent or other relative2
Levels of &ental Life Freud sa- mental *unctioning as o!erating on three three levels: levels: unconscio unconscious6 us6 !reconsc !reconscious ious66 and conscious2 Un*ons*io(s The unconscious includes drives and instincts that are beyond a-areness but that motivate motivate most human human behavior behaviors2 s2 Bnconscious drives can become conscious only in disguised or distorted *orm6 *orm6 such such as drea dream m images images66 sli!s sli!s o* the the tong tongue ue66 or neur neurot otic ic sym! sym!to toms ms22 Bnconscio Bnconscious us !rocess !rocesses es originat originate e *rom *rom t-o t-o sour source ces: s: ./0 ./0 re!r e!ressi ession on66 or the the bloc#ing o ut o* an,iety$5lled e,!e e,!eri rien ence ces s and .10 .10 !hyl !hylog ogen enet etic ic endo-ment endo-ment66 or inherite inherited d e,!erie e,!eriences nces that lie beyond an individual7s !ersonal e,!erience2 Pre*ons*io(s The !reconscious !reconscious contains images that are are not not in a-ar a-aren enes ess s but but that that can can become conscious either ?uite easily or -ith some level o* diCculty2 Cons*io(s 'onsciousness !lays a relatively minor role in Freudian theory2 'onscious ideas stem stem *rom *rom eith either er the the !er !erce!t ce!tio ion n o* e,ter ternal nal stimu timuli li .our .our !erc erce!tu e!tua al conscious system0 or *rom the uncons unconscio cious us and !reco !reconsc nsciou ious s a*ter a*ter they have evaded censorshi!2 censorshi!2 Provin*es of the &in# Freud conce!tuali8ed three regions o* the mind 9 the id6 the ego6 and the su!erego2 The I# The id6 -hich is com!letely unco uncons nsci ciou ous6 s6 serv serves es the the !lea !leasu surre !rin !rinc ci!le i!le and conta ontaiins our our basic inst instin inct cts2 s2 It o!er o!erat ates es thr through ough the the !rimary !rocess2 The E.o The ego6 or secondary !rocess6 is governed by the reality !rinci!le and is res!onsible *or reconciling the unrealistic demands o* the id and the su!erego2 The S(+ere.o The su!erego6 -hich serves the idealistic !rinci!le6 has t-o subsystems
a road oad ma! ma! *or *or ma#i ma#ing ng day day$to$ $to$da day y decisions4 .=0 be internally consistent and have a set o* o!erational de5nitions4 de5nitions4 and .>0 be !arsim !arsimoni onious ous66 or as sim!le sim!le as !ossible2
Di)ensions for a Con*e+t of H()anity Perso ersona nali lity ty theo theori rist sts s have have had had di3e di3errent ent conce!tions o* human nature6 and the authors list list si, si, dime dimens nsio ions ns *or *or com! com!ar arin ing g thes these e conc conce! e!ti tion ons2 s2 Thes These e dime dimens nsio ions ns incl includ ude e deter determin minism ism versu versus s *ree *ree choice choice66 !essim !essimism ism versus versus o!timism6 o!timism6 causalit causality y versus versus teleology teleology66 conscious versus unconscious determinants o* behavior6 biological versus social inuences on !ersonality6 and uni?ueness versus similarities among !eo!le2 Resear*h in Personality Theory In resear researching ching human human behavior behavior66 !ersonal !ersonality ity theo theorrists ists o*te o*ten n use var various ious measu easurring ing !roce !rocedur dures6 es6 and these these !roce !rocedur dures es must must be both reliable and valid2 Reliability re*ers to a measurin measuring g instrumen instrument7s t7s consiste consistency ncy -hereas -hereas validity re*ers to its accuracy accuracy or truth*ulness2
PSYCHODYNA&IC PSYCHODYNA&IC THEORIES FREUD, PSYCHOANALYSIS Over Overvi view ew of Fre(# re(#%s %s Psy* Psy*ho hoan anal alyt yti* i* Theory igmund Freud7s !sychoanalysis has endured because it ./0 !ostulated the !rimacy o* se, and and aggr aggres essi sion on 9 t-o t-o univ univer ersa sall lly y !o!u !o!ula larr themes6 .10 attra attracte cted d a grou! grou! o* *ollo*ollo-ers ers -ho -ho -ere -ere dedi dedica cate ted d to s!rea !read ding ing !syc !sycho hoa analy nalyttic doctrine6 and .;0 .;0 adva advanc nced ed the the noti notion on o* unco uncons nsci ciou ous s motives6 -hich !ermit varying e,!lanations e,!lanations *or the same observations2 -io.ra+hy of Si.)(n# Fre(# &orn in the '8ech Re!ublic in /@=>6 igmund Freud s!ent most o* his li*e in ienna2 In his !rac !racti tice ce as a !syc !sychi hiat atri rist st66 he -as -as mor more intereste interested d in learning learning about about the unconscio unconscious us motives motives o* !atients !atients than in curing curing neuroses neuroses22 "arly in his !ro*essional career6 Freud Freud believed that that hyster hysteria ia -as a resul resultt o* being being seduce seduced d during childhood by a se,ually mature !erson6 o*ten a !arent or other relative2
Levels of &ental Life Freud sa- mental *unctioning as o!erating on three three levels: levels: unconscio unconscious6 us6 !reconsc !reconscious ious66 and conscious2 Un*ons*io(s The unconscious includes drives and instincts that are beyond a-areness but that motivate motivate most human human behavior behaviors2 s2 Bnconscious drives can become conscious only in disguised or distorted *orm6 *orm6 such such as drea dream m images images66 sli!s sli!s o* the the tong tongue ue66 or neur neurot otic ic sym! sym!to toms ms22 Bnconscio Bnconscious us !rocess !rocesses es originat originate e *rom *rom t-o t-o sour source ces: s: ./0 ./0 re!r e!ressi ession on66 or the the bloc#ing o ut o* an,iety$5lled e,!e e,!eri rien ence ces s and .10 .10 !hyl !hylog ogen enet etic ic endo-ment endo-ment66 or inherite inherited d e,!erie e,!eriences nces that lie beyond an individual7s !ersonal e,!erience2 Pre*ons*io(s The !reconscious !reconscious contains images that are are not not in a-ar a-aren enes ess s but but that that can can become conscious either ?uite easily or -ith some level o* diCculty2 Cons*io(s 'onsciousness !lays a relatively minor role in Freudian theory2 'onscious ideas stem stem *rom *rom eith either er the the !er !erce!t ce!tio ion n o* e,ter ternal nal stimu timuli li .our .our !erc erce!tu e!tua al conscious system0 or *rom the uncons unconscio cious us and !reco !reconsc nsciou ious s a*ter a*ter they have evaded censorshi!2 censorshi!2 Provin*es of the &in# Freud conce!tuali8ed three regions o* the mind 9 the id6 the ego6 and the su!erego2 The I# The id6 -hich is com!letely unco uncons nsci ciou ous6 s6 serv serves es the the !lea !leasu surre !rin !rinc ci!le i!le and conta ontaiins our our basic inst instin inct cts2 s2 It o!er o!erat ates es thr through ough the the !rimary !rocess2 The E.o The ego6 or secondary !rocess6 is governed by the reality !rinci!le and is res!onsible *or reconciling the unrealistic demands o* the id and the su!erego2 The S(+ere.o The su!erego6 -hich serves the idealistic !rinci!le6 has t-o subsystems
9 the conscience and the ego$ideal2 The conscience results *rom !unishment *or im!ro im!ro!er !er behavi behavior or -here -hereas as the ego$ ideal ideal stems stems *rom *rom re-a re-ard rds s *or socia socially lly acce!table behavior2 Dyna)i*s of Personality )ynamics o* !ersonality re*ers to those *orces that motivate !eo!le2 Instin*ts Freud eud grou grou!e !ed d all all huma human n driv drives es or urges under t-o6 !rimary instincts 9 se, ."ros or the li*e instinct0 and aggression .the death or destructive instinct02 The aim o* the se,ual instinct is !leasure6 -hic -hich h can can be gained ined thr through ough the the erogenous 8ones6 es!ecially the mouth6 anus6 anus6 and genitals genitals22 The object object o* the se,ua se,uall instin instinct ct is any any !erson !erson or thing thing that brings se,ual !leasure2 All in*ants !osses !ossess s !rima !rimary ry narcis narcissis sism6 m6 or sel* sel*$$ cen center teredn edness6 ess6 but the secon econd dary narcissism o* adolescence and adulthood is not universal2 &oth sadism .re .receivi eivin ng se,ua ,ual !leasur sure *rom *rom inicting !ain on another0 and masochism masochism .recei .receiving ving se,ual se,ual !leasur !leasure e *rom !ain*ul !ain*ul e,!erie e,!eriences nces00 satis*y satis*y both se,u se,ual al and and aggr aggres essi sive ve driv drives es22 The The destru destructi ctive ve instin instinct ct aims aims to retur return n a !erson to an inorganic state6 but it is ordinarily directed against other !eo!le and is called aggression2 An/iety Freud eud beli believ eved ed only only the the ego ego *eel *eels s an,i an,iet ety6 y6 but but the the id6 id6 su!e su!errego6 ego6 and and outside -orld can each be a source o* an,iety an,iety22 Deurotic Deurotic an,iety an,iety stems stems *rom *rom the ego7s ego7s rela relatio tion n -ith -ith the id4 moral moral an,iet an,iety y is simila similarr to guilt guilt and resul results ts *ro *rom the ego7s relation -ith the su!erego4 and realistic an,iety6 -hich is similar to *ear6 is !roduced by the ego7s relation -ith the real -orld2 Defense &e*hanis)s Acco Accord rdin ing g to Freud6 eud6 de*e de*ens nse e mech mechan anis isms ms o!erate to !rotect the ego against the !ain o* an,iety2 Re+ression Re!ression Re!ression involves *orcing un-anted6 an,iet an,iety$l y$load oaded ed e,!er e,!erien iences ces into into the unconscious2 It is the most basic o* all de*ense de*ense mechanis mechanisms ms because because it is an active !rocess in each o* the others2
Un#oin. an# Isolation Bndo Bndoin ing g is the the ego7 ego7s s atte attem! m!tt to do a-ay -ith un!leasant e,!eriences and their conse?uences conse?uences66 usually usually by means means o* re!et e!etit itio ious us cer ceremon emonia iall acti action ons2 s2 Isol Isolat atio ion6 n6 in cont contra rast st66 is mar# mar#ed ed by obsess obsessive ive though thoughts ts and involv involves es the ego7s attem!t to isolate an e,!erience by surro surround unding ing it -ith -ith a blac# blac#ed$o ed$out ut region o* insensibility2 Rea*tion For)ation A reaction *ormation is mar#ed by the re!r e!ressi ession on o* one one im!u im!uls lse e and and the the ostent ostentat atiou ious s e,!r e,!ress ession ion o* its e,act e,act o!!osite2 Dis+la*e)ent )is!lacement ta#es !lace -hen !eo!le redir edirec ectt thei theirr un-a un-ant nted ed urge urges s onto onto othe otherr obje object cts s or !eo! !eo!le le in orde orderr to disguise the original im!ulse2 Fi/ation Fi,ation develo!s -hen !sychic energy is bloc#ed at one stage o* develo!ment6 ma#ing !sychological change diCcult2 Re.ression Regr Regressi ession on occurs occurs -henever -henever a !erson !erson reverts to earlier6 more in*antile modes o* behavior2 Pro0e*tion Proj Projec ecti tion on is seei seeing ng in othe others rs thos those e unacce!table *eelings or behaviors that actually reside in one7s o-n unconscious2 Ehen carried to e,treme6 !rojection can become !aranoia6 -hich is char haracte cteri8ed i8ed by delus lusion ions o* !ersecution2 Intro0e*tion Intro Introjec jectio tions ns ta#e ta#e !lace !lace -hen -hen !eo!le !eo!le incor!orate !ositive ?ualities o* another !ers !erson on into into thei theirr o-n o-n ego ego to reduc educe e *eelings o* in*eriority2 S(1li)ation ublim ublimati ation on involv involves es the elevat elevation ion o* the se,ua se,uall instin instinct7 ct7s s aim aim to a higher higher level6 level6 -hich -hich !ermit !ermits s !eo!le !eo!le to ma#e ma#e contributions to society and culture2 Sta.es of Develo+)ent
Freud eud sasa- !syc !sycho hose se,u ,ual al deve develo lo!m !men entt as !roceeding *rom birth to maturity though *our overla!!ing stages2 Infantile Perio# The in*antile stage encom!asses the 5rst < to = years o* li*e and is divided into three three sub$!hase sub$!hases: s: oral6 oral6 anal6 anal6 and !hallic2 )uring the oral phase6 phase6 an in*ant is !rima imarily rily motiv otiva ated ted to rece eceive ive !leasure !leasure through the mouth2 )uring the second year o* li*e6 a child goes through the anal anal phase phase22 I* !are arents nts are too too !uni !uniti tive ve duri during ng the the anal anal !has !hase6 e6 the the child child may may become become an anal anal chara characte cter6 r6 -ith -ith the the anal nal tria triall o* ord orderl erliness ness66 stingines stinginess6 s6 and obstinac obstinacy y2 )uring )uring the phallic phase6 phase6 boys and girls begin to have di3ering !sychose,ual develo develo!me !ment2 nt2 At this this time6 time6 boys boys and girls e,!erience the Oedi!us com!le, in -hich they have se,ual *eelings *or one !arent and hostile *eelings *or the other2 The male castration com!le,6 -hich ta#es ta#es the *orm *orm o* castr castrati ation on an,iet an,iety6 y6 brea brea#s #s u! the male male Oedi!u Oedi!us s com!le com!le, , and and resul esults ts in a -ell$ ell$*o *orrmed med male male su!e su!errego ego2 For girl girls6 s6 ho-e ho-eve ver6 r6 the the castration com!le,6 in the *orm o* !enis envy envy66 !rec !reced edes es the the *ema *emale le Oedi Oedi!u !us s com!le,6 a situation that leads to only a gradual gradual and incom!let incom!lete e shatterin shattering g o* the the *ema *emale le Oedi Oedi!u !us s com! com!le le, , and and a -ea#er6 more e,ible *emale su!erego2 Laten*y Perio# Freud eud beli believ eved ed that that !syc !sycho hose se,u ,ual al develo develo!me !ment nt goes goes throug through h a laten latency cy stage 9 *rom about age = until !uberty 9 in -hich the se,ual instinct is !artially su!!ressed2 2enital Perio# The genital !eriod begins -ith !uberty6 -hen adolescents e,!erience a rea-a#ening o* the genital aim o* "ros2 The term genital !eriodG should not be con*used -ith !hallic !eriod2G &at(rity Freud Freud hinted at a stage o* !sychological maturity in -hich the ego -ould be in control o* the id and su!erego and in -hich consciousness -ould !lay a more im!ortant role in behavior2 A++li*ations of Psy*hoanalyti* Theory%
Freud erected his theory on the dreams6 *ree associations6 sli!s o* the tongue6 and neurotic sym!toms o* his !atients during thera!y2 &ut he also also gather gathered ed in*or in*ormat mation ion *rom *rom histor history6 y6 literature6 literature6 and -or#s o* art2 Fre(#%s Early Thera+e(ti* Te*hni3(e )ur )uring the the /@ /@ s s6 Freud used used an aggre aggressi ssive ve thera! thera!eut eutic ic techni techni?ue ?ue in -hich he strongly suggested to !atients that they had been se,ually seduced as children2 He late laterr dro! dro!!e !ed d his his tech techni ni?u ?ue e and and abandoned his belie* that most !atients had been seduced during childhood2 Fre(#%s Later Thera+e(ti* Te*hni3(e &egi &eginn nnin ing g in the the late late /@ /@s6 s6 Freud eud ado!ted a much more !assive ty!e o* !sychothera!y6 one that relied heavily on *ree association6 dream inter!re inter!retati tation6 on6 and trans*er trans*erence ence22 The goal o* Freud7s later !sychothera!y -as to uncove uncoverr re!r re!ress essed ed memori memories6 es6 and the thera!ist uses dream analysis and *ree *ree asso associ ciat atio ion n to do so2 so2 Eith ith *ree *ree association6 !atients are re?uired to say -hat -hatev ever er come comes s to mind mind66 no matt matter er ho- irrelevant or distaste*ul2 uccess*ul thera!y rests on the !atient7s tran trans* s*er eren ence ce o* chil childh dhoo ood d se,u se,ual al or aggressi aggressive ve *eelings *eelings onto the thera!is thera!istt and and a-ay a-ay *rom *rom sym! sym!tom tom *orm *ormat atio ion2 n2 Patien Patients7 ts7 resista resistance nce to change change can be seen as !rogre !rogress ss because because it indicate indicates s that that ther thera! a!y y has has adva advanc nced ed beyo beyond nd su!er5cial conversation2 conversation2 Drea) Analysis In inter!reting dreams6 Freud di3e di3errenti entiat ated ed the the mani mani*e *est st cont conten entt .conscious descri!tion0 *rom the latent conten contentt .the .the uncons unconscio cious us meanin meaning02 g02 Dearly all dreams are -ish$*ul5llments6 although the -ish is usually unco uncons nsci ciou ous s and and can can be #no#no-n n only only thr through ough drea dream m inte inter! r!rretat etatio ion2 n2 To inte inter! r!rret drea dreams ms66 Freud eud used used both both drea dream m symb symbol ols s and and the the drea dreame mer7 r7s s associations to the dream content2 Fre(#ian Sli+s Freud believed that !ara!ra,es6 or so$ called called Freudi reudian an sli!s6 sli!s6 are are not chanc chance e accidents but reveal a !erson7s true but unconscious intentions2
Relate# Resear*h Freudian theory has generated a large amount o* relat elated ed resea esearrch6 ch6 incl includ udin ing g stud studie ies s on de*ense mechanisms and oral 5,ation2 Defense &e*hanis)s eorge alliant has added to the list o* Freudian de*ense mechanisms and has *ound evidence that some o* them are neurotic .reaction *ormation6 ideali ideali8a 8atio tion6 n6 and undoi undoing0 ng066 some some are are immature and malada!tive .!rojection6 isolat isolation ion66 denial denial66 dis dis!la !lacem cement ent66 and dissociation06 and some are mature and ada!ti ada!tive ve .subli .sublimat mation ion66 su!!r su!!ress ession ion66 humor6 humor6 and altru altruism ism02 02 allia alliant nt *ound *ound that neurotic de*ense mechanisms are success*ul *ul over the short term4 immat immatur ure e de*ens de*enses es are are unsucc unsuccess ess*ul *ul and have the highest degree o* distortion4 -hereas mature and ada!tive ada!tive de*enses de*enses are are success* success*ul ul over the long term6 term6 ma,imi8 ma,imi8e e grati5ca grati5cation6 tion6 and have the least amount o* distortion2 Oral Fi/ation ome recent recent research research has *ound that aggression is higher in !eo!le -ho bite thei theirr 5nge 5ngerr nail nails s that that it is non$ non$na nail il bite biters rs66 es!e es!eci cial ally ly in -ome -omen2 n2 Othe Otherr resea esearrch *oun *ound d that that !eo! !eo!le le -ho -ho are are orally 5,ated tend to see their !arents more negatively negatively than did !eo!le !eo!le -ho -ere less orally 5,ated2 Criti3(e of Fre(# Freud reud regar regarded ded himsel himsel** as a scient scientis ist6 t6 but many many crit critic ics s cons consid ider er his his meth method ods s to be outdat outdated6 ed6 unscie unscienti nti5c6 5c6 and !ermea !ermeated ted -ith -ith gender gender bias2 bias2 On the si, criter criteria ia o* a use*ul use*ul theory theory66 !sycho !sychoana analys lysis is is rated rated high high on its ability ability to generate generate research research66 very lo- on its o!en o!enne ness ss to *als *alsi5 i5ca cati tion on66 and and aver averag age e on organ organi8i i8ing ng data6 data6 guidin guiding g actio action6 n6 and being being !arsim !arsimoni onious ous22 &ecau &ecause se it lac#s lac#s o!era o!eratio tional nal de5nitions6 it rates lo- on internal consistency2 Con*e+t of H()anity Freud7s conce!t o* humanity -as deterministic and !essimistic2 He em!hasi8ed causality over teleol teleology ogy66 uncons unconscio cious us deter determin minant ants s over over conscious !rocesses6 and biology over culture6 but he too# a middle !osition on the dimension o* uni? uni?ue uene ness ss vers versus us simi simila lari riti ties es amon among g !eo!le2
ADLER, INDI4IDUAL PSYCHOLO2Y PSYCHOLO2Y Overview of A#ler%s In#ivi#(al Psy*holo.y An original member o* Freud7s !sychoanalytic grou!6 Al*red Adler bro#e *rom that grou! and advoca advocated ted a theory theory o* !erson !ersonal ality ity that that -as -as nearly diametrically o!!osed to that o* Freud2 Eher Eherea eas s Freud7 eud7s s vievie- o* huma humani nity ty -as -as !essimistic and rooted in biology6 Adler7s vie-as o!timistic6 idealistic6 and rooted in *amily e,!eriences2 -io.ra+hy of Alfre# A#ler Al*red Adler -as born in /@ in a to-n near ienna6 ienna6 a second second son o* middle$cl middle$class ass Je-ish !arents2 %i#e Freud6 Adler -as a !hysician6 and in /1 /166 he beca became me a char charte terr memb member er o* Freud7s reud7s organi8 organi8ation ation22 Ho-ever6 Ho-ever6 !ersonal !ersonal and !ro*essional di3erences bet-een the t-o men led led to Ad Adle ler7 r7s s de!a de!art rtur ure e *rom *rom the the ienn ienna a Psych Psychoan oanaly alytic tic ociet ociety y in ///2 ///2 Ad Adler ler soon soon *oun *ounde ded d his o-n o-n grou grou!6 !6 the the oc ociety iety *or *or Individual Psychology2 Psychology2 Adler7s strengths -ere his his ener energe geti tic c oral oral !res !resen enta tati tion ons s and and his his ins insigh ight*u t*ul abilit ility y to und unders erstan tand *amily mily dyna dynami mics cs22 He -as -as not not a gi*t gi*ted ed -rit -riter er66 a limitation that may have !revented individual !sycholog !sychology y *rom attainin attaining g -orld -orld recognit recognition ion e?ual to Freud7s !sychoanalysis2 Intro#(*tion to A#lerian Theory Although Adler7s individual !sychology is both com!le, and com!rehensive6 its main tenets can be stated in sim!le *orm2 Strivin. for S(**ess or S(+eriority The sole dynamic dynamic *orce behind !eo!le7s !eo!le7s actions is the striving *or success or su!eriority2 The Final 2oal The 5nal goal o* either success or su!e su!eri rior orit ity y to-a to-ard rd -hic -hich h all all !eo! !eo!le le strive uni5es !ersonality and ma#es all behavior meaning*ul2 The Strivin. For*e as Co)+ensation &ecaus &ecause e !eo!l !eo!le e are are born born -ith -ith small small66 in*eri in*erior or bodie bodies6 s6 they they *eel *eel in*er in*erior ior and attem! attem!tt to over overcom come e these these *eeli *eelings ngs through their natural tendency to move to-ard to-ard com!leti com!letion2 on2 The striving striving *orce *orce can ta#e one o* t-o courses4 !ersonal gain .su!eriority0 or community bene5t .success02
Strivin. for Personal S(+eriority Psychologically unhealthy individuals strive *or !ersonal su!eriority -ith little concern *or other !eo!le2 Although they may a!!ear to be interested in other !eo!le6 their basic motivation is !ersonal bene5t2 Strivin. for S(**ess In contrast6 !sychologically healthy !eo!le strive *or the success o* all humanity6 but they do so -ithout losing their !ersonal identity2 S(10e*tive Per*e+tions Peo!le7s subjective vie- o* the -orld 9 not reality 9 sha!es their behavior2 Fi*tionalis) Fictions are !eo!le7s e,!ectations o* the *uture2 Adler held that 5ctions guide behavior6 because !eo!le act as i* these 5ctions are true2 Adler em!hasi8ed teleology over causality6 or e,!lanations o* behavior in terms o* *uture goals rather than !ast causes2 Or.an Inferiorities Adler believed that all humans are blessedG -ith organ in*eriorities6 -hich stimulate subjective *eelings o* in*eriority and move !eo!le to-ard !er*ection or com!letion2 Unity an# Self5Consisten*y of Personality Adler believed that all behaviors are directed to-ard a single !ur!ose2 Ehen seen in the light o* that sole !ur!ose6 seemingly contradictory behaviors can be seen as o!erating in a sel*$consistent manner2 Or.an Diale*t Peo!le o*ten use a !hysical disorder to e,!ress style o* li*e6 a condition Adler called organ dialect2 Cons*io(s an# Un*ons*io(s 'onscious and unconscious !rocesses are uni5ed and o!erate to achieve a single goal2 The !art o* our goal that -e do not clearly understand is unconscious4 the !art o* our goal that -e *ail to *ully com!rehend is conscious2
Human behavior has value to the e,tent that it is motivated by social interest6 that is6 a *eeling o* oneness -ith all o* humanity2 Ori.ins of So*ial Interest Although social interest e,ists as !otentially in all !eo!le6 it must be *ostered in a social environment2 Adler believed that the !arent$child relationshi! can be so strong that it negates the e3ects o* heredity2
I)+ortan*e of So*ial Interest According to Adler6 social interest is the sole criterion o* human values6G and the -orthiness o* all one7s actions must be seen by this standard2 Eithout social interest6 societies could not e,ist4 individuals in anti?uity could not have survived -ithout coo!erating -ith others to !rotect themselves *rom danger2 "ven today6 an in*ant7s hel!lessness !redis!oses it to-ard a nurturing !erson2 Style of Life The manner o* a !erson7s striving is called style o* li*e6 a !attern that is relatively -ell set by < or = years o* age2 Ho-ever6 Adler believed that healthy individuals are mar#ed by e,ible behavior and that they have some limited ability to change their style o* li*e2 Creative Power tyle o* li*e is !artially a !roduct o* heredity and environment 9 the building bloc#s !ersonality 9 but ultimately style o* li*e is sha!ed by !eo!le7s creative !o-er6 that is6 by their ability to *reely choose a course o* action2 A1nor)al Develo+)ent 'reative !o-er is not limited to healthy !eo!le4 unhealthy individuals also create their o-n !ersonalities2 Thus6 each o* us is *ree to choose either a use*ul or a useless style o* li*e2 2eneral Des*ri+tion The most im!ortant *actor in abnormal develo!ment is lac# o* social interest2 In addition6 !eo!le -ith a useless style o* li*e tend to ./0 set their goals too high6 .10 have a dogmatic style o* li*e6 and .;0 live in their o-n !rivate -orld2
So*ial Interest E/ternal Fa*tors in &ala#0(st)ent
Adler listed three *actors that relate to abnormal develo!ment: ./0 e,aggerated !hysical de5ciencies6 -hich do not by themselves cause abnormal develo!ment6 but -hich may contribute to it by generating subjective and e,aggerated *eelings o* in*eriority4 .10 a !am!ered style o* li*e6 -hich contributes to an overriding drive to establish a !ermanent !arasitic relationshi! -ith the mother or a mother substitute4 and .;0 a neglected style o* li*e6 -hich leads to distrust o* other !eo!le2 Safe.(ar#in. Ten#en*ies &oth normal and neurotic !eo!le create sym!toms as a means o* !rotecting their *ragile sel*$esteem2 These sa*eguarding tendencies maintain a neurotic style o* li*e and !rotect a !erson *rom !ublic disgrace2 The three !rinci!al sa*eguarding tendencies are ./0 e,cuses -hich allo- !eo!le to !reserve their inated sense o* !ersonal -orth4 .10 aggression6 -hich may ta#e the *orm o* de!reciating others7 accom!lishments6 accusing others o* being res!onsible *or one7s o-n *ailures6 or sel*$accusation4 and .;0 -ithdra-al6 -hich can be e,!ressed by !sychologically moving bac#-ard6 standing still6 hesitating6 or constructing obstacles2 &as*(line Protest &oth men and -omen sometimes overem!hasi8e the desirability o* being manly6 a condition Adler called the masculine !rotest2 The *re?uently *ound in*erior status o* -omen is not based on !hysiology but on historical develo!ments and social learning2 A++li*ations of In#ivi#(al Psy*holo.y Adler a!!lied the !rinci!les o* individual !sychology to *amily constellation6 early recollections6 dreams6 and !sychothera!y2 Fa)ily Constellation Adler believed that !eo!le7s !erce!tion o* ho- they 5t into their *amily is related to their style o* li*e2 He claimed that 5rstborns are li#ely to have strong *eelings o* !o-er and su!eriority6 to be over!rotective6 and to have more than their share o* an,iety2 econd$born
children are li#ely to have strong social interest6 !rovided they do not get tra!!ed trying to overcome their older sibling2 Loungest children are li#ely to be !am!ered and to lac# inde!endence6 -hereas only children have some o* the characteristics o* both the oldest and the youngest child2 Early Re*olle*tions A more reliable method o* determining style o* li*e is to as# !eo!le *or their earliest recollections2 Adler believed that early memories are tem!lates on -hich !eo!le !roject their current style o* li*e2 These recollections need not be accurate accounts o* early events4 they have !sychological im!ortance because they reect a !erson7s current vie- o* the -orld2 Drea)s Adler believed that dreams can !rovide clues to solving *uture !roblems2 Ho-ever6 dreams are disguised to deceive the dreamer and usually must be inter!reted by another !erson2 Psy*hothera+y The goal o* Adlerian thera!y is to create a relationshi! bet-een the thera!ist and the !atient that *osters social interest2 To ensure that the !atient7s social interest -ill eventually generali8e to other relationshi!s6 the thera!ist ado!ts both a maternal and a !aternal role2 Relate# Resear*h Although *amily constellation and birth order have been -idely researched6 a to!ic more !ertinent to Adlerian theory is early recollections2 Research sho-s that early recollections are related to a number o* !ersonal traits6 such as de!ression6 alcoholism6 criminal behavior6 and success in counseling2 Other research has sho-n that a change in style o* li*e may be ca!able o* !roducing a change in early recollections2 till other research suggests that made$u! early recollections may be as meaning*ul as actual ones2 Criti3(e of A#ler Individual !sychology rates high on its ability to generate research6 organi8e data6 and guide the !ractitioner2 It receives a moderate rating on !arsimony6 but because it lac#s o!erational
de5nitions6 it rates lo- on internal consistency2 It also rates lo- on *alsi5cation because many o* its related research 5ndings can be e,!lained by other theories2 Con*e+t of H()anity Adler sa- !eo!le as *or-ard moving6 social animals -ho are motivated by goals they set .both consciously and unconsciously0 *or the *uture2 Peo!le are ultimately res!onsible *or their o-n uni?ue style o* li*e2 Thus6 Adler7s theory rates high on *ree$choice6 social inuences6 and uni?ueness4 very high on o!timism and teleology4 and average on unconscious inuences2
nearly lost contact -ith reality6 Jung emerged to become one o* the leading thin#ers o* the 1th century2 He died in />/ at age @=2 Levels of the Psy*he Jung sa- the human !syche as being divided into a conscious and an unconscious level6 -ith the latter *urther subdivided into a !ersonal and a collective unconscious2 Cons*io(s Images sensed by the ego are said to be conscious2 The ego thus re!resents the conscious side o* !ersonality6 and in the !sychologically mature individual6 the ego is secondary to the sel*2 Personal Un*ons*io(s The unconscious re*ers to those !sychic images not sensed by the ego2 ome unconscious !rocesses o- *rom our !ersonal e,!eriences6 but others stem *rom our ancestors7 e,!eriences -ith universal themes2 Jung divided the unconscious into the !ersonal unconscious6 -hich contains the com!le,es .emotionally toned grou!s o* related ideas0 and the collective unconscious6 or ideas that are beyond our !ersonal e,!eriences and that originate *rom the re!eated e,!eriences o* our ancestors2
6UN2, ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLO2Y Overview of 6(n.%s Analyti*al Psy*holo.y 'arl Jung believed that !eo!le are e,tremely com!le, beings -ho !ossess a variety o* o!!osing ?ualities6 such as introversion and e,traversion6 masculinity and *emininity6 and rational and irrational drives2 -io.ra+hy of Carl 6(n. 'arl Jung -as born in -it8erland in /@=6 the oldest surviving child o* an idealistic Protestant minister and his -i*e2 Jung7s early e,!erience -ith !arents .-ho -ere ?uite o!!osite o* each other0 !robably inuenced his o-n theory o* !ersonality2 oon a*ter receiving his medical degree he became ac?uainted -ith Freud7s -ritings and eventually -ith Freud himsel*2 Dot long a*ter he traveled -ith Freud to the Bnited tates6 Jung became disenchanted -ith Freud7s !anse,ual theories6 bro#e -ith Freud6 and began his o-n a!!roach to theory and thera!y6 -hich he called analytical !sychology2 From a critical midli*e crisis6 during -hich he
Colle*tive Un*ons*io(s 'ollective unconscious images are not inherited ideas6 but rather they re*er to our innate tendency to react in a !articular -ay -henever our !ersonal e,!eriences stimulate an inherited !redis!osition to-ard action2 'ontents o* the collective unconscious are called archety!es2 Ar*hety+es Jung believed that archety!es originate through the re!eated e,!eriences o* our ancestors and that they are e,!ressed in certain ty!es o* dreams6 *antasies6 delusions6 and hallucinations2 everal archety!es ac?uire their o-n !ersonality6 and Jung identi5ed these by name2 One is the !ersona 9 the side o* our !ersonality that -e sho- to others2 Another is the shado- 9 the dar# side o* !ersonality2 To reach *ull !sychological maturity6 Jung believed6 -e must 5rst reali8e or acce!t our shado-2 A second hurdle in achieving maturity is *or men to acce!t their
anima6 or *eminine side6 and *or -omen to embrace their animus6 or masculine dis!osition2 Other archety!es include the great mother .the archety!e o* nourishment and destruction04 the -ise old man .the archety!e o* -isdom and meaning04 and the hero .the image -e have o* a con?ueror -ho van?uishes evil6 but -ho has a single *atal a-02 The most com!rehensive archety!e is the sel*4 that is6 the image -e have o* *ul5llment6 com!letion6 or !er*ection2 The ultimate in !sychological maturity is sel*$reali8ation6 -hich is symboli8ed by the mandala6 or !er*ect geometric 5gure2 Dyna)i*s of Personality Jung believed that the dynamic !rinci!les that a!!ly to !hysical energy also a!!ly to !sychic energy2 These *orces include causality and teleology as -ell as !rogression and regression2 Ca(sality an# Teleolo.y Jung acce!ted a middle !osition bet-een the !hiloso!hical issues o* causality and teleology2 In other -ords6 humans are motivated both by their !ast e,!eriences and by their e,!ectations o* the *uture2 Pro.ression an# Re.ression To achieve sel*$reali8ation6 !eo!le must ada!t to both their e,ternal and internal -orlds2 Progression involves ada!tation to the outside -orld and the *or-ard o- o* !sychic energy6 -hereas regression re*ers to ada!tation to the inner -orld and the bac#-ard o- o* !sychic energy2 Jung believed that the bac#-ard ste! is essential to a !erson7s *or-ard movement to-ard sel*$ reali8ation2 Psy*holo.i*al Ty+es "ight basic !sychological ty!es emerge *rom the union o* t-o attitudes and *our *unctions2
Attit(#es Attitudes are !redis!ositions to act or react in a characteristic manner2 The t-o basic attitudes are introversion6 -hich re*ers to !eo!le7s subjective !erce!tions6 and e,traversion6 -hich indicates an orientation to-ard the objective -orld2 ",traverts are
inuenced more by the real -orld than by their subjective !erce!tion6 -hereas introverts rely on their individuali8ed vie- o* things2 Introverts and e,traverts o*ten mistrust and misunderstand one another2 F(n*tions The t-o attitudes or e,troversion and introversion can combine *our basic *unctions to *orm eight general !ersonality ty!es2 The *our *unctions are ./0 thin#ing6 or recogni8ing the meaning o* stimuli4 .10 *eeling6 or !lacing a value on something4 .;0 sensation6 or ta#ing in sensory stimuli4 and .<0 intuition6 or !erceiving elementary data that are beyond our a-areness2 Jung re*erred to thin#ing and *eeling as rational *unctions and to sensation and intuition as irrational *unctions2 Develo+)ent of Personality Dearly uni?ue among !ersonality theorists -as Jung7s em!hasis on the second hal* o* li*e2 Jung sa- middle and old age as times -hen !eo!le may ac?uire the ability to attain sel*$ reali8ation2 Sta.es of Develo+)ent Jung divided develo!ment into *our broad stages: ./0 childhood6 -hich lasts *rom birth until adolescence4 .10 youth6 the !eriod *rom !uberty until middle li*e6 -hich is a time *or e,traverted develo!ment and *or being grounded to the real -orld o* schooling6 occu!ation6 courtshi!6 marriage6 and *amily4 .;0 middle li*e6 -hich is a time *rom about ;= or < until old age -hen !eo!le should be ado!ting an introverted attitude4 and .<0 old age6 -hich is a time *or !sychological rebirth6 sel*$reali8ation6 and !re!aration *or death2 Self5Reali7ation el*$reali8ation6 or individuation6 involves a !sychological rebirth and an integration o* various !arts o* the !syche into a uni5ed or -hole individual2 el*$reali8ation re!resents the highest level o* human develo!ment2
6(n.%s ðo#s of Investi.ation Jung used the -ord association test6 dreams6 and active imagination during the !rocess o* !sychothera!y6 and all these methods contributed to his theory o* !ersonality2 or# Asso*iation Test Jung used the -ord association test early in his career to uncover com!le,es embedded in the !ersonal unconscious2 The techni?ue re?uires a !atient to utter the 5rst -ord that comes to mind a*ter the e,aminer reads a stimulus -ord2 Bnusual res!onses indicate a com!le,2 Drea) Analysis Jung believed that dreams may have both a cause and a !ur!ose and thus can be use*ul in e,!laining !ast events and in ma#ing decisions about the *uture2 &ig dreamsG and ty!ical dreams6G both o* -hich come *rom the collective unconscious6 have meaning that lie beyond the e,!eriences o* a single individual2 A*tive I)a.ination Jung also used active imagination to arrive at collective images2 This techni?ue re?uires the !atient to concentrate on a single image until that image begins to a!!ear in a di3erent *orm2 "ventually6 the !atient should see 5gures that re!resent archety!es and other collective unconscious images2 Psy*hothera+y The goal o* Jungian thera!y is to hel! neurotic !atients become healthy and to move healthy !eo!le in the direction o* sel*$reali8ation2 Jung -as eclectic in his choice o* thera!eutic techni?ues and treated old !eo!le di3erently than the young2 Relate# Resear*h Although Jungian !sychology has not generated large volumes o* research6 some investigators have used the (yers$&riggs Ty!e Indicator to e,amine the idea o* !sychological ty!es2 ome research suggests that e,traverts and introverts have di3erent !re*erences in their choice o* !artners2 Other researchers have re!orted that !ersonality ty!e is related to academic !er*ormance and success2
Criti3(e of 6(n. Although Jung considered himsel* as a scientist6 many o* his -ritings have more o* a !hiloso!hical than a !sychological avor2 As a scienti5c theory6 it rates average on its ability to generate research6 but very lo- on its ability to -ithstand *alsi5cation2 It is about average on its ability to organi8e #no-ledge but lo- on each o* the other criteria o* a use*ul theory2 Con*e+t of H()anity Jung sa- !eo!le as e,tremely com!le, beings -ho are !roducts o* both conscious and unconscious !ersonal e,!eriences2 Ho-ever6 !eo!le are also motivated by inherited remnants that s!ring *rom the collective e,!eriences o* their early ancestors2 &ecause Jungian theory is a !sychology o* o!!osites6 it receives a moderate rating on the issues o* *ree -ill versus determinism6 o!timism versus !essimism6 and causality versus teleology2 It rates very high on unconscious inuences6 loon uni?ueness6 and lo- on social inuences2
li*e2 Their most basic *antasies are images o* the goodG breast and the badG breast2
8LEIN, O-6ECT RELATIONS THEORY Overview of O10e*t Relations Theory (any !ersonality theorists have acce!ted some o* Freud7s basic assum!tions -hile rejecting others2 One a!!roach to e,tending !sychoanalytic theory has been the object relations theories o* (elanie Klein and others2 Bnli#e Jung and Adler6 -ho came to reject Freud7s ideas6 Klein tried to validate Freud7s theories2 In essence Klein e,tended Freud7s develo!mental stages do-n-ard to the 5rst < to > months a*ter birth2 -io.ra+hy of &elanie 8lein (elanie Klein -as born in ienna in /@16 the youngest o* *our children2 he had neither a Ph2)2 nor an (2)2 degree but became an analyst by being !sychoanaly8ed2 As an analyst6 she s!eciali8ed in -or#ing -ith young children2 In /16 she moved to %ondon -here she !racticed until her death in />2 Intro#(*tion to O10e*t Relations Theory Object relations theory di3ers *rom Freudian theory in at least three -ays: ./0 it !laces more em!hasis on inter!ersonal relationshi!s6 .10 it stresses the in*ant7s relationshi! -ith the mother rather than the *ather6 and .;0 it suggests that !eo!le are motivated !rimarily *or human contact rather than *or se,ual !leasure2 The term object in object relations theory re*ers to any !erson or !art o* a !erson that in*ants introject6 or ta#e into their !sychic structure and then later !roject onto other !eo!le2 Psy*hi* Life of the Infant Klein believed that in*ants begin li*e -ith an inherited !redis!osition to reduce the an,iety that they e,!erience as a conse?uence o* the clash bet-een the li*e instinct and the death instinct2 Fantasies Klein assumed that very young in*ants !ossess an active6 unconscious *antasy
O10e*ts Klein agreed -ith Freud that drives have an object6 but she -as more li#ely to em!hasi8e the child7s relationshi! -ith these objects .!arents7 *ace6 hands6 breast6 !enis6 etc206 -hich she sa- as having a li*e o* their o-n -ithin the child7s *antasy -orld2 Positions In their attem!ts to reduce the conict !roduced by good and bad images6 in*ants organi8e their e,!erience into !ositions6 or -ays o* dealing -ith both internal and e,ternal objects2 Paranoi#5S*hi7oi# Position The struggles that in*ants e,!erience -ith the good breast and the bad breast lead to t-o se!arate and o!!osing *eelings: a desire to harbor the breast and a desire to bite or destroy it2 To tolerate these t-o *eelings6 the ego s!lits itsel* by retaining !arts o* its li*e and death instincts -hile !rojecting other !arts onto the breast2 It then has a relationshi! -ith the ideal breast and the !ersecutory breast2 To control his situations6 in*ants ado!t the !aranoid$ schi8oid !osition6 -hich is a tendency to see the -orld as having both destructive and omni!otent ?ualities2 De+ressive Position &y de!ressive !osition6 Klein meant the an,iety that in*ants e,!erience around > months o* age over losing their mother and yet6 at the same time6 -anting to destroy her2 The de!ressive !osition is resolved -hen in*ants *antasi8e that they have made u! *or their mother and also reali8e that their mother -ill not abandon them2 Psy*hi* Defense &e*hanis)s According to Klein6 children ado!t various !sychic de*ense mechanisms to !rotect their ego against an,iety aroused by their o-n destructive *antasies2 Intro0e*tion Klein de5ned introjection as the *antasy o* ta#ing into one7s o-n body the images that one has o* an e,ternal
object6 es!ecially the mother7s breast2 In*ants usually introject good objects as a !rotection against an,iety6 but they also introject bad objects in order to gain control o* them2 Pro0e*tion The *antasy that one7s o-n *eelings and im!ulses reside -ithin another !erson is called !rojection2 'hildren !roject both good and bad images6 es!ecially onto their !arents2 S+littin. In*ants tolerate good and bad as!ects o* themselves and o* e,ternal objects by s!litting6 or mentally #ee!ing a!art6 incom!atible images2 !litting can be bene5cial to both children and adults6 because it allo-s them to li#e themselves -hile still recogni8ing some unli#able ?ualities2
Pro0e*tive I#enti"*ation Projective identi5cation is the !sychic de*ense mechanism -hereby in*ants s!lit o3 unacce!table !arts o* themselves6 !roject them onto another object6 and 5nally introject them in an altered *orm2 Internali7ations A*ter introjecting e,ternal objects6 in*ants organi8e them into a !sychologically meaning*ul *rame-or#6 a !rocess that Klein called internali8ation2 E.o Internali8ations are aided by the early ego7s ability to *eel an,iety6 to use de*ense mechanisms6 and to *orm object relations in both *antasy and reality2 Ho-ever6 a uni5ed ego emerges only a*ter 5rst s!litting itsel* into t-o !arts: those that deal -ith the li*e instinct and those that relate to the death instinct2 S(+ere.o Klein believed that the su!erego emerged much earlier than Freud has held2 To her6 the su!erego !receded rather than *ollo-ed the Oedi!us com!le,2 Klein also sa- the su!erego as being ?uite harsh and cruel2
Oe#i+(s Co)+le/ Klein believed that the Oedi!us com!le, begins during the 5rst *emonths o* li*e then reaches its 8enith during the genital stage6 at about ; or < years o* age6 or the same time that Freud had suggested it began2 Klein also held that much o* the Oedi!us com!le, is based on children7s *ear that their !arents -ill see# revenge against them *or their *antasy o* em!tying the !arent7s body2 For healthy develo!ment during the Oedi!al years6 children should retain !ositive *eelings *or each !arent2 According to Klein6 the little boy ado!ts a *eminineG !osition very early in li*e and has no *ear o* being castrated as !unishment *or his se,ual *eelings *or his mother2 %ater6 he !rojects his destructive drive onto his *ather6 -hom he *ears -ill bite or castrate him2 The male Oedi!us com!le, is resolved -hen the boy establishes good relations -ith both !arents2 The little girl also ado!ts a *eminineG !osition to-ard both !arents ?uite early in li*e2 he has a !ositive *eeling *or both her mother7s breast and her *ather7s !enis6 -hich she believes -ill *eed her -ith babies2 ometimes the girl develo!s hostility to-ard her mother6 -hom she *ears -ill retaliate against her and rob her o* her babies6 but in most cases6 the *emale Oedi!us com!le, is resolved -ithout any jealousy to-ard the mother2 Later 4iews on O10e*t Relations A number o* other theorists have e,!anded and altered Klein7s theory o* object relations2 Dotable among them are (argaret (ahler6 Otto Kernberg6 Hein8 Kohut6 and John &o-lby2 &ar.aret &ahler%s 4iew (ahler6 a native o* Hungary -ho !racticed !sychoanalysis in both ienna and De- Lor#6 develo!ed her theory o* object relations *rom care*ul observations o* in*ants as they bonded -ith their mothers during their 5rst ; years o* li*e2 In their !rogress to-ard achieving a sense o* identity6 children !ass through a series o* three major develo!mental stages2 First is normal autism6 -hich covers the 5rst ; to < -ee#s o* li*e6 a time -hen in*ants satis*y their needs -ithin the all$ !o-er*ul !rotective orbit o* their
mother7s care2 econd is normal symbiosis6 -hen in*ants behave as i* they and their mother is an omni!otent6 symbiotic unit2 Third is se!aration$ individuation6 *rom about < months until about ; years6 a time -hen children are becoming !sychologically se!arated *rom their mothers and achieving individuation6 or a sense o* !ersonal identity2 Hein7 8oh(t%s 4iew Kohut -as a native o* ienna -ho s!ent most o* his !ro*essional li*e in the Bnited tates2 (ore than any o* the other object$relations theorists6 Kohut em!hasi8ed the develo!ment o* the sel*2 In caring *or their !hysical and !sychological needs6 adults treat in*ants as i* they had a sense o* sel*2 The !arents7 behaviors and attitudes eventually hel! children *orm a sense o* sel* that gives unity and consistency to their e,!eriences2 Otto 8ern1er.%s 4iew Kernberg6 a native o* ienna -ho has s!ent most o* his !ro*essional career in the Bnited tates6 believes that the #ey to understanding !ersonality is the mother$child relationshi!2 'hildren -ho e,!erience a healthy relationshi! -ith their mother develo! an integrated ego6 a !unitive su!erego6 a stable sel*$ conce!t6 and satis*ying inter!ersonal relations2 In contrast6 children -ho have !oor relations -ith their mother -ill have diCculty integrating their ego and may su3er *rom some *orm o* !sycho!athology during adulthood2
6ohn -owl1y%s Atta*h)ent Theory &o-lby6 a native o* "ngland6 received training in child !sychiatry *rom (elanie Klein2 &y studying human and other !rimate in*ants6 &o-lby observed three stages o* se!aration an,iety: ./0 !rotest6 .10 a!athy and des!air6 and .;0 emotional detachment *rom !eo!le6 including the !rimary caregiver2 'hildren -ho reach the third stage lac# -armth and emotion in their later relationshi!s2 Psy*hothera+y The goal o* Kleinian thera!y -as to reduce de!ressive an,ieties and !ersecutory *ears and
to lessen the harshness o* internali8ed objects2 To do this6 Klein encouraged !atients to re$ e,!erience early *antasies and !ointed out the di3erences bet-een conscious and unconscious -ishes2 Relate# Resear*h ome research on attachment theory has *ound that children -ith secure attachment have both better attention and better memory than do children -ith insecure attachment2 Other research suggests that securely attached young children gro- u! to become adolescents -ho *eel com*ortable in *riendshi! grou!s that allo- ne- members to easily become !art o* those grou!s2 till other studies have sho-n that @$ and $year$old children -ho -ere securely attached during in*ancy !roduced *amily dra-ings that reect that security2 Con*e+t of H()anity Object relations theorists see !ersonality as being a !roduct o* the early mother$child relationshi!6 and this they stress determinism over *ree choice2 The !o-er*ul inuence o* early childhood also gives these theories a lorating on uni?ueness6 a very high rating on social inuences6 and high ratings on causality and unconscious *orces2 Klein and other object$ relations theorists rate average on o!timism versus !essimism2
HORNEY, THEORY
PSYCHOANALYTIC
SOCIAL
Overview of Horney%s Psy*hoanalyti* So*ial Theory Karen Horney7s !sychoanalytic social theory assumes that social and cultural conditions6 es!ecially during childhood6 have a !o-er*ul e3ect on later !ersonality2 %i#e (elanie Klein6 Horney acce!ted many o* Freud7s
observations6 but she objected to most o* his inter!retations6 including his notions on *eminine !sychology2 -io.ra+hy of 8aren Horney Karen Horney6 -ho -as born in ermany in /@@=6 -as one o* the 5rst -omen in that country admitted to medical school2 There6 she became ac?uainted -ith Freudian theory and eventually became a !sychoanalyst and a !sychiatrist2 In her mid$<s6 Horney le*t ermany to settle in the Bnited tates6 5rst in 'hicago and then in De- Lor#2 he soon abandoned orthodo, !sychoanalysis in *avor o* a more socially oriented theory 9 one that had a more !ositive vie- o* *eminine develo!ment2 he died in /=1 at age >2 Intro#(*tion to Psy*hoanalyti* So*ial Theory Although Horney7s -ritings deal mostly -ith neuroses and neurotic !ersonalities6 her theories also a!!ro!riate suggest much that is a!!ro!riate to normal develo!ment2 he agreed -ith Freud that early childhood traumas are im!ortant6 but she !laced *ar more em!hasis on social *actors2 Horney an# Fre(# Co)+are# Horney critici8ed Freudian theory on at least three accounts: ./0 its rigidity to-ard ne- ideas6 .10 its s#e-ed vie- o* *eminine !sychology6 and .;0 its overem!hasis on biology and the !leasure !rinci!le2 The I)+a*t of C(lt(re Horney insisted that modern culture is too com!etitive and that com!etition leads to hostility and *eelings o* isolation2 These conditions lead to e,aggerated needs *or a3ection and cause !eo!le to overvalue love2 The I)+ortan*e of Chil#hoo# E/+erien*es Deurotic conict stems largely *rom childhood traumas6 most o* -hich are traced to a lac# o* genuine love2 'hildren -ho do not receive genuine a3ection *eel threatened and ado!t rigid behavioral !atterns in an attem!t to gain love2 -asi* Hostility an# -asi* An/iety All children need *eeling o* sa*ety and security6 but these can be gained only by love *rom !arents2 Bn*ortunately6 !arents o*ten neglect6
dominate6 reject6 or overindulge their children conditions that lead to the child7s *eelings o* basic hostility to-ard !arents2 I* children re!ress *eelings o* basic hostility6 they -ill develo! *eelings o* insecurity and a !ervasive sense o* a!!rehension called basic an,iety2 Peo!le can !rotect themselves *rom basic an,iety through a number o* !rotective devices6 including ./0 a3ection6 .10 submissiveness6 .;0 !o-er6 !restige6 or !ossession6 and .<0 -ithdra-al2 Dormal !eo!le have the e,ibility to use any or all o* these a!!roaches6 but neurotics are com!elled to rely rigidly on only one2 Co)+(lsive Drives Deurotics are *re?uently tra!!ed in a vicious circle in -hich their com!ulsive need to reduce basic an,iety leads to a variety o* sel*$ de*eating behaviors4 these behaviors then !roduce more basic an,iety6 and the cycle continues2 Ne(roti* Nee#s Horney identi5ed / categories o* neurotic needs that mar# neurotics in their attem!t to reduce basic an,iety2 These include needs ./0 *or a3ection and a!!roval .10 *or a !o-er*ul !artner .;0 to restrict one7s li*e -ithin narro- borders .<0 *or !o-er .=0 to e,!loit others .>0 *or social recognition or !restige .0 *or !ersonal admiration .@0 *or ambition and !ersonal achievement .0 *or sel*$suCciency and inde!endence ./0 *or !er*ection and unassailability2 Ne(roti* Tren#s %ater6 Horney grou!ed these / neurotic needs into three basic neurotic trends6 -hich a!!ly to both normal and neurotic individuals in their attem!t to solve basic conict2 The three neurotic trends are: ./0 moving to-ard !eo!le6 in -hich com!liant !eo!le !rotect themselves against *eelings o* hel!lessness by
attaching themselves to other !eo!le4 .10 moving against !eo!le6 in -hich aggressive !eo!le !rotect themselves against !erceived hostility o* others by e,!loiting others4 .;0 moving a-ay *rom !eo!le6 in -hich detached !eo!le !rotect themselves against *eelings o* isolation by a!!earing arrogant and aloo*2 Intra+sy*hi* Con9i*ts Peo!le also e,!erience inner tensions or intra!sychic conicts that become !art o* their belie* system and ta#e on a li*e o* their o-n6 se!arate *rom the inter!ersonal conicts that created them2 The I#eali7e# Self5I)a.e Peo!le -ho do not receive love and a3ection during childhood are bloc#ed in their attem!t to ac?uire a stable sense o* identity2 Feeling alienated *rom sel*6 they create an ideali8ed sel*$ image6 or an e,travagantly !ositive !icture o* themselves2 Horney recogni8ed three as!ects o* the ideali8ed sel*$image: ./0 the neurotic search *or glory6 or a com!rehensive drive to-ard actuali8ing the ideal sel*4 .10 neurotic claims6 or a belie* that they are entitled to s!ecial !rivileges4 .;0 neurotic !ride6 or a *alse !ride based not on reality but on a distorted and ideali8ed vie- o* sel*2 Self5Hatre# Deurotics disli#e themselves because reality al-ays *alls short o* their ideali8ed vie- o* sel*2 There*ore6 they learn sel*$hatred6 -hich can be e,!ressed as: ./0 relentless demands on the sel* .10 merciless sel*$accusation .;0 sel*$contem!t .<0 sel*$*rustration .=0 sel*$torment or sel*$torture .>0 sel*$destructive actions and im!ulses2 Fe)inine Psy*holo.y
Horney believed that !sychological di3erences bet-een men and -omen are not due to anatomy but to culture and social e,!ectation2 Her vie- o* the Oedi!us com!le, di3ered mar#edly *rom Freud7s in that she insisted that any se,ual attraction or hostility o* child to !arent -ould be the result o* learning and not biology2 Psy*hothera+y The goal o* Horney7s !sychothera!y -as to hel! !atients gro- to-ard sel*$reali8ation6 give u! their ideali8ed sel*$image6 relin?uish their neurotic search *or glory6 and change sel*$ hatred to sel*$acce!tance2 Horney believed that success*ul thera!y is built on sel*$analysis and sel*$understanding2
Relate# Resear*h Horney7s conce!ts o* morbid de!endency and hy!ercom!etitiveness have both stimulated some recent research2 &or1i# De+en#en*y The current conce!t o* code!endency6 -hich is based on Horney7s notion o* morbid de!endency6 has !roduced research sho-ing that !eo!le -ith neurotic needs to move to-ard others -ill go to great lengths to -in the a!!roval o* other !eo!le2 A study by %yon and reenberg .//0 *ound that -omen -ith an alcoholic !arent6 com!ared -ith -omen -ithout an alcoholic !arent6 -ere much more nurturant to-ard a !erson they !erceived as e,!loitative that to-ard a !erson they !erceived as nurturing2 Hy+er*o)+etitiveness Horney7s idea o* moving against !eo!le relates to the conce!t o* hy!ercom!etitiveness6 a to!ic that has received some recent research interest2 ome o* this research indicates that6 although hy!ercom!etitiveness is a negative !ersonality trait6 some ty!es o* com!etitiveness can be !ositive2 Other research has *ound that hy!ercom!etitive "uro!ean American -omen *re?uently have some ty!e o* eating disorder2 Criti3(e of Horney Although Horney !ainted a vivid !ortrayal o* the neurotic !ersonality6 her theory rates very
lo- in generating research and lo- on its ability to be *alsi5ed6 to organi8e data6 and to serve as a use*ul guide to action2 Her theory is rated about average on internal consistency and !arsimony2 Con*e+t of H()anity Horney7s conce!t o* humanity is rated very high on social *actors6 high on *ree choice6 o!timism6 and unconscious inuences6 and about average on causality versus teleology and on the uni?ueness o* the individual2
ac?uired the ability to reason6 they can thin# about their isolated condition 9 a situation Fromm called the human dilemma2 H()an Nee#s According to Fromm6 our human dilemma cannot be solved by satis*ying our animal needs2 It can only be addressed by *ul5lling our uni?uely human needs6 an accom!lishment that moves us to-ard a reunion -ith the natural -orld2 Fromm identi5ed 5ve o* these distinctively human or e,istential needs2 Relate#ness First is relatedness6 -hich can ta#e the *orm o* ./0 submission6 .10 !o-er6 and .;0 love2 %ove6 or the ability to unite -ith another -hile retaining one7s o-n individuality and integrity6 is the only relatedness need that can solve our basic human dilemma2
FRO&&, HU&ANISTIC PSYCHOANALYSIS Overview of Fro))%s H()anisti* Psy*hoanalysis "rich Fromm7s humanistic !sychoanalysis loo#s at !eo!le *rom the !ers!ective o* !sychology6 history and anthro!ology2 Inuenced by Freud and Horney6 Fromm develo!ed a more culturally oriented theory than Freud7s and a much broader theory than Horney7s2 -io.ra+hy of Eri*h Fro)) "rich Fromm -as born in ermany in /6 the only child o* orthodo, Je-ish !arents2 A thought*ul young man6 Fromm -as inuenced by the bible6 Freud6 and (ar,6 as -ell as by socialist ideology2 A*ter receiving his Ph2)26 Fromm began studying !sychoanalysis and became an analyst by being analy8ed by Hanns achs6 a student o* Freud2 In /;<6 Fromm moved to the Bnited tates and began a !sychoanalytic !ractice in De- Lor#6 -here he also resumed his *riendshi! -ith Karen Horney6 -hom he had #no-n in ermany2 (uch o* his later years -ere s!ent in (e,ico and -it8erland2 He died in /@2 Fro))%s -asi* Ass()+tions Fromm believed that humans have been torn a-ay *rom their !rehistoric union -ith nature and le*t -ith no !o-er*ul instincts to ada!t to a changing -orld2 &ut because humans have
Trans*en#en*e &eing thro-n into the -orld -ithout their consent6 humans have to transcend their nature by destroying or creating !eo!le or things2 Humans can destroy through malignant aggression6 or #illing *or reasons other than survival6 but they can also create and care about their creations2
Roote#ness Rootedness is the need to establish roots and to *eel at home again in the -orld2 Productively6 rootedness enables us to gro- beyond the security o* our mother and establish ties -ith the outside -orld2 Eith the non!roductive strategy6 -e become 5,ated and a*raid to move beyond the security and sa*ety o* our mother or a mother substitute2 Sense of I#entity The *ourth human need is *or a sense o* identity6 or an a-areness o* ourselves as a se!arate !erson2 The drive *or a sense o* identity is e,!ressed non!roductively as con*ormity to a grou! and !roductively as individuality2 Fra)e of Orientation &y *rame o* orientation6 Fromm meant a road man or consistent !hiloso!hy by -hich -e 5nd our -ay through the -orld2 This need is e,!ressed non!roductively as a striving *or
irrational goals and !roductively as movement to-ard rational goals2 The -(r#en of Free#o) As the only animal !ossessing sel*$a-areness6 humans are -hat Fromm called the *rea#s o* the universe2G Historically6 as !eo!le gained more !olitical *reedom6 they began to e,!erience more isolation *rom others and *rom the -orld and to *eel *ree *rom the security o* a !ermanent !lace in the -orld2 As a result6 *reedom becomes a burden6 and !eo!le e,!erience basic an,iety6 or a *eeling o* being alone in the -orld2 &e*hanis)s of Es*a+e To reduce the *rightening sense o* isolation and aloneness6 !eo!le may ado!t one o* three mechanisms o* esca!e: ./0 authoritarianism6 or the tendency to give u! one7s inde!endence and to unite -ith a !o-er*ul !artner4 .10 destructiveness6 an esca!e mechanism aimed at doing a-ay -ith other !eo!le or things4 and .;0 con*ormity6 or surrendering o* one7s individuality in order to meet the -ishes o* others2 Positive Free#o) The human dilemma can only be solved through !ositive *reedom6 -hich is he s!ontaneous activity o* the -hole6 integrated !ersonality6 and -hich is achieved -hen a !erson becomes reunited -ith others2 Chara*ter Orientations Peo!le relate to the -orld by ac?uiring and using things .assimilation0 and by relating to sel* and others .sociali8ation06 and they can do so either non!roductively or !roductively2 Non+ro#(*tive Orientations Fromm identi5ed *our non!roductive strategies that *ail to move !eo!le closer to !ositive *reedom and sel*$ reali8ation2 Peo!le -ith a rece!tive orientation believe that the source o* all good lies outside themselves and that the only -ay they can relate to the -orld is to receive things6 including love6 #no-ledge6 and material objects2 Peo!le -ith an e,!loitative orientation also believe that the source o* good lies outside themselves6 but they aggressively ta#e -hat they -ant
rather than !assively receiving it2 Hoarding characters try to save -hat they have already obtained6 including their o!inions6 *eelings6 and material !ossessions2 Peo!le -ith a mar#eting orientation see themselves as commodities and value themselves against the criterion o* their ability to sell themselves2 They have *e-er !ositive ?ualities than the other orientations because they are essentially em!ty2 The Pro#(*tive Orientation Psychologically healthy !eo!le -or# to-ard !ositive *reedom through !roductive -or#6 love6 and reasoning2 Productive love necessitates a !assionate love o* all li*e and is called bio!hilia2 Personality Disor#ers Bnhealthy !eo!le have non!roductive -ays o* -or#ing6 reasoning6 and es!ecially loving2 Fromm recogni8ed three major !ersonality disorders: ./0 necro!hilia6 or the love o* death and the hatred o* all humanity4 .10 malignant narcissism6 or a belie* that everything belonging to one7s sel* is o* great value and anything belonging to others is -orthless4 and .;0 incestuous symbiosis6 or an e,treme de!endence on one7s mother or mother surrogate2 Psy*hothera+y The goal o* Fromm7s !sychothera!y -as to -or# to-ard satis*action o* the basic human needs o* relatedness6 transcendence6 rootedness6 a sense o* identity6 and a *rame o* orientation2 The thera!ist tries to accom!lish this through shared communication in -hich the thera!ist is sim!ly a human being rather than a scientist2
Fro))%s ðo#s of Investi.ation Fromm7s !ersonality theory rests on data he gathered *rom a variety o* sources6 including !sychothera!y6 cultural anthro!ology6 and !sychohistory2 So*ial 4illa.e
Chara*ter
in
a
&e/i*an
Fromm and his associates s!ent several years investigating social character in an isolated *arming village in (e,ico and *ound evidence o* all the character orientations e,ce!t the mar#eting one2 A Psy*ho5histori*al St(#y of Hitler Fromm a!!lied the techni?ues o* !sychohistory to the study o* several historical !eo!le6 including Adol* Hitler 9 the !erson Fromm regarded as the -orld7s most cons!icuous e,am!le o* someone -ith the syndrome o* decay6 that is6 necro!hilia6 malignant narcissism6 and incestuous symbiosis2 Relate# Resear*h Fromm7s theory ran#s near the bottom o* !ersonality theories -ith regard to stimulating research2 Recently6 haun aunders and )on (unro have develo!ed the aunders 'onsumer Orientation Inde, .'OI0 to measure Fromm7s mar#eting character2 To date6 much o* their -or# has consisted in establishing the validity o* this instrument2 In general6 aunders has *ound that !eo!le -ith a strong consumer orientation tend to !lace lo- value on *reedom6 inner harmony6 e?uality6 sel*$res!ect6 and community2 Criti3(e of Fro)) The strength o* Fromm7s theory is his lucid -ritings on a broad range o* human issues2 As a scienti5c theory6 ho-ever6 Fromm7s theory rates very lo- on its ability to generate research and to lend itsel* to *alsi5cation4 it rates lo- on use*ulness to the !ractitioner6 internal consistency6 and !arsimony2 &ecause it is ?uite broad in sco!e6 Fromm7s theory rates high on organi8ing e,isting #no-ledge2 Con*e+t of H()anity Fromm believed that humans -ere *rea#s o* the universeG because they lac#ed strong animal instincts -hile !ossessing the ability to reason2 In brie*6 his vie- is rated average on *ree choice6 o!timism6 unconscious inuences6 and uni?ueness4 lo- on causality4 and high on social inuences2
SULLI4AN, INTERPERSONAL THEORY
Overview of S(llivan%s Inter+ersonal Theory Although ullivan had a lonely and isolated childhood6 he evolved a theory o* !ersonality that em!hasi8ed the im!ortance o* inter!ersonal relations2 He insisted that !ersonality is sha!ed almost entirely by the relationshi!s -e have -ith other !eo!le2 ullivan7s !rinci!al contribution to !ersonality theory -as his conce!tion o* develo!mental stages2 -io.ra+hy of Harry Sta*' S(llivan Harry tac# ullivan6 the 5rst American to develo! a com!rehensive !ersonality theory6 -as born in a small *arming community in u!state De- Lor# in /@12 A socially immature and isolated child6 ullivan nevertheless *ormed one close inter!ersonal relationshi! -ith a boy 5ve years older than himsel*2 In his inter!ersonal theory6 ullivan believed that such a relationshi! has the !o-er to trans*orm an immature !readolescent into a !sychologically healthy individual2 i, years a*ter becoming a !hysician6 and -ith no training in !sychiatry6 ullivan gained a !osition at t2 "li8abeth7s Hos!ital in Eashington6 )2'26 as a !sychiatrist2 There6 his ability to -or# -ith schi8o!hrenic !atients -on him a re!utation as a thera!eutic -i8ard2 Ho-ever6 des!ite achieving much res!ect *rom an inuential grou! o* associates6 ullivan had *e- close inter!ersonal relations -ith any o* his !eers2 He died alone in Paris in /<6 at age =>2 Tensions ullivan conce!tuali8ed !ersonality as an energy system6 -ith energy e,isting either as tension .!otentiality *or action0 or as energy trans*ormations .the actions themselves02 He *urther divided tensions into needs and an,iety2 Nee#s Deeds can relate either to the general -ell$being o* a !erson or to s!eci5c 8ones such as the mouth or genitals2 eneral needs can be either !hysiological6 such as *ood or o,ygen6 or they can be inter!ersonal6 such as tenderness and intimacy2 An/iety Bnli#e needs 9 -hich are conjunctive and call *or s!eci5c actions to reduce them 9 an,iety is disjunctive and calls *or no consistent actions *or its relie*2 All
in*ants learn to be an,ious through the em!hatic relationshi! that they have -ith their mothering one2 ullivan called an,iety the chie* disru!tive *orce in inter!ersonal relations2 A com!lete absence o* an,iety and other tensions is called eu!horia2
inter!ersonal tensions2 One such security o!eration is dissociation6 -hich includes all those e,!eriences that -e bloc# *rom a-areness2 Another is selective inattention6 -hich involves bloc#ing only certain e,!eriences *rom a-areness2
Dyna)is)s ullivan used the term dynamism to re*er to a ty!ical !attern o* behavior2 )ynamisms may relate either to s!eci5c 8ones o* the body or to tensions2
Personi"*ations ullivan believed that !eo!le ac?uire certain images o* sel* and others throughout the develo!mental stages6 and he re*erred to these subjective !erce!tions as !ersoni5cations2
&alevolen*e The disjunctive dynamism o* evil and hatred is called malevolence6 de5ned by ullivan as a *eeling o* living among one7s enemies2 Those children -ho become malevolent have much diCculty giving and receiving tenderness or being intimate -ith other !eo!le2 Inti)a*y The conjunctive dynamism mar#ed by a close !ersonal relationshi! bet-een t-o !eo!le o* e?ual status is called intimacy2 Intimacy *acilitates inter!ersonal develo!ment -hile decreasing both an,iety and loneliness2 L(st In contrast to both malevolence and intimacy6 lust is an isolating dynamism2 That is6 lust is a sel*$centered need that can be satis5ed in the absence o* an intimate inter!ersonal relationshi!2 In other -ords6 although intimacy !resu!!oses tenderness or love6 lust is based solely on se,ual grati5cation and re?uires no other !erson *or its satis*action2 Self5Syste) The most inclusive o* all dynamisms is the sel*$system6 or that !attern o* behaviors that !rotects us against an,iety and maintains our inter!ersonal security2 The sel*$system is a conjunctive dynamism6 but because its !rimary job is to !rotect the sel* *rom an,iety6 it tends to stie !ersonality chance2 ",!eriences that are inconsistent -ith our sel*$system threaten ur security and necessitate our use o* security o!erations6 -hich consist o* behaviors designed to reduce
-a#5&other: 2oo#5&other The bad$mother !ersoni5cation gro-s out o* in*ants7 e,!eriences -ith a ni!!le that does not satis*y their hunger needs2 All in*ants e,!erience the bad$ mother !ersoni5cation6 even though their real mothers may be loving and nurturing2 %ater6 in*ants ac?uire a good$ mother uring!ersoni5cation as they become mature enough to recogni8e the tender and coo!erative behavior o* their mothering one2 till later6 these t-o !ersoni5cations combine to *orm a com!le, and contrasting image o* the real mother2 &e Personi"*ations )uring in*ancy6 children ac?uire three meG !ersoni5cations: ./0 the bad$me6 -hich gro-s *rom e,!eriences o* !unishment and disa!!roval6 .10 the good$me6 -hich results *rom e,!eriences -ith re-ard and a!!roval6 and .;0 the not$me6 -hich allo-s a !erson to dissociate or selectively inattend the e,!eriences related to an,iety2 Ei#eti* Personi"*ations One o* ullivan7s most interesting observations -as that !eo!le o*ten create imaginary traits that they !roject onto others2 Included in these eidetic !ersoni5cations are the imaginary !laymates that !reschool$aged children o*ten have2 These imaginary *riends enable children to have a sa*e6 secure relationshi! -ith another !erson6 even though that !erson is imaginary2
Levels of Co.nition ullivan recogni8ed three levels o* cognition6 or -ays o* !erceiving things 9 !rotota,ic6 !arata,ic6 and synta,ic2 Protota/i* Level ",!eriences that are im!ossible to !ut into -ords or to communicate to others are called !rotota,ic2 De-born in*ants e,!erience images mostly on a !rotota,ic level6 but adults6 too6 *re?uently have !reverbal e,!eriences that are momentary and inca!able o* being communicated2 Parata/i* Level ",!eriences that are !relogical and nearly im!ossible to accurately communicate to others are called !arata,ic2 Included in these are erroneous assum!tions about cause and e3ect6 -hich ullivan termed !arata,ic distortions2
Synta/i* Level ",!eriences that can be accurately communicated to others are called synta,ic2 'hildren become ca!able o* synta,ic language at about /1 to /@ months o* age -hen -ords begin to have the same meaning *or them that they do *or others2 Sta.es of Develo+)ent ullivan sa- inter!ersonal develo!ment as ta#ing !lace over seven stages6 *rom in*ancy to mature adulthood2 Personality changes can ta#e !lace at any time but are more li#ely to occur during transitions bet-een stages2 Infan*y The !eriod *rom birth until the emergence o* synta,ic language is called in*ancy6 a time -hen the child receives tenderness *rom the mothering one -hile also learning an,iety through an em!athic lin#age -ith the mother2 An,iety may increase to the !oint o* terror6 but such terror is controlled by the built$in !rotections o* a!athy and somnolent detachment that allo- the baby to go to slee!2 )uring in*ancy children use autistic language6 -hich ta#es !lace on a !rotota,ic or !arata,ic level2
Chil#hoo# The stage that lasts *rom the beginning o* synta,ic language until the need *or !laymates o* e?ual status is called childhood2 The child7s !rimary inter!ersonal relationshi! continues to be -ith the mother6 -ho is nodi3erentiated *rom other !ersons -ho nurture the child2 6(venile Era The juvenile stage begins -ith the need *or !eers o* e?ual status and continues until the child develo!s a need *or an intimate relationshi! -ith a chum2 At this time6 children should learn ho- to com!ete6 to com!romise6 and to coo!erate2 These three abilities6 as -ell as an orientation to-ard living6 hel! a child develo! intimacy6 the chie* dynamism o* the ne,t develo!mental stage2 Prea#oles*en*e Perha!s the most crucial stage is !readolescence6 because mista#es made earlier can be corrected during !readolescence6 but errors made during !readolescence are nearly im!ossible to overcome in later li*e2 Preadolescence s!ans the time *rom the need *or a single best *riend until !uberty2 'hildren -ho do not learn intimacy during !readolescence have added diCculties relating to !otential se,ual !artners during later stages2 Early A#oles*en*e Eith !uberty comes6 the lust dynamism and the beginning o* early adolescence2 )evelo!ment during this stage is ordinarily mar#ed by a coe,istence o* intimacy -ith a single *riend o* the same gender and se,ual interest in many !ersons o* the o!!osite gender2 Ho-ever6 i* children have no !ree,isting ca!acity *or intimacy6 they may con*use lust -ith love and develo! se,ual relationshi!s that are devoid o* true intimacy2 Late A#oles*en*e 'hronologically6 late adolescence may start at any time a*ter about age />6 but !sychologically6 it begins -hen a !erson is able to *eel both intimacy and lust to-ard the same !erson2 %ate adolescence is characteri8ed by a stable !attern o* se,ual activity and the
gro-th o* the synta,ic mode6 as young !eo!le learn ho- to live in the adult -orld2
-ith their intimate *riend6 a 5nding that suggests that -omen develo! dee!er same$gender *riendshi!s than do men2
A#(lthoo# %ate adolescence o-s into adulthood6 a time -hen a !erson establishes a stable relationshi! -ith a signi5cant other !erson and develo!s a consistent !attern o* vie-ing the -orld2
I)a.inary Frien#s Other researchers have studied ullivanMs notion o* imaginary !laymates and have *ound that children -ho have identi5able eidetic !laymates tend to be more sociali8ed6 less aggressive6 more intelligent6 and to have a better sense o* humor than children -ho do not re!ort having an imaginary !laymate2
Psy*holo.i*al Disor#ers ullivan believed that disordered behavior has an inter!ersonal origin6 and can only be understood -ith re*erence to a !erson7s social environment2 Psy*hothera+y ullivan !ioneered the notion o* the thera!ist as a !artici!ant observer6 -ho establishes an inter!ersonal relationshi! -ith the !atient2 He -as !rimarily concerned -ith understanding !atients and hel!ing them develo! *oresight6 im!rove inter!ersonal relations6 and restore their ability to o!erate mostly on a synta,ic level2 Relate# Resear*h In recent years6 a number o* researchers have studied the im!act o* t-o$!erson relationshi!s6 involving both thera!y and non$thera!y encounters2 Thera+ist5Patient Relationshi+s Hans tru!!6 Eilliam Henry6 and associates at anderbilt develo!ed the tructural Analysis o* ocial &ehavior6 an instrument *or studying the dynamics bet-een thera!ist and !atient2 This grou! o* researchers *ound that !atients tended to have relatively stable behaviors that -ere consistent -ith the -ay their thera!ists treated them2 %ater6 these researchers re!orted thera!istsM !ro*essional training -as less im!ortant to success*ul thera!y than the thera!istsM o-n develo!mental history2 Inti)ate Relationshi+ with Frien#s "li8abeth Laughn and te!hen Do-ic#i studied intimate inter!ersonal relationshi!s in same$gender dyads and *ound that -omen$but not men$had com!lementary inter!ersonal styles -ith their close -omen *riends2 Also6 -omen -ere more li#ely than men to engage in a -ide variety o* activities
Criti3(e of S(llivan )es!ite ullivanMs insights into the im!ortance o* inter!ersonal relations6 his theory o* !ersonality and his a!!roach to !sychothera!y have lost !o!ularity in recent years2 In summary6 his theory rates very lo- in *alsi5ability6 lo- in its ability to generate research6 and average in its ca!acity to organi8e #no-ledge and to guide action2 In addition6 it is only average in sel*$consistency and lo- in !arsimony2 Con*e+t of H()anity &ecause ullivan sa- human !ersonality is being largely *ormed *rom inter!ersonal relations6 his theory rates very high on social inuences and very lo- on biological ones2 In addition6 it rates high on unconscious determinants6 average on *ree choice6 o!timism6 and causality6 and lo- on uni?ueness2
ERI8SON, POST5FREUDIAN THEORY Overview of Eri'son%s Post5Fre(#ian Theory "ri#son !ostulated eight stages o* !sychosocial develo!ment through -hich !eo!le !rogress2
Although he di3ered *rom Freud in his em!hasis on the ego and on social inuences6 his theory is an e,tension6 not a re!udiation o* Freudian !sychoanalysis2 -io.ra+hy of Eri' Eri'son Ehen "ri# "ri#son -as born in ermany in /1 his name -as "ri# alomonsen2 A*ter his mother married Theodor Homburger6 "ri# eventually too# his ste!$*atherMs name2 At age /@ he le*t home to !ursue the li*e o* a -andering artist and to search *or sel*$identity2 He gave u! that li*e to teach young children in ienna6 -here he met Anna Freud2 till searching *or his !ersonal identity6 he -as !sychoanaly8ed by (s2 Freud6 an e,!erience that allo-ed him to become a !sychoanalyst2 In mid$li*e6 "ri# Homburger moved to the Bnited tates6 changed his name to "ri#son6 and too# a !osition at the Harvard (edical chool2 %ater6 he taught at Lale6 the Bniversity o* 'ali*ornia at &er#eley6 and several other universities2 He died in /<6 a month short o* his 1nd birthday2 The E.o in Post5Fre(#ian Psy*holo.y One o* "ri#sonMs chie* contributions to !ersonality theory -as his em!hasis on ego rather than id *unctions2 According to "ri#son6 the ego is the center o* !ersonality and is res!onsible *or a uni5ed sense o* sel*2 It consists o* three interrelated *acets: the body ego6 the ego ideal6 and ego identity2 So*iety;s In9(en*e The ego develo!s -ithin a given society and is inuenced by child$rearing !ractices and other cultural customs2 All cultures and nations develo! a !seudos!ecies6 or a 5ctional notion that they are su!erior to other cultures2 E+i.eneti* Prin*i+le The ego develo!s according to the e!igenetic !rinci!le4 that is6 it gro-s according to a genetically established rate and in a 5,ed se?uence2 Sta.es of Psy*hoso*ial Develo+)ent "ach o* the eight stages o* develo!ment is mar#ed by a conict bet-een a syntonic .harmonious0 element and a dystonic .disru!tive0 element6 -hich !roduces a basic strength or ego ?uality2 Also6 *rom adolescence on6 each stage is characteri8ed by an identity crisis or turning !oint6 -hich may !roduce either ada!tive or malada!tive adjustment2
Infan*y "ri#sonMs vie- o* in*ancy .the 5rst year o* li*e0 -as similar to FreudMs conce!t o* the oral stage6 e,ce!t that "ri#son e,!anded the notion o* incor!oration beyond the mouth to include sense organs such as the eyes and ears2 The !sychose,ual mode o* in*ancy is oral$ sensory6 -hich is characteri8ed by both receiving and acce!ting2 The !sycho$ social crisis o* in*ancy is basic trust versus basic mistrust2 From the crisis bet-een basic trust and basic mistrust emerges ho!e6 the basic strength o* in*ancy2 In*ants -ho do not develo! ho!e retreat *rom the -orld6 and this -ithdra-al is the core !athology o* in*ancy2 Early Chil#hoo# The second to third year o* li*e is early childhood6 a !eriod that com!ares to FreudMs anal stage6 but also includes mastery o* other body *unctions such as -al#ing6 urinating6 and holding2 The !sychose,ual mode o* early childhood is anal$urethral$muscular6 and children o* this age behave both im!ulsively and com!ulsively2 The !sychosocial crisis o* early childhood is autonomy versus shame and doubt2 The !sychosocial crisis bet-een autonomy on the one hand and shame and doubt on the other !roduces -ill 9 the basic strength o* early childhood2 The core !athology o* early childhood is com!ulsion2 Play A.e From about the third to the 5*th year6 children e,!erience the !lay age6 a !eriod that !arallels FreudMs !hallic !hase2 Bnli#e Freud6 ho-ever6 "ri#son sa- the Oedi!us com!le, as an early model o* li*elong !lay*ulness and a drama !layed out in childrenMs minds as they attem!t to understand the basic *acts o* li*e2 The !rimary !sychose,ual mode o* the !lay age is genital$ locomotor6 meaning that children have both an interest in genital activity and an increasing ability to move around2 The !sychosocial crisis o* the !lay age is initiative versus guilt2 The conict bet-een initiative and guilt hel!s children to act -ith !ur!ose and to set goals2 &ut i* children have too little
!ur!ose6 they develo! inhibition6 the core !athology o* the !lay age2 S*hool A.e The !eriod *rom about > to /1 or /; years o* age is called the school age6 a time o* !sychose,ual latency6 but it is also a time o* !sychosocial gro-th beyond the *amily2 &ecause se,ual develo!ment is latent during the school age6 children can use their energies to learn the customs o* their culture6 including both *ormal and in*ormal education2 The !sychosocial crisis o* this age is industry versus in*eriority2 'hildren need to learn to -or# hard6 but they also must develo! some sense o* in*eriority2 From the conict o* industry and in*eriority emerges com!etence6 the basic strength o* school age children2 %ac# o* industry leads to inertia6 the core !athology o* this stage2 A#oles*en*e Adolescence begins -ith !uberty and is mar#ed by a !erson7s struggle to 5nd ego identity2 It is a time o* !sychose,ual gro-th6 but it is also a !eriod o* !sychosocial latency2 The !sychose,ual mode o* adolescence is !uberty or genital maturation2 The !sychosocial crisis o* adolescence is identity versus identity con*usion2 Psychologically healthy individuals emerge *rom adolescence -ith a sense o* -ho they are and -hat they believe4 but some identity con*usion is normal2 The conict bet-een identity and identity con*usion !roduces 5delity6 or *aith in some ideological vie- o* the *uture2 %ac# o* belie* in one7s o-n sel*hood results in role re!udiation or an inability to bring together one7s various sel*$ images2 Yo(n. A#(lthoo# Loung adulthood begins -ith the ac?uisition o* intimacy at about age /@ and ends -ith the develo!ment o* generativity at about age ;2 The !sychose,ual mode o* young adulthood is genitality6 -hich is e,!ressed as mutual trust bet-een !artners in a stable se,ual relationshi!2 Its !sychosocial crisis is intimacy versus isolation2 Intimacy is the ability to *use oneMs identity -ith that o* another -ithout *ear o* losing it4 -hereas
isolation is the *ear o* losing oneMs identity in an intimate relationshi!2 The crisis bet-een intimacy and isolation results in the ca!acity to love2 The core !athology o* young adulthood is e,clusivity6 or inability to love2 A#(lthoo# The !eriod *rom about ;/ to > years o* age is adulthood6 a time -hen !eo!le ma#e signi5cant contributions to society2 The !sychose,ual mode o* adulthood is !rocreativity6 or the caring *or oneMs children6 the children o* others6 and the material !roducts o* oneMs society2 The !sychosocial crisis o* adulthood is generativity versus stagnation6 and the success*ul resolution o* this crisis results in care2 "ri#son sa- care as ta#ing care o* the !ersons and !roducts that one has learned to care *or2 The core !athology o* adulthood is rejectivity6 or the rejection o* certain individuals or grou!s that one is un-illing to ta#e care o*2 Ol# A.e The 5nal stage o* develo!ment is old age6 *rom about age > until death2 The !sychose,ual mode o* old age is generali8ed sensuality4 that is6 ta#ing !leasure in a variety o* sensations and an a!!reciation o* the traditional li*estyle o* !eo!le o* the other gender2 The !sychosocial crisis o* old age is the struggle bet-een integrity .the maintenance o* ego$identity0 and des!air .the surrender o* ho!e02 The struggle bet-een integrity and des!air may !roduce -isdom .the basic strength o* old age06 but it may also lead to disdain .a core !athology mar#ed by *eelings o* being 5nished or hel!less02 Eri'son%s ðo#s of Investi.ation "ri#son relied mostly on anthro!ology6 !sychohistory6 and !lay construction to e,!lain and describe human !ersonality2 Anthro+olo.i*al St(#ies "ri#sonMs t-o most im!ortant anthro!ological studies -ere o* the iou, o* outh )a#ota and the Luro# tribe o* northern 'ali*ornia2 &oth studies demonstrated his notion that culture and history hel! sha!e !ersonality2
Psy*hohistory "ri#son combined the methods o* !sychoanalysis and historical research to study several !ersonalities6 most notably andhi and %uther2 In both cases6 the central 5gure e,!erienced an identity crisis that !roduced a basic strength rather than a core !athology2 Play Constr(*tion "ri#sonMs techni?ue o* !lay construction became controversial -hen he *ound that /$ to /1$year$old boys used toys to construct elongated objects and to !roduce themes o* rising and *alling2 In contrast6 girls arranged toys in lo- and !eace*ul scenes2 "ri#son concluded that anatomical di3erences bet-een the se,es !lay a role in !ersonality develo!ment2
Criti3(e of Eri'son Although "ri#sonMs -or# is a logical e,tension o* FreudMs !sychoanalysis6 it o3ers a ne- -ay o* loo#ing at human develo!ment2 As a use*ul theory6 it rates high on its ability to generate research6 and about average on its ability to be *alsi5ed6 to organi8e #no-ledge6 and to guide the !ractitioner2 It rates high on internal consistency and about average on !arsimony2 Con*e+t of H()anity "ri#son sa- humans as basically social animals -ho have limited *ree choice and -ho are motivated by !ast e,!eriences6 -hich may be either conscious or unconscious2 In addition6 "ri#son is rated high on both o!timism and uni?ueness o* individuals2
Relate# Resear*h "ri#sonMs theory has generated a moderately large body o* research6 must o* it investigating the conce!t o* identity2 In addition6 some researchers have loo#ed at "ri#sonMs conce!t o* generativity2
I#entity in Early A#(lthoo# A longitudinal study by Jenni*er Pals and Ravenna Helson *ound that identity established in early adulthood is associated -ith stable marriage and high levels o* creativity2 Additional research by Helson and Pals *ound that -omen -ho had solid identity and high creative !otential at age 1/ -ere more li#ely than other -omen to have had a challenging and creative -or# e,!erience at age =12 2enerativity in &i#life Peo!le high in generativity should have a li*estyle mar#ed by creating and !assing on #no-ledge6 values6 and ideals to a younger generation6 and should bene5t *rom a !attern o* hel!ing younger !eo!le2 Research by )an (cAdams and colleagues *ound that adults at midli*e -ho contributed to the -ell$being o* young !eo!le had a clear sense o* -ho they -ere and -hat li*e had to o3er them2 Other research *ound that !eo!le high in generativity are ty!ically concerned -ith the -ell$being o* others2
LEARNIN2 THEORIES
KIDD"R: &"HAIORA% ADA%LI Overview of S'inner;s -ehavioral Analysis Bnli#e any theory discussed to this !oint6 the radical behaviorism o* &2 F2 #inner avoids s!eculations about hy!othetical constructs and concentrates almost e,clusively on observable behavior2 &esides being a radical behaviorist6 #inner -as also a determinist and an environmentalist4 that is6 he rejected the notion o* *ree -ill6 and he em!hasi8ed the !rimacy o* environmental inuences on behavior2 -io.ra+hy of -< F< S'inner &2 F2 #inner -as born in us?uehanna6 Pennsylvania in /<6 the older o* t-o brothers2 Ehile in college6 #inner -anted to be a -riter6 but a*ter having little success in this endeavor6 he turned to !sychology2 A*ter earning a Ph2)2 *rom Harvard6 he taught at the
Bniversities o* (innesota and Indiana be*ore returning to Harvard6 -here he remained until his death in /2 Pre*(rsors to S'inner;s S*ienti"* -ehavioris) (odern learning theory has roots in the -or# o* "d-ard %2 Thorndi#e and his e,!eriments -ith animals during the last !art o* the /th century2 Thorndi#eMs la- o* e3ect stated that res!onses *ollo-ed by a satis5er tend to be learned6 a conce!t that antici!ated #innerMs use o* !ositive rein*orcement to sha!e behavior2 #inner -as even more inuenced by John Eatson6 -ho argued that !sychology must deal -ith the control and !rediction o* behavior and that behavior$not intros!ection6 consciousness6 or the mind$is the basic data o* scienti5c !sychology2 S*ienti"* -ehavioris) #inner believed that human behavior6 li#e any other natural !henomena6 is subject to the la-s o* science6 and that !sychologists should not attribute inner motivations to it2 Although he rejected internal states .thoughts6 emotions6 desires6 etc20 as being outside the realm o* science6 #inner did not deny their e,istence2 He sim!ly insisted that they should not be used to e,!lain behavior2 Philoso+hy of S*ien*e #inner believed that6 because the !ur!ose o* science is to !redict and control6 !sychologists should be concerned -ith determining the conditions under -hich human behavior occurs so that they can !redict and control it2 Chara*teristi*s of S*ien*e #inner held that science has three !rinci!le characteristics: ./0 its 5ndings are cumulative6 .10 it rests on an attitude that values em!irical observation6 and .;0 it searchers *or order and la-*ul relationshi!s2 Con#itionin. #inner recogni8ed t-o #inds o* conditioning: classical and o!erant2 Classi*al Con#itionin. In classical conditioning6 a neutral .conditioned0 stimulus is !aired -ith an unconditioned stimulus until it is ca!able o* bringing about a !reviously unconditioned res!onse6 no- called the
conditioned res!onse2 For e,am!le6 Eatson and Rayner conditioned a young boy to *ear a -hite rat .the conditioned stimulus0 by associating it -ith a loud6 sudden noise .an unconditioned stimulus02 "ventually6 through the !rocess o* generali8ation6 the boy learned to *ear stimuli that resembled the -hite rat2 O+erant Con#itionin. Eith o!erant conditioning6 rein*orcement is used to increase the !robability that a given behavior -ill recur2 Three *actors are essential in o!erant conditioning: ./0 the antecedent6 or environment in -hich behavior ta#es !lace4 .10 the behavior6 or res!onse4 and .;0 the conse?uence that *ollo-s the behavior2 Psychologists and others use sha!ing to mold com!le, human behavior2 )i3erent histories o* rein*orcement result in o!erant discrimination6 meaning that di3erent organisms -ill res!ond di3erently to the same environmental contingencies2 Peo!le may also res!ond similarly to di3erent environmental stimuli6 a !rocess #inner called stimulus generali8ation2 Anything -ithin the environment that strengthens a behavior is a rein*orcer2 Positive rein*orcement is any stimulus that -hen added to a situation increases the !robability that a given behavior -ill occur2 Degative rein*orcement is the strengthening o* behavior through the removal o* an aversive stimulus2 &oth !ositive and negative rein*orcement strengthen behavior2 Any event that decreases a behavior either by !resenting an aversive stimulus or by removing a !ositive one is called !unishment2 The e3ects o* !unishment are much less !redictable than those o* re-ard2 &oth !unishment and rein*orcement can result *rom either natural conse?uences or *rom human im!osition2 'onditioned rein*orcers are those stimuli that are not by nature satis*ying .e2g26 money06 but that can become so -hen they are associated -ith a !rimary rein*orcer6 such as *ood2 enerali8ed rein*orcers are conditioned rein*orcers that have become associated -ith several !rimary rein*orcers2 Rein*orcement can
*ollo- behavior on either a continuous schedule or on an intermittent schedule2 There are *our basic intermittent schedules: ./0 5,ed$ratio6 on -hich the organism is rein*orced intermittently according to the number o* res!onses it ma#es4 .10 variable$ratio6 on -hich the organism is rein*orced a*ter an average o* a !redetermined number o* res!onses4 .;0 5,ed$interval6 on -hich the organism is rein*orced *or the 5rst res!onse *ollo-ing a designated !eriod o* time4 and .<0 variable interval6 on -hich the organism is rein*orced a*ter the la!se o* varied !eriods o* time2 The tendency o* a !reviously ac?uired res!onse to become !rogressively -ea#ened u!on non$rein*orcement is called e,tinction2 uch elimination or -ea#ening o* a res!onse is called classical e,tinction in a classical conditioning model and o!erant e,tinction -hen the res!onse -as ac?uired through o!erant conditioning2 The H()an Or.anis) #inner believed that human behavior is sha!ed by three *orces: =>? natural selection6 =@? cultural !ractices6 and =? the individualMs history o* rein*orcement6 -hich -e discussed above2 Nat(ral Sele*tion As a s!ecies6 our behavior is sha!ed by the contingencies o* survival4 that is6 those behaviors .e2g26 se, and aggression0 that -ere bene5cial to the human s!ecies tended to survive6 -hereas those that did not tended to dro! out2 C(lt(ral Evol(tion Those societies that evolved certain cultural !ractices .e2g2 tool ma#ing and language0 tended to survive2 'urrently6 the lives o* nearly all !eo!le are sha!ed6 in !art6 by modern tools .com!uters6 media6 various modes o* trans!ortation6 etc20 and by their use o* language2 Ho-ever6 humans do not ma#e coo!erative decisions to do -hat is best *or their society6 but those
societies -hose members behave in a coo!erative manner tended to survive2 Inner States #inner recogni8ed the e,istence o* such inner states as drives and sel*$ a-areness6 but he rejected the notion that they can e,!lain behavior2 To #inner6 drives re*er to the e3ects o* de!rivation and satiation and thus are related to the !robability o* certain behaviors6 but they are not the causes o* behavior2 #inner believed that emotions can be accounted *or by the contingencies o* survival and the contingencies o* rein*orcement4 but li#e drives6 they do not cause behavior2 imilarly6 !ur!ose and intention are not causes o* behavior6 although they are sensations that e,ist -ithin the s#in2 Co)+le/ -ehavior Human behavior is subject to the same !rinci!les o* o!erant conditioning as sim!le animal behavior6 but it is much more com!le, and diCcult to !redict or control2 #inner e,!lained creativity as the result o* random or accidental behaviors that ha!!en to be re-arded2 #inner believed that most o* our behavior is unconscious or automatic and that not thin#ing about certain e,!eriences is rein*orcing2 #inner vie-ed dreams as covert and symbolic *orms o* behavior that are subject to the same contingencies o* rein*orcement as any other behavior2 Control of H()an -ehavior Bltimately6 all o* a !ersonMs behavior is controlled by the environment2 ocieties e,ercise control over their members through la-s6 rules6 and customs that transcend any one !ersonMs means o* countercontrol2 There are *our basic methods o* social control: =>? o!erant conditioning6 including !ositive and negative rein*orcement and !unishment4 =@? describing contingencies6 or using language to in*orm !eo!le o* the conse?uence o* their behaviors4 =? de!rivation and satiation6 techni?ues that increase the li#elihood that !eo!le -ill behave in a certain -ay4 and
=B? !hysical restraint6 including the jailing o* criminals2 Although #inner denied the e,istence o* *ree -ill6 he did recogni8e that !eo!le mani!ulate variables -ithin their o-n environment and thus e,ercise some measure o* sel*$control6 -hich has several techni?ues: =>? !hysical restraint6 =@? !hysical aids6 such as tools4 =? changing environmental stimuli4 =B? arranging the environment to alloesca!e *rom aversive stimuli4 =? drugs4 and =? doing something else2 The Unhealthy Personality ocial control and sel*$control sometimes !roduce counteracting strategies and ina!!ro!riate behaviors2 Co(ntera*tin. Strate.ies Peo!le can counteract e,cessive social control by ./0 esca!ing *rom it6 .10 revolting against it6 or .;0 !assively resisting it2 Ina++ro+riate -ehaviors Ina!!ro!riate behaviors *ollo- *rom sel*$de*eating techni?ues o* counteracting social control or *rom unsuccess*ul attem!ts at sel*$control2 Psy*hothera+y #inner -as not a !sychothera!ist6 and he even critici8ed !sychothera!y as being one o* the major obstacles to a scienti5c study o* human behavior2 Devertheless6 others have used o!erant conditioning !rinci!les to sha!e behavior in a thera!eutic setting2 &ehavior thera!ists !lay an active role in the treatment !rocess6 using behavior modi5cation techni?ues and !ointing out the !ositive conse?uences o* some behaviors and the aversive e3ects o* others2 Relate# Resear*h #innerMs theory has generated more research than any other !ersonality theory2 (uch o* this research can be divided into t-o ?uestions: ./0 Hodoes conditioning a3ect !ersonalityN .10 Hodoes !ersonality a3ect conditioningN How Con#itionin. Personality
A$e*ts
A !lethora o* studies have demonstrated that o!erant conditioning can change !ersonality .that is6 behavior02 For e,am!le6 a recent study by te!hen Higgens et al2 demonstrated that a contingent management !rogram can be success*ul in decreasing cocaine use2 How Personality A$e*ts Con#itionin. Research has also *ound that di3erent !ersonalities may react di3erently to the same environmental stimuli2 This means that the same rein*orcement strategies -ill not have the same e3ect on all !eo!le2 For e,am!le6 Alan Pic#ering and Je3rey ray have develo!ed and tested a rein*orcement sensitivity theory that suggests that im!ulsivity6 an,iety6 and introversion+e,traversion relate to -ays !eo!le res!ond to environmental rein*orcers2
Criti3(e of S'inner On the si, criteria o* a use*ul theory6 #innerMs a!!roach rates very high on its ability to generate research and to guide action6 high on its ability to be *alsi5ed6 and about average on its ability to organi8e #no-ledge2 In addition6 it rates very high on internal consistency and high on sim!licity2 Con*e+t of H()anity #innerMs conce!t o* humanity -as a com!letely deterministic and causal one that em!hasi8ed unconscious behavior and the uni?ueness o* each !ersonMs history o* rein*orcement -ithin a mostly social environment2 Bnli#e many determinists6 #inner is ?uite o!timistic in his vie- o* humanity2
!ersonality theorists in investigating his o-n hy!otheses2 H()an A.en*y &andura believes that human agency is the essence o* humanness4 that is6 humans are de5ned by their ability to organi8e6 regulate6 and enact behaviors that they believe -ill !roduce desirable conse?uences2 Human agency has *our core *eatures: ./0 intentionality6 or a !roactive commitment to actions that may bring about desired outcomes4 .10 *oresight6 or the ability to set goals4 .;0 sel*$reactiveness6 -hich includes !eo!le monitoring their !rogress to-ard *ul5lling their choices4 and .<0 sel*$reectiveness6 -hich allo-s !eo!le to thin# about and evaluate their motives6 values6 and li*e goals2
-ANDURA, SOCIAL CO2NITI4E THEORY Overview of -an#(ra;s So*ial Co.nitive Theory &anduraMs social cognitive theory ta#es an agentic !ers!ective6 meaning that humans have some limited ability to control their lives2 In contrast to #inner6 &andura ./0 recogni8es that chance encounters and *ortuitous events o*ten sha!e oneMs behavior4 .10 !laces more em!hasis on observational learning4 .;0 stresses the im!ortance o* cognitive *actors in learning4 .<0 suggests that human activity is a *unction o* behavior and !erson variables6 as -ell as the environment4 and .=0 believes that rein*orcement is mediated by cognition2 -io.ra+hy of Al1ert -an#(ra Albert &andura -as born in 'anada in /1=6 but he has s!ent his entire !ro*essional li*e in the Bnited tates2 He com!leted a Ph2)2 in clinical !sychology at the Bniversity o* Io-a in /=/ and since then has -or#ed almost entirely at tan*ord Bniversity6 -here he continues to be the most active o* all
Re*i+ro*al Deter)inis) ocial cognitive theory holds that human *unctioning is molded by the reci!rocal interaction o* =>? behavior4 =@? !erson variables6 including cognition4 and =? environmental events 9 a model &andura calls reci!rocal determinism2 Di$erential Contri1(tions &andura does not suggest that the three *actors in the reci!rocal determinism model ma#e e?ual contributions to behavior2 The relative inuence o* behavior6 environment6 and !erson de!ends on -hich *actor is strongest at any !articular moment2 Chan*e En*o(nters an# Fort(ito(s Events The lives o* many !eo!le have been *undamentally changed by a chance meeting -ith another !erson or by a *ortuitous6 une,!ected event2 'hance encounters and *ortuitous events enter the reci!rocal determinism !aradigm at the environment !oint6 a*ter -hich they inuence behavior in much the same -ay as do !lanned events2 Self5Syste) The sel*$system gives some consistency to !ersonality by allo-ing !eo!le to observe and symboli8e their o-n behavior and to evaluate it on the basis o* antici!ated *uture
conse?uences2 The sel*$system includes both sel*$eCcacy and sel*$regulation2 Self5E*a*y Ho- !eo!le behave in a !articular situation de!ends in !art on their sel*$ eCcacy$that is6 their belie*s that they can or cannot e,ercise those behaviors necessary to bring about a desired conse?uence2 "Ccacy e,!ectations di3er *rom outcome e,!ectations6 -hich re*er to !eo!leMs !rediction o* the li#ely conse?uences o* their behavior2 el*$eCcacy combines -ith environmental variables6 !revious behaviors6 and other !ersonal variables to !redict behavior2 It is ac?uired6 enhanced6 or decreased by any one or combination o* *our sources: ./0 mastery e,!eriences or !er*ormance6 .10 social modeling6 or observing someone o* e?ual ability succeed or *ail at a tas#4 .;0 social !ersuasion6 or listening to a trusted !ersonMs encouraging -ords4 and .<0 !hysical and emotional states6 such as an,iety or *ear6 -hich usually lo-ers sel*$eCcacy2 High sel*$eCcacy and a res!onsive environment are the best !redictors o* success*ul outcomes2 Pro/y A.en*y &andura has recently recogni8ed the inuence o* !ro,y agency through -hich !eo!le e,ercise some !artial control over everyday living2 uccess*ul living in the 1/st century re?uires !eo!le to see# !ro,ies to su!!ly their *ood6 deliver in*ormation6 !rovide trans!ortation6 etc2 Eithout the use o* !ro,ies6 modern !eo!le -ould be *orced to s!end most o* their time securing the necessities o* survival2
Colle*tive E*a*y 'ollective eCcacy is the level o* con5dence that !eo!le have that their combined e3orts -ill !roduce social change2 At least *our *actors can lo-er collective eCcacy2 ./0 "vents in other !arts o* the -orld can leave !eo!le -ith a sense o* hel!lessness4
.10 com!le, technology can decrease !eo!leMs !erce!tions o* control over their environment4 .;0 entrenched bureaucracies discourage !eo!le *rom attem!ting to bring about social change4 and .<0 the si8e and sco!e o* -orld$-ide !roblems contribute to !eo!leMs sense o* !o-erlessness2 Self5Re.(lation &y using reective thought6 humans can mani!ulate their environments and !roduce conse?uences o* their actions6 giving them some ability to regulate their o-n behavior2 &andura believes that behavior stems *rom a reci!rocal inuence o* e,ternal and internal *actors2 T-o e,ternal *actors contribute to sel*$regulation: ./0 standards o* evaluation6 and .10 e,ternal rein*orcement2 ",ternal *actors a3ect sel*$regulation by !roviding !eo!le -ith standards *or evaluating their o-n behavior2 Internal re?uirements *or sel*$ regulation include: ./0 sel*$observation o* !er*ormance4 .10 judging or evaluating !er*ormance4 .;0 sel*$reactions6 including sel*$ rein*orcement or sel*$!unishment2 Internali8ed sel*$sanctions !revent !eo!le *rom violating their o-n moral standards either through selective activation or disengagement o* internal control2 elective activation re*ers to the notion that sel*$regulatory inuences are not automatic but o!erate only i* activated2 It also means that !eo!le react di3erently in di3erent situations6 de!ending on their evaluation o* the situation2 )isengagement o* internal control means that !eo!le are ca!able o* se!arating themselves *rom the negative conse?uences o* their behavior2 Peo!le in ambiguous moral situations$-ho are uncertain that their behavior is consistent -ith their o-n social and moral standards o* conduct 9 may se!arate their conduct *rom its injurious conse?uences through *our general techni?ues o* disengagement o* internal standards or selective activation2 First is rede5ning behavior6 or justi*ying other-ise re!rehensible actions by cognitively restructuring them2 Peo!le can use rede5nition o*
behavior to disengage themselves *rom re!rehensible conduct by: ./0 justi*ying other-ise cul!able behavior on moral grounds4 .10 ma#ing advantageous com!arisons bet-een their behavior and the even more re!rehensible behavior o* others4 and .;0 using eu!hemistic labels to change the moral tone o* their behavior2 A second method o* disengagement *rom internal standards is to distort or obscure the relationshi! bet-een behavior and its injurious conse?uences2 Peo!le can do this by minimi8ing6 disregarding6 or distorting the conse?uences o* their behavior2 A third set o* disengagement !rocedures involves blaming the victims2 Finally6 !eo!le can disengage their behavior *rom its conse?uences by dis!lacing or di3using res!onsibility2 Learnin. Peo!le learn through observing others and by attending to the conse?uences o* their o-n actions2 Although &andura believes that rein*orcement aids learning6 he contends that !eo!le can learn in the absence o* rein*orcement and even o* a res!onse2 O1servational Learnin. The heart o* observational learning is modeling6 -hich is more than sim!le imitation6 because it involves adding and subtracting *rom observed behavior2 At least three !rinci!les inuence modeling: ./0 !eo!le are most li#ely to model high$status !eo!le6 .10 !eo!le -ho lac# s#ill6 !o-er6 or status are most li#ely to model6 and .;0 !eo!le tend to model behavior that they see as being re-arding to the model2 &andura recogni8ed *our !rocesses that govern observational learning: ./0 attention6 or noticing -hat a model does4 .10 re!resentation6 or symbolically re!resenting ne- res!onse !atterns in memory4 .;0 behavior !roduction6 or !roducing the behavior that one observes4 and .<0 motivation2 That is6 the observer must be motivated to !er*orm the observed behavior2
Ena*tive Learnin. All behavior is *ollo-ed by some conse?uence6 but -hether that conse?uence rein*orces the behavior de!ends on the !ersonMs cognitive evaluation o* the situation2 Dysf(n*tional -ehavior )ys*unctional behavior is learned through the mutual interaction o* the !erson .including cognitive and neuro!hysiological !rocesses06 the environment .including inter!ersonal relations06 and behavioral *actors .es!ecially !revious e,!eriences -ith rein*orcement02 De+ression Peo!le -ho develo! de!ressive reactions o*ten ./0 underestimate their successes and overestimate their *ailures6 .10 set !ersonal standards too high6 or .;0 treat themselves badly *or their *aults2 Pho1ias Phobias are learned by ./0 direct contact6 .10 ina!!ro!riate generali8ation6 and .;0 observational e,!eriences2 Once learned they are maintained by negative rein*orcement6 as the !erson is rein*orced *or avoiding *ear$!roducing situations2 A..ressive -ehaviors Ehen carried to e,tremes6 aggressive behaviors can become dys*unctional2 In a study o* children observing live and 5lmed models being aggressive6 &andura and his associates *ound that aggression tends to *oster more aggression2 Thera+y The goal o* social cognitive thera!y is sel*$ regulation2 &andura noted three levels o* treatment: ./0 induction o* change6 .10 generali8ation o* change to other a!!ro!riate situations6 and .;0 maintenance o* ne-ly ac?uired *unctional behaviors2 ocial cognitive thera!ists sometimes use systematic desensiti8ation6 a techni?ue aimed at diminishing !hobias through rela,ation2 Relate# Resear*h
&anduraMs conce!t o* sel*$eCcacy has generated a great deal o* research demonstrating that !eo!leMs belie*s are related to their ability to enact a -ide variety o* !er*ormances6 including sto!!ing smo#ing and academic !er*ormance2
on *ree choice6 o!timism6 conscious inuences6 and uni?ueness2 As a social cognitive theory6 it rates very high on social determinants o* !ersonality2
Self5E*a*y an# S)o'in. Cessation aul hi3man and his colleagues studied the e3ects o* daily uctuations in sel*$eCcacy on smo#ing la!ses and rela!ses among e,$smo#ers -ho had ?uit on their o-n *or at least 1< hours2 They *ound that -hen these !artici!ants smo#ed even a single cigarette6 their daily sel*$eCcacy became more variable6 leading to *uture la!ses and6 -ith some e,$smo#ers6 a com!lete rela!se2 ",$smo#ers -ho believed in their ability to ?uit smo#ing -ere able to maintain high sel*$eCcacy and to avoid la!ses and rela!se2 Self5E*a*y an# A*a#e)i* Perfor)an*e &andura and a grou! o* Italian researchers studied levels o* sel*$ eCcacy and their relation to academic !er*ormance in middle$school children living near Rome2 They *ound that children -ho believed that their !arents had con5dence in their academic ability -ere li#ely to have high academic as!irations6 high academic sel*$eCcacy6 and high sel*$regulatory eCcacy6 and that each o* these *actors related either directly or indirectly to high academic !er*ormance2 Criti3(e of -an#(ra &anduraMs theory receives the highest mar#s o* any in the te,t largely because it -as constructed through a care*ul balance o* innovative s!eculation and data *rom rigorous research2 In summary6 the theory rates very high on its ability to generate research and on its internal consistency2 In addition6 it rates high on !arsimony and on its ability to be *alsi5ed6 organi8e #no-ledge6 and guide the !ractitioner2 Con*e+t of H()anity &andura sees humans as being relatively uid and e,ible2 Peo!le can store !ast e,!eriences and then use this in*ormation to chart *uture actions2 &anduraMs theory rates near the middle on teleology versus causality and high
ROTTER AND &ISCHEL, CO2NITI4E SOCIAL LEARNIN2 THEORY Overview of Co.nitive So*ial Learnin. Theory &oth Julian Rotter and Ealter (ischel believe that cognitive *actors6 more than immediate rein*orcements6 determine ho- !eo!le -ill react to environmental *orces2 "ach suggests that our e,!ectations o* *uture events are major determinants o* !er*ormance2 -io.ra+hy of 6(lian Rotter Julian Rotter -as born in &roo#lyn in //>2 As a high$school student6 he became *amiliar -ith some o* the -ritings o* Freud and Adler6 but he majored in chemistry rather than !sychology -hile at &roo#lyn 'ollege2 In /;6 he moved to the Bniversity o* 'onnecticut and has remained there since retirement2 Intro#(*tion to Rotter;s So*ial Learnin. Theory RotterMs interactionist !osition holds that human behavior is based largely on the interaction o* !eo!le -ith their meaning*ul environments2 Rotter believes that6 although !ersonality can change at any time6 it has a basic unity that !reserves it *rom changing as a result o* minor e,!eriences2 His em!irical la-
o* e3ect assumes that !eo!le choose a course o* action that advances them to-ard an antici!ated goal2 Pre#i*tin. S+e*i"* -ehaviors Human behavior is most accurately !redicted by an understanding o* *our variables: behavior !otential6 e,!ectancy6 rein*orcement value6 and the !sychological situation2 -ehavior Potential &ehavior !otential is the !ossibility that a !articular res!onse -ill occur at a given time and !lace in relation to its li#ely rein*orcement2 E/+e*tan*y Peo!leMs e,!ectancy in any given situation is their con5dence that a !articular rein*orcement -ill *ollo- a s!eci5c behavior in a s!eci5c situation or situations2 ",!ectancies can be either general or s!eci5c6 and the overall li#elihood o* success is a *unction o* both generali8ed and s!eci5c e,!ectancies2 Reinfor*e)ent 4al(e Rein*orcement value is a !ersonMs !re*erence *or any !articular rein*orcement over other rein*orcements i* all are e?ually li#ely to occur2 Internal rein*orcement is the individualMs !erce!tion o* an event6 -hereas e,ternal rein*orcement re*ers to societyMs evaluation o* an event2 Rein*orcement$rein*orcement se?uences suggest that the value o* an event is a *unction o* oneMs e,!ectation that a !articular rein*orcement -ill lead to *uture rein*orcements2 Psy*holo.i*al Sit(ation The !sychological situation is that !art o* the e,ternal and internal -orld to -hich a !erson is res!onding2 &ehavior is a *unction o* the interaction o* !eo!le -ith their meaning*ul environment2 -asi* Pre#i*tion For)(la Hy!othetically6 in any s!eci5c situation6 behavior can be !redicted by the basic !rediction *ormula6 -hich states that the !otential *or a behavior to occur in a !articular situation in relation to a given rein*orcement is a *unction o* !eo!leMs e,!ectancy that the behavior
-ill be *ollo-ed by that rein*orcement in that situation2 Pre#i*tin. 2eneral -ehaviors The basic !rediction is too s!eci5c to give clues about ho- a !erson -ill generally behave2 2enerali7e# E/+e*tan*ies To ma#e more general !redictions o* behavior6 one must #no- !eo!leMs generali8ed e,!ectancies6 or their e,!ectations based on similar !ast e,!eriences that a given behavior -ill be rein*orced2 enerali8ed e,!ectancies include !eo!leMs needs$that is6 behaviors that move them to-ard a goal2 Nee#s Deeds re*er to *unctionally related categories o* behaviors2 Rotter listed si, broad categories o* needs6 -ith each need being related to behaviors that lead to the same or similar rein*orcements: ./0 recognition$status re*ers to the need to e,cel6 to achieve6 and to have others recogni8e oneMs -orth4 .10 dominance is the need to control the behavior o* others6 to be in charge6 or to gain !o-er over others4 .;0 inde!endence is the need to be *ree *rom the domination o* others4 .<0 !rotection$de!endency is the need to have others ta#e care o* us and to !rotect us *rom harm4 .=0 love and a3ection are needs to be -armly acce!ted by others and to be held in *riendly regard4 and .>0 !hysical com*ort includes those behaviors aimed at securing *ood6 good health6 and !hysical security2 Three need com!onents are: ./0 need !otential6 or the !ossible occurrences o* a set o* *unctionally related behaviors directed to-ard the satis*action o* similar goals4 .10 *reedom o* movement6 or a !ersonMs overall e,!ectation o* being rein*orced *or !er*orming those behaviors that are directed to-ard satis*ying some general need4 and .;0 need value6 or the e,tent to -hich !eo!le !re*er one set o* rein*orcements to another2
Deed com!onents are analogous to the more s!eci5c conce!ts o* behavior !otential6 e,!ectancy6 and rein*orcement value2 2eneral Pre#i*tion For)(la The general !rediction *ormula states that need !otential is a *unction o* *reedom o* movement and need value2 RotterMs t-o most *amous scales *or measuring generali8ed e,!ectancies are the Internal$",ternal 'ontrol cale and the Inter!ersonal Trust cale2 Internal an# E/ternal Control of Reinfor*e)ent The Internal$",ternal 'ontrol cale .!o!ularly called locus o* control scale0 attem!ts to measure the degree to -hich !eo!le !erceive a causal relationshi! bet-een their o-n e3orts and environmental conse?uences2 Inter+ersonal Tr(st S*ale The Inter!ersonal Trust cale measures the e,tent to -hich a !erson e,!ects the -ord or !romise o* another !erson to be true2 &ala#a+tive -ehavior Rotter de5ned malada!tive behavior as any !ersistent behavior that *ails to move a !erson closer to a desired goal2 It is usually the result o* unrealistically high goals in combination -ith lo- ability to achieve them2 Psy*hothera+y In general6 the goal o* RotterMs thera!y is to achieve harmony bet-een the clientMs *reedom o* movement and need value2 The thera!ist is actively involved in trying to ./0 change the im!ortance o* the clientMs goals and .10 eliminate their unrealistically lo- e,!ectancies *or success2 Chan.in. 2oals (alada!tive behaviors *ollo- *rom three categories o* ina!!ro!riate goals: ./0 conict bet-een goals6 .10 destructive goals6 and .;0 unrealistically lo*ty goals2 Eli)inatin. Low E/+e*tan*ies In hel!ing clients change loe,!ectancies o* success6 Rotter uses a variety o* a!!roaches6 including rein*orcing !ositive behaviors6 ignoring ina!!ro!riate behaviors6 giving advice6
modeling a!!ro!riate behaviors6 and !ointing out the long range conse?uences o* both !ositive and negative behaviors2 Intro#(*tion to &is*hel;s Co.nitive5 A$e*tive Personality Syste) %i#e &andura and Rotter6 (ischel believes that cognitive *actors6 such as e,!ectancies6 subjective !erce!tions6 values6 goals6 and !ersonal standards6 are im!ortant in sha!ing !ersonality2 In his early theory6 (ischel seriously ?uestioned the consistency o* !ersonality6 but more recently6 he and Luichi hoda have advanced the notion that behavior is also a *unction o* relatively stable !ersonal dis!ositions and cognitive$a3ective !rocesses interacting -ith a !articular situation2 -io.ra+hy of alter &is*hel Ealter (ischel -as born in /;6 in ienna6 the second son o* u!!er$middle$class !arents2 Ehen the Da8is invaded Austria in /;@6 his *amily moved to the Bnited tates and eventually settled in &roo#lyn2 (ischel received an (2A2 *rom 'ity 'ollege o* De- Lor# and a Ph2)2 *rom Ohio tate6 -here he -as inuenced by Julian Rotter2 He is currently a !ro*essor at 'olumbia Bniversity2 -a*'.ro(n# of the Co.nitive5A$e*tive Personality Syste) (ischel originally believed that human behavior -as mostly a *unction o* the situation6 but !resently he has recogni8ed the im!ortance o* relatively !ermanent cognitive$ a3ective units2 Devertheless6 (ischelMs theory continues to recogni8e the a!!arent inconsistency o* some behaviors2 Consisten*y Para#o/ The consistency !arado, re*ers to the observation that6 although both lay$ !eo!le and !ro*essionals tend to believe that behavior is ?uite consistent6 research suggests that it is not2 (ischel recogni8es that6 indeed6 some traits are consistent over time6 but he contends that there is little evidence to suggest that they are consistent *rom one situation to another2 Person5Sit(ation Intera*tion (ischel believes that behavior is best !redicted *rom an understanding o* the !erson6 the situation6 and the interaction bet-een !erson and
situation2 Thus6 behavior is not the result o* some global !ersonality trait6 but by !eo!leMs !erce!tions o* themselves in a !articular situation2 Co.nitive5A$e*tive Personality Syste) Ho-ever6 (ischel does not believe that inconsistencies in behavior are due solely to the situation4 he recogni8es that inconsistent behaviors reect stable !atterns o* variation -ithin a !erson2 He and hoda see these stable variations in behavior in the *ollo-ing *rame-or#: I* A6 then 4 but i* &6 then L2 Peo!leMs !attern o* variability is their behavioral signature o* !ersonality6 or their uni?ue and stable !attern o* behaving di3erently in di3erent situations2 -ehavior Pre#i*tion (ischelMs basic theoretical !osition *or !redicting and e,!laining behavior is as *ollo-s: I* !ersonality is a stable system that !rocesses in*ormation about the situation6 then individuals encountering di3erent situations should behave di3erently as situations vary2 There*ore6 (ischel believes that6 even though !eo!leMs behavior may reect some stability over time6 it tends to vary as situations vary2 Sit(ation 4aria1les ituation variables include all those stimuli that !eo!le attend to in a given situation2 Co.nitive5A$e*tive Units 'ognitive$a3ective units include all those !sychological6 social6 and !hysiological as!ects o* !eo!le that !ermit them to interact -ith their environment -ith some stability in their behavior2 (ischel identi5ed 5ve such units2 First are encoding strategies6 or !eo!leMs individuali8ed manner o* categori8ing in*ormation they receive *rom e,ternal stimuli2 econd are com!etencies and sel*$regulatory strategies2 One o* the most im!ortant o* these com!etencies is intelligence6 -hich (ischel argues is res!onsible *or the a!!arent consistency o* other traits2 In addition6 !eo!le use sel*$regulatory strategies to control their o-n behavior through sel*$*ormulated goals and sel*$ !roduced conse?uences2 The third cognitive a3ective units are e,!ectancies and belie*s6 or !eo!leMs
guesses about the conse?uences o* each o* the di3erent behavioral !ossibilities2 The *ourth cognitive$ a3ective unit includes !eo!leMs goals and values6 -hich tend to render behavior *airly consistent2 (ischelMs 5*th cognitive$a3ective unit includes a3ective res!onses6 including emotions6 *eelings6 and the a3ects that accom!any !hysiological reactions2 Relate# Resear*h The theories o* both Rotter and (ischel have s!ar#ed an abundance o* related research6 -ith RotterMs locus o* control being one o* the most *re?uently researched areas in !sychology and (ischelMs notion o* delay o* grati5cation and his cognitive$a3ective !ersonality system also receiving -ide attention2 Lo*(s of Control an# Health5 Relate# -ehaviors One adjunct o* the locus o* control conce!t is the health locus o* control6 and research in this area suggests that sel*$mastery o* health and !eo!leMs belie* about their !ersonal control over health$related behaviors !redict subse?uent health status2 This body o* research has included such health$ related behaviors as smo#ing6 abusing alcohol6 and un-ise eating2 In general6 this research indicates that !eo!le high on internal locus o* control6 com!ared -ith those high on e,ternal locus o* control6 are more li#ely to enact health$ related behaviors2 An Analysis of Rea*tions to the O< 6< Si)+son 4er#i*t (ischel6 hoda6 and t-o o* their colleagues used the cognitive$a3ective !ersonality system to analy8e the verdict in the O2 J2 im!son murder trial2 They *ound that "uro!ean Americans and A*rican Americans had di3erent -ays o* loo#ing at the im!son verdict2 Although their reactions tended to *ollo- along racial lines6 !artici!antsM race itsel* -as not as im!ortant as their thoughts and *eelings in determining their reactions to the verdict2 (ore s!eci5cally6 "uro!ean Americans -ho agreed -ith the verdict had thoughts and emotions very similar to those o* A*rican Americans -ho -ere elated by the verdict2 (oreover6 A*rican
Americans -ho disagreed -ith the verdict thought and *elt much the same as "uro!ean Americans -ho -ere dismayed by the not$guilty verdict2 Criti3(e of Co.nitive So*ial Learnin. Theory 'ognitive social learning theory combines the rigors o* learning theory -ith the s!eculative assum!tion that !eo!le are *or-ard$loo#ing beings2 It rates high on generating research and on internal consistency6 and it rates about average on its ability to be *alsi5ed6 to organi8e data6 and to guide action2 Con*e+t of H()anity Rotter and (ischel see !eo!le as goal$directed6 cognitive animals -hose !erce!tions o* events are more crucial than the events themselves2 'ognitive social learning theory rates very high on social inuences6 and high on uni?ueness o* the individual6 *ree choice6 teleology6 and conscious !rocesses2 On the dimension o* o!timism versus !essimism6 RotterMs vie- is slightly more o!timistic6 -hereas (ischelMs is about in the middle2
DISPOSITIONAL THEORIES CATTEL AND EYSENC8, TRAIT AND FACTOR THEORIES Overview of Fa*tor Analyti* Theory Raymond 'attell and Hans "ysenc# have each used *actor analysis to identi*y traits .that is6 relatively !ermanent dis!ositions o* !eo!le02 'attell has identi5ed a large number o* !ersonality traits6 -hereas "ysenc# has e,tracted only three general *actors2 -io.ra+hy of Ray)on# -< Cattell Raymond &2 'attell -as born in "ngland in /=6 educated at the Bniversity o* %ondon6 but s!ent most o* his !ro*essional career in the Bnited tates2 He held !ositions at 'olumbia Bniversity6 'lar# Bniversity6 Harvard Bniversity6 and the Bniversity o* Illinois6 -here he s!ent most o* his active career2 )uring the last 1 years o* his li*e6 he -as associated -ith the Ha-aii chool o* Pro*essional Psychology2 He died in /@6 a *e- -ee#s short o* his ;rd birthday2 -asi*s of Fa*tor Analysis Factor analysis is a mathematical !rocedure *or reducing a large number o* scores to a *emore general variables or *actors2 'orrelations o* the original6 s!eci5c scores -ith the *actors are called *actor loadings2 Traits generated through *actor analysis may be either uni!olar .scaled *rom 8ero to some large amount0 or bi!olar .having t-o o!!osing !oles6 such as introversion and e,traversion02 For *actors to have !sychological meaning6 the analyst must rotate the a,es on -hich the scores are !lotted2 "ysenc# used an orthogonal rotation -hereas 'attell *avored an obli?ue rotation2
The obli?ue rotation !rocedure ordinarily results in more traits than the orthogonal method2 Intro#(*tion to Cattell;s Trait Theory 'attell used an inductive a!!roach to identi*y traits4 that is6 he began -ith a large body o* data that he collected -ith no !reconceived hy!othesis or theory2 P Te*hni3(e 'attellMs P techni?ue is a correlational !rocedure that uses measures collected *rom one !erson on many di3erent occasions and is his attem!t to measure individual or uni?ue6 rather than common6 traits2 'attell also used the dR .di3erential R0 techni?ue6 -hich correlates the scores o* a large number o* !eo!le on many variables obtained at t-o di3erent occasions2 &y combining these t-o techni?ues6 'attell has measured both states .tem!orary conditions -ithin an individual0 and traits .relatively !ermanent dis!ositions o* an individual02 &e#ia of O1servation 'attell used three di3erent sources o* data that enter the correlation matri,: ./0 % data6 or a !ersonMs li*e record that comes *rom observations made by others4 .10 Q data6 -hich are based on ?uestionnaires4 and .;0 T data6 or in*ormation obtained *rom objective tests2 So(r*e Traits ource traits re*er to the underlying *actor or *actors res!onsible *or the intercorrelation among sur*ace traits2 They can be distinguished *rom trait indicators6 or sur*ace traits2 Personality Traits Personality traits include both common traits .shared by many !eo!le0 and uni?ue traits .!eculiar to one individual02 Personality traits can also be classi5ed into tem!erament6 motivation .dynamic06 and ability2 Te)+era)ent Traits Tem!erament traits are concerned -ith ho- a !erson behaves2 O* the ;= !rimary or 5rst$order traits 'attell has identi5ed6 all but one .intelligence0 is basically a tem!erament trait2 O* the 1;
normal traits6 /> -ere obtained through Q media and com!ose 'attellMs *amous /> PF scale2 The additional seven *actors that ma#e u! the 1; normal traits -ere originally identi5ed only through % data2 'attell believed that !athological !eo!le have the same 1; normal traits as other !eo!le6 but6 in addition6 they e,hibit one or more o* /1 abnormal traits2 Also6 a !ersonMs !athology may sim!ly be due to a normal trait that is carried to an e,treme2 Se*on#5Or#er Traits The ;= !rimary source traits tend to cluster together6 *orming eight clearly identi5able second$order traits2 The t-o strongest o* the second$order traits might be called e,traversion+introversion and an,iety2 Dyna)i* Traits In addition to tem!erament traits6 'attell recogni8ed motivational or dynamic traits6 -hich include attitudes6 ergs6 and sems2 Attit(#es An attitude re*ers to a s!eci5c course o* action6 or desire to act6 in res!onse to a given situation2 (otivation is usually ?uite com!le,6 so that a net-or# o* motives6 or dynamic lattice6 is ordinarily involved -ith an attitude2 In addition6 a subsidiation chain6 or a com!le, set o* subgoals6 underlies motivation2 Er.s "rgs are innate drives or motives6 such as se,6 hunger6 loneliness6 !ity6 *ear6 curiosity6 !ride6 sensuousness6 anger6 and greed that humans share -ith other !rimates2 Se)s ems are learned or ac?uired dynamic traits that can satis*y several ergs at the same time2 The sel*$sentiment is the most im!ortant sem in that it integrates the other sems2 The Dyna)i* Latti*e The dynamic lattice is a com!le, net-or# o* attitudes6 ergs6 and sems underlying a !ersonMs motivational structure2 2eneti* -asis of Traits
'attell and his colleagues !rovided estimates o* heritability o* the various source traits2 Heritability is an estimate o* the e,tent to -hich the variance o* a given trait is due to heredity2 'attell has *ound relatively high heritability values *or both uid intelligence .the ability to ada!t to ne- material0 and crystalli8ed intelligence .-hich de!ends on !rior learning06 suggesting that intelligence is due more to heredity than to environment2 Intro#(*tion to Eysen*';s Fa*tor Theory 'om!ared to 'attell6 "ysenc# ./0 -as more li#ely to theori8e be*ore collecting and *actor analy8ing data4 .10 e,tracted *e-er *actors4 and .;0 used a -ider variety o* a!!roaches to gather data2 -io.ra+hy of Hans 6< Eysen*' Hans J2 "ysenc# -as born in &erlin in //>6 but as a teenager6 he moved to "ngland to esca!e Da8i tyranny and made %ondon his home *or more than > years2 "ysenc# -as trained in the !sychometrically oriented !sychology de!artment o* the Bniversity o* %ondon6 *rom -hich he received a bachelorMs degree in /;@ and a Ph2)2 in /<2 "ysenc# -as !erha!s the most !roli5c -riter o* any !sychologist in the -orld6 and his boo#s and articles o*ten caused -orld$-ide controversy2 He died in e!tember o* /2 &eas(rin. Personality "ysenc# believed that genetic *actors -ere *ar more im!ortant than environmental ones in sha!ing !ersonality and that !ersonal traits could be measured by standardi8ed !ersonality inventories2
Criteria for I#entifyin. Fa*tors "ysenc# insisted that !ersonality *actors must: ./0 be based on strong !sychometric evidence6 .10 must !ossess heritability and 5t an acce!table genetic model6 .;0 ma#e sense theoretically6 and .<0 !ossess social relevance2 Hierar*hy of &eas(res "ysenc# recogni8ed a *our$level hierarchy o* behavior organi8ation: ./0 s!eci5c acts or cognitions4 .10 habitual acts or cognitions4 .;0 traits6 or !ersonal dis!ositions4 and .<0 ty!es or su!er*actors2
Di)ensions of Personality "ysenc#Ms methods o* measuring !ersonality limited the number o* !ersonality ty!es to a relatively small number2 Although many traits e,ist6 "ysenc# identi5ed only three major ty!es2 hat Are the &a0or Personality Fa*tors! "ysenc#Ms theory revolves around only three general bi!olar ty!es: e,traversion+introversion6 neuroticism+stability6 and !sychoticism+su!erego *unction2 All three have a strong genetic com!onent2 ",traverts are characteri8ed by sociability6 im!ulsiveness6 jocularity6 liveliness6 o!timism6 and ?uic#$ -ittedness6 -hereas introverts are ?uiet6 !assive6 unsociable6 care*ul6 reserved6 thought*ul6 !essimistic6 !eace*ul6 sober6 and controlled2 "ysenc#6 ho-ever6 believes that the !rinci!al di3erence bet-een e,traverts and introverts is one o* cortical arousal level2 Deurotic traits include an,iety6 hysteria6 and obsessive com!ulsive disorders2 &oth normal and abnormal individuals may score high on the neuroticism scale o* the "ysenc#Ms various !ersonality inventories2 Peo!le -ho score high on the !sychoticism scale are egocentric6 cold6 noncon*orming6 aggressive6 im!ulsive6 hostile6 sus!icious6 and antisocial2 (en tend to score higher than -omen on !sychoticism2 &eas(rin. S(+erfa*tors "ysenc# and his colleagues develo!ed *our !ersonality inventories to measure su!er*actors or ty!es2 The t-o most *re?uently used by current researchers are the "ysenc# Personality Inventory .-hich measures only " and D0 and the "ysenc# Personality Questionnaire .-hich also measures P02
-iolo.i*al -ases of Personality "ysenc# believed that P6 "6 and D all have a !o-er*ul biological com!onent6 and he cited as evidence the e,istence o* these three ty!es in a -ide variety o* nations and languages2
Personality an# -ehavior "ysenc# argued that di3erent combinations o* P6 " and D relate to a large number o* behaviors and !rocesses6 such as academic !er*ormance6 creativity6 and antisocial behavior2 He cautioned that !sychologists can be misled i* they do not consider the various combinations o* !ersonality dimensions2 Personality an# Disease For many years6 "ysenc# researched the relationshi! bet-een !ersonality *actors and disease2 He teamed -ith Ronald rossarth (atice# to study the connection bet-een characteristics and both cancer and cardiovascular disease and *ound that !eo!le -ith a hel!less+ho!eless attitude -ere more li#ely to die *rom cancer6 -hereas !eo!le -ho reacted to *rustration -ith anger and emotional arousal -ere much more li#ely to die *rom cardiovascular disease2 Relate# Resear*h The theories o* both 'attell and "ysenc# have been highly !roductive in terms o* research6 due in !art to 'attellMs /> PF Questionnaire and "ysenc#Ms various !ersonality inventories2 ome o* this research has loo#ed at !ersonality *actors and the creativity o* scientists and artists2 In addition6 some o* "ysenc#Ms research attem!ted to sho- a biological basis o* !ersonality2 Personalities of Creative S*ientists an# Artists "arly research using the /> PF *ound that creative scientists com!ared -ith either the general !o!ulation or less creative scientists6 -ere more intelligent6 outgoing6 adventurous6 sensitive6 sel*$suCcient6 dominant6 and driven2 Other research *ound that *emale scientists6 com!ared to other -omen6 -ere more dominant6 con5dent6 intelligent6 radical6 and adventurous2 Research on the !ersonality o* artists *ound that -riters and artists -ere more intelligent6 dominant6 adventurous6 emotionally sensitive6 radical6 and sel*$suCcient than other !eo!le2 %ater research *ound that creative artists scored high on "ysenc#Ms neuroticism and !sychoticism scales6 indicating that they -ere more
an,ious6 sensitive6 obsessive6 im!ulsive6 hostile6 and -illing to ta#e ris#s than other !eo!le2 -iolo.y an# Personality I* !ersonality has a strong biological *oundation6 then researchers should 5nd very similar !ersonality ty!es in various cultures around the -orld2 tudies in 1< countries *ound a high degree o* similarity among these di3erent cultures2 "ysenc#Ms later -or# investigated !ersonality *actors across ;= "uro!ean6 Asian6 A*rican6 and American cultures and *ound that !ersonality *actors are ?uite universal6 thus su!!orting the biological nature o* !ersonality2 Criti3(e of Trait an# Fa*tor Theories 'attell and "ysenc#Ms theories rate high on !arsimony6 on their ability to generate research6 and on their use*ulness in organi8ing data4 they are about average on *alsi5ability6 use*ulness to the !ractitioner6 and internal consistency2 Con*e+t of H()anity 'attell and "ysenc# believe that human !ersonality is largely the !roduct o* genetics and not the environment2 Thus6 both are rated very high on biological inuences and very loon social *actors2 In addition6 both rate about average on conscious versus unconscious inuences and high on the uni?ueness o* individuals2 The conce!ts o* *ree choice6 o!timism versus !essimism6 and causality versus teleology do not a!!ly to 'attell and "ysenc#2
Str(*t(re of Personality According to All!ort6 the basic units o* !ersonality are !ersonal dis!ositions and the !ro!rium2
ALLPORT, INDI4IDUAL
PSYCHOLO2Y
OF
THE
Overview of All+ort;s Psy*holo.y of the In#ivi#(al ordon All!ort6 -hose major em!hasis -as on the uni?ueness o* each individual6 built a theory o* !ersonality as a reaction against -hat he regarded as the non$humanistic !ositions o* both !sychoanalysis and animal$ based learning theory2 Ho-ever6 All!ort -as eclectic in his a!!roach and acce!ted many o* the ideas o* other theorists2 -io.ra+hy of 2or#on All+ort ordon E2 All!ort -as born in Indiana in /@2 He received an undergraduate degree in !hiloso!hy and economics *rom Harvard6 and taught in "uro!e *or a year2 Ehile in "uro!e6 he had a *ortuitous meeting -ith igmund Freud in ienna6 -hich hel!ed him decide to com!lete a Ph2)2 in !sychology2 A*ter receiving his Ph2)2 *rom Harvard6 All!ort s!ent t-o years studying under some o* the great erman !sychologists6 but he returned to teach at Harvard2 T-o years later he too# a !osition at )artmouth6 but a*ter *our years at )artmouth6 he again returned to Harvard6 -here he remained until his death in />2 All+ort;s A++roa*h to Personality All!ort believed that !sychologically healthy humans are motivated by !resent mostly conscious drives and they not only see# to reduce tensions but to establish ne- ones2 He also believed that !eo!le are ca!able o* !roactive behavior6 -hich suggests that they can consciously behave in ne- and creative -ays that *oster their o-n change and gro-th2 He called his study o* the individual mor!hogenic science and contrasted it -ith traditional nomothetic methods2 Personality De"ne# All!ort de5ned !ersonality as the dynamic organi8ation -ithin the individual o* those !sycho!hysical systems that determine his characteristic behavior and thought2
Personal Dis+ositions All!ort distinguished bet-een common traits6 -hich !ermit inter$individual com!arisons6 and !ersonal dis!ositions6 -hich are !eculiar to the individual2 He recogni8ed three overla!!ing levels o* !ersonal dis!ositions6 the most general o* -hich are cardinal dis!ositions that are so obvious and dominating that they cannot be hidden *rom other !eo!le2 Dot everyone has a cardinal dis!osition6 but all !eo!le have = to / central dis!ositions6 or characteristics around -hich their lives revolve2 In addition6 everyone has a great number o* secondary dis!ositions6 -hich are less reliable and less cons!icuous than central traits2 All!ort *urther divided !ersonal dis!ositions into ./0 motivational dis!ositions6 -hich are strong enough to initiate action and .10 stylistic dis!ositions6 -hich re*er to the manner in -hich an individual behaves and -hich guide rather than initiate action2 Pro+ri() The !ro!rium re*ers to all those behaviors and characteristics that !eo!le regard as -arm and central in their lives2 All!ort !re*erred the term !ro!rium over sel* or ego because the latter terms could im!ly an object or thing -ithin a !erson that controls behavior6 -hereas !ro!rium suggests the core o* oneMs !ersonhood2 &otivation All!ort insisted that an ade?uate theory o* motivation must consider the notion that motives change as !eo!le mature and also that !eo!le are motivated by !resent drives and -ants2 Rea*tive an# Proa*tive Theories of &otivation To All!ort6 !eo!le not only react to their environment6 but they also sha!e their environment and cause it to react to them2 His !roactive a!!roach em!hasi8ed the idea that !eo!le o*ten see# additional tension and that they
!ur!ose*ully act on their environment in a -ay that *osters gro-th to-ard !sychological health2 F(n*tional A(tono)y All!ortMs most distinctive and controversial conce!t is his theory o* *unctional autonomy6 -hich holds that some .but not all0 human motives are *unctionally inde!endent *rom the original motive res!onsible *or a !articular behavior2 All!ort recogni8ed t-o levels o* *unctional autonomy: ./0 !erseverative *unctional autonomy6 -hich is the tendency o* certain basic behaviors .such as addictive behaviors0 to continue in the absence o* rein*orcement6 and .10 !ro!riate *unctional autonomy6 -hich re*ers to sel*$sustaining motives .such as interests0 that are related to the !ro!rium2 Cons*io(s an# Un*ons*io(s &otivation Although All!ort em!hasi8ed conscious motivation more than any other !ersonality theorist6 he did not com!letely overloo# the !ossible inuence o* unconscious motives on !athological behaviors2 (ost !eo!le6 ho-ever6 are a-are o* -hat they are doing and -hy they are doing it2 The Psy*holo.i*ally Healthy Personality All!ort believed that !eo!le are motivated by both the need to adjust to their environment and to gro- to-ard !sychological health4 that is6 !eo!le are both reactive and !roactive2 Devertheless6 !sychologically healthy !ersons are more li#ely to engage in !roactive behaviors2 All!ort listed si, criteria *or !sychological health: ./0 an e,tension o* the sense o* sel*6 .10 -arm relationshi!s -ith others6 .;0 emotional security or sel*$acce!tance6 .<0 a realistic vie- o* the -orld6 .=0 insight and humor6 and .>0 a uni*ying !hiloso!hy o* li*e2 The St(#y of the In#ivi#(al All!ort strongly *elt that !sychology should develo! and use research methods that study the individual rather than grou!s2 &or+ho.eni* S*ien*e Traditional !sychology relies on nomothetic science6 -hich see#s
general la-s *rom a study o* grou!s o* !eo!le6 but All!ort used idiogra!hic or mor!hogenic !rocedures that study the single case2 Bnli#e many !sychologists6 All!ort -as -illing to acce!t sel*$re!orts at *ace value2 The Diaries of &arion Taylor In the late /;Ms6 All!ort and his -i*e became ac?uainted -ith diaries -ritten by -oman they called (arion Taylor2 These diaries$along -ith descri!tions o* (arion Taylor by her mother6 younger sister6 *avorite teacher6 *riends6 and a neighbor$ !rovided the All!orts -ith a large ?uantity o* material that could be studied using mor!hogenic methods2 Ho-ever6 the All!orts never !ublished this material2 Letters fro) 6enny "ven though All!ort never !ublished data *rom (arion TaylorMs dairies6 he did !ublish a second case study$that o* Jenny ove (asterson2 Jenny had -ritten a series o* ;/ letters to ordon and Ada All!ort6 -hose son had been a roommate o* JennyMs son2 T-o o* ordon All!ortMs students6 Al*red &ald-in and Je3rey Paige used a !ersonal structure analysis and *actor analysis res!ectively6 -hile All!ort used a commonsense a!!roach to discern JennyMs !ersonality structure as revealed by her letters2 All three a!!roaches yielded similar results -hich suggest that mor!hogenic studies can be reliable2 Relate# Resear*h All!ort believed that a dee! religious commitment -as a mar# o* a mature !erson6 but he also sa- that many regular churchgoers did not have a mature religious orientation and -ere ca!able o* dee! racial and social !rejudice2 In other -ords6 he sa- a curvilinear relationshi! bet-een church attendance and !rejudice2 The Reli.io(s Orientation S*ale This insight led All!ort to develo! and use the Religious Orientation cale to assess both an intrinsic orientation and an e,trinsic orientation to-ard religion2 All!ort and Ross *ound that !eo!le -ith an e,trinsic orientation to-ard religion tend to be ?uite !rejudiced6 -hereas
those -ith an intrinsic orientation tend to be lo- on racial and social !rejudice2 Reli.io(s Orientation an# Psy*holo.i*al Health Research has *ound that !eo!le -ho score high on the intrinsic scale o* the RO tend to have overall better !ersonal *unctioning than those -ho score high on the ",trinsic scale2 In general6 these studies have *ound that some highly religious !eo!le have strong !sychological health -hereas others su3er *rom a variety o* !sychological disorders2 The !rinci!al di3erence bet-een the t-o grou!s is one o* intrinsic or e,trinsic religious orientation4 that is6 !eo!le -ith an intrinsic orientation tend to be !sychologically healthy6 but those -ith an e,trinsic orientation su3er *rom !oor !sychological health2 Criti3(e of All+ort All!ort has -ritten elo?uently about !ersonality6 but his vie-s are based more on !hiloso!hical s!eculation and common sense than on scienti5c studies2 As a conse?uence6 his theory is very narro-6 being limited mostly to a model o* human motivation2 Thus6 it rates lo- on its ability to organi8e !sychological data and to be *alsi5ed2 It rates high on !arsimony and internal consistency and about average on its ability to generate research and to hel! the !ractitioner2 Con*e+t of H()anity All!ort sa- !eo!le as thin#ing6 !roactive6 !ur!ose*ul beings -ho are generally a-are o* -hat they are doing and -hy2 On the si, dimensions *or a conce!t o* humanity6 All!ort rates higher than any other theorist on conscious inuences and on the uni?ueness o* the individual2 He rates high on *ree choice6 o!timism6 and teleology6 and about average on social inuences2
HU&ANISTICEGISTENTIAL THEORIES 8ELLY, PERSONAL CONSTRUCT THEORY Overview of 8elly;s Personal Constr(*t Theory KellyMs theory o* !ersonal constructs can be seen as a metatheory6 or a theory about
theories2 It holds that !eo!le antici!ate events by the meanings or inter!retations that they !lace on those events2 Kelly called these inter!retations !ersonal constructs2 His !hiloso!hical !osition6 called constructive alternativism6 assumes that alternative inter!retations are al-ays available to !eo!le2 -io.ra+hy of 2eor.e 8elly eorge Kelly -as born on a *arm in Kansas in /=2 )uring his school years and his early !ro*essional career6 he dabbled in a -ide variety o* jobs6 but he eventually received a Ph2)2 in !sychology *rom the tate Bniversity o* Io-a2 He began his academic career at Fort Hays tate 'ollege in Kansas6 then a*ter Eorld Ear II6 he too# a !osition at Ohio tate2 He remained there until />= -hen he joined the *aculty at &randeis2 He died t-o years later at age >/2 8elly;s Philoso+hi*al Position Kelly believed that !eo!le construe events according to their !ersonal constructs rather than reality2 Person as S*ientist Peo!le generally attem!t to solve everyday !roblems in much the same *ashion as scientists4 that is6 they observe6 as# ?uestions6 *ormulate hy!otheses6 in*er conclusions6 and !redict *uture events2 S*ientist as Person &ecause scientists are !eo!le6 their !ronouncements should be regarded -ith the same s#e!ticism as any other data2 "very scienti5c theory can be vie-ed *rom an alternate angle6 and every com!etent scientist should be o!en to changing his or her theory2 Constr(*tive Alternativis) Kelly believed that all our inter!retations o* the -orld are subject to revision or re!lacement6 an assum!tion he called constructive alternativism2 He *urther stressed that6 because !eo!le can construe their -orld *rom di3erent angles6 observations that are valid at one time may be *alse at a later time2
Personal Constr(*ts
Kelly believed that !eo!le loo# at their -orld through tem!lates that they create and then attem!t to 5t over the realities o* the -orld2 He called these tem!lates or trans!arent !atterns !ersonal constructs6 -hich he believed sha!e behavior2 -asi* Post(late Kelly e,!ressed his theory in one basic !ostulate and // su!!orting corollaries2 The basic !ostulate assumes that human behavior is sha!ed by the -ay !eo!le antici!ate the *uture2 S(++ortin. Corollaries The // su!!orting corollaries can all be in*erred *rom this basic !ostulate: ./0 Although no t-o events are e,actly ali#e6 -e construe similar events as i* they -ere the same6 and this is KellyMs construction corollary2 .10 The individuality corollary states that because !eo!le have di3erent e,!eriences6 they can construe the same event in di3erent -ays2 .;0 The organi8ation corollary assumes that !eo!le organi8e their !ersonal constructs in a hierarchical system6 -ith some constructs in a su!erordinate !osition and others subordinate to them2 .<0 The dichotomy corollary assumes that !eo!le construe events in an either+or manner6 e2g26 good or bad2 .=0 KellyMs choice corollary assumes that !eo!le tend to choose the alternative in a dichotomi8ed construct that they see as e,tending the range o* their *uture choices2 .>0 The range corollary states that constructs are limited to a !articular range o* convenience4 that is6 they are not relevant to all situations2 .0 KellyMs e,!erience corollary suggests that !eo!le continually revise their !ersonal constructs as the result o* their e,!eriences2 .@0 The modulation corollary assumes that only !ermeable constructs lead to change4 concrete constructs resist modi5cation through e,!erience2 .0 The *ragmentation corollary states that !eo!leMs behavior can be inconsistent because their construct systems can readily admit incom!atible elements2
./0 The commonality corollary suggests that our !ersonal constructs tend to be similar to the construction systems o* other !eo!le to the e,tent that -e share e,!eriences -ith them2 .//0 The sociality corollary states that !eo!le are able to communicate -ith other !eo!le because they can construe those !eo!leMs constructions2 Eith the sociality corollary6 Kelly introduced the conce!t o* role6 -hich re*ers to a !attern o* behavior that stems *rom !eo!leMs understanding o* the constructs o* others2 "ach o* us has a core role and numerous !eri!heral roles2 A core role gives us a sense o* identity -hereas !eri!heral roles are less central to our sel*$conce!t2 A++li*ations of Personal Constr(*t Theory KellyMs many years o* clinical e,!erience enabled him to evolve conce!ts o* abnormal develo!ment and !sychothera!y6 and to develo! a Role 'onstruct Re!ertory .Re!0 Test2 A1nor)al Develo+)ent Kelly sa- normal !eo!le as analogous to com!etent scientists -ho test reasonable hy!otheses6 objectively vie- the results6 and -illingly change their theories -hen the data -arrant it2 imilarly6 unhealthy !eo!le are li#e incom!etent scientists -ho test unreasonable hy!otheses6 reject or distort legitimate results6 and re*use to amend outdated theories2 Kelly identi5ed *our common elements in most human disturbances: ./0 threat6 or the !erce!tion that oneMs basic constructs may be drastically changed4 .10 *ear6 -hich re?uires an incidental rather than a com!rehensive restructuring o* oneMs construct system4 .;0 an,iety6 or the recognition that one cannot ade?uately deal -ith a nesituation4 and .<0 guilt6 de5ned as the sense o* having lost oneMs core role structure2 Psy*hothera+y Kelly insisted that clients should set their o-n goals *or thera!y and that they should be active !artici!ants in the
thera!eutic !rocess2 He sometimes used a !rocedure called 5,ed$role thera!y in -hich clients act out a !redetermined role *or several -ee#s2 &y !laying the !art o* a !sychologically healthy !erson6 clients may discover !reviously hidden as!ects o* themselves2 The Re+ Test The !ur!ose o* the Re! test is to discover -ays in -hich clients construe signi5cant !eo!le in their lives2 'lients !lace names o* !eo!le they #no- on a re!ertory grid in order to identi*y both similarities and di3erences among these !eo!le2
Relate# Resear*h KellyMs !ersonal construct theory and his Re! test have generated a substantial amount o* em!irical research in both the Bnited tates and the Bnited Kingdom2 The Re+ Test an# Chil#ren Bse o* the Re! test -ith children reveals that the sel*$constructs o* de!ressed adolescents are mar#ed by lo- sel*$esteem6 !essimism6 and an e,ternal locus o* control2 Other research -ith children and the Re! test sho-s that !readolescents construe themselves and others in -ays consistent -ith the &ig Five !ersonality *actors .e,traversion6 agreeableness6 conscientiousness6 emotional stability6 and intelligence06 thus demonstrating that the &ig Five *actors can come *rom instruments other than standard !ersonality tests2 The Re+ Test an# the Real Self 4ers(s the I#eal Self Other research has *ound that the Re! test -as use*ul in ./0 !redicting adherence to a !hysical activity !rogram6 .10 detecting di3erences bet-een the real sel* and the ideal sel*6 and .;0 measuring neuroticism2 The Re! Test and the Pain Patient A number o* studies6 including the %arge and trong ./0 study6 have *ound that the Re! test can be a reliable and valid instrument *or measuring !ain2
Criti3(e of 8elly KellyMs theory !robably is most a!!licable to relatively normal6 intelligent !eo!le2 Bn*ortunately6 it !ays scant attention to !roblems o* motivation6 develo!ment6 and cultural inuences2 On the si, criteria o* a use*ul theory6 it rates very high on !arsimony and internal consistency and about average on its ability to generate research2 Ho-ever6 it rates lo- on its ability to be *alsi5ed6 to guide the !ractitioner6 and to organi8e #no-ledge2 Con*e+t of H()anity Kelly sa- !eo!le as antici!ating the *uture and living their lives in accordance -ith those antici!ations2 His conce!t o* elaborative choice suggests that !eo!le increase their range o* *uture choices by the !resent choices they *reely ma#e2 Thus6 KellyMs theory rates very high in teleology and high in choice and o!timism2 In addition6 it receives high ratings *or conscious inuences and *or its em!hasis on the uni?ueness o* the individual2 Finally6 !ersonal construct theory is about average on social inuences2
RO2ERS, PERSON5CENTERED THEORY Overview of Ro.ers;s Person5Centere# Theory Although 'arl Rogers is best #no-n as the *ounder o* client$centered thera!y6 he also develo!ed an im!ortant theory o* !ersonality that underscores his a!!roach to thera!y2 -io.ra+hy of Carl Ro.ers 'arl Rogers -as born into a devoutly religious *amily in a 'hicago suburb in /12 A*ter the *amily moved to a *arm near 'hicago6 'arl became interested in scienti5c *arming and learned to a!!reciate the scienti5c method2 Ehen he graduated *rom the Bniversity o* Eisconsin6 Rogers intended to become a minister6 but he gave u! that notion and com!leted a Ph2)2 in !sychology *rom 'olumbia Bniversity in /;/2 In /<6 a*ter nearly a do8en years a-ay *rom an academic li*e -or#ing as a clinician6 he too# a !osition at Ohio tate Bniversity2 %ater6 he held !ositions at the Bniversity o* 'hicago and the Bniversity o* Eisconsin2 In /><6 he moved to 'ali*ornia -here he hel!ed *ound the 'enter *or tudies o* the Person2 He died in /@ at age @=2 Person5Centere# Theory
Rogers care*ully cra*ted his !erson$centered theory o* !ersonality to meet his o-n demands *or a structural model that could e,!lain and !redict outcomes o* client$centered thera!y2 Ho-ever6 the theory has im!lications *ar beyond the thera!eutic setting2 -asi* Ass()+tions Person$centered theory rests on t-o basic assum!tions: ./0 the *ormative tendency6 -hich states that all matter6 both organic and inorganic6 tends to evolve *rom sim!ler to more com!le, *orms6 and .10 an actuali8ing tendency6 -hich suggests that all living things6 including humans6 tend to move to-ard com!letion6 or *ul5llment o* !otentials2 Ho-ever6 in order *or !eo!le .or !lants and animals0 to become actuali8ed6 certain identi5able conditions must be !resent2 For a !erson6 these conditions include a relationshi! -ith another !erson -ho is genuine6 or congruent6 and -ho demonstrates com!lete acce!tance and em!athy *or that !erson2 The Self an# Self5A*t(ali7ation A sense o* sel* or !ersonal identity begins to emerge during in*ancy6 and6 once established6 it allo-s a !erson to strive to-ard sel*$actuali8ation6 -hich is a subsystem o* the actuali8ation tendency and re*ers to the tendency to actuali8e the sel* as !erceived in a-areness2 The sel* has t-o subsystems: ./0 the sel*$conce!t6 -hich includes all those as!ects o* oneMs identity that are !erceived in a-areness6 and .10 the ideal sel*6 or our vie- o* our sel* as -e -ould li#e to be or as!ire to be2 Once *ormed6 the sel*$ conce!t tends to resist change6 and ga!s bet-een it and the ideal sel*6 result in incongruence and various levels o* !sycho!athology2 Awareness Peo!le are a-are o* both their sel*$ conce!t and their ideal sel*6 although a-areness need not be accurate or at a high level2 Rogers sa- !eo!le as having e,!eriences on three levels o* a-areness: ./0 those that are symboli8ed belo- the threshold o* a-areness and are either ignored or denied6 that is6 subceived6 or not allo-ed into the sel*$conce!t4 .10 those
that are distorted or resha!ed to 5t it into an e,isting sel*$conce!t4 and .;0 those that are consistent -ith the sel*$ conce!t and thus are accurately symboli8ed and *reely admitted to the sel*$structure2 Any e,!erience not consistent -ith the sel*$conce!t 9 even !ositive e,!eriences 9 -ill be distorted or denied2 Nee#s The t-o basic human needs are maintenance and enhancement6 but !eo!le also need !ositive regard and sel*$regard2 (aintenance needs include those *or *ood6 air6 and sa*ety6 but they also include our tendency to resist change and to maintain our sel*$ conce!t as it is2 "nhancement needs include needs to gro- and to reali8e oneMs *ull human !otential2 As a-areness o* sel* emerges6 an in*ant begins to receive !ositive regard *rom another !erson$that is6 to be loved or acce!ted2 Peo!le naturally value those e,!eriences that satis*y their needs *or !ositive regard6 but6 un*ortunately6 this value sometimes becomes more !o-er*ul than the re-ard they receive *or meeting their organismic needs2 This sets u! the condition o* incongruence6 -hich is e,!erienced -hen basic organismic needs are denied or distorted in *avor o* needs to be loved or acce!ted2 As a result o* e,!eriences -ith !ositive regard6 !eo!le develo! the need *or sel*$regard6 -hich they ac?uire only a*ter they !erceive that someone else cares *or them and values them2 Once established6 ho-ever6 sel*$regard becomes autonomous and no longer de!endent on anotherMs continuous !ositive evaluation2 Con#itions of orth (ost !eo!le are not unconditionally acce!ted2 Instead6 they receive conditions o* -orth4 that is6 they *eel that they are loved and acce!ted only -hen and i* they meet the conditions set by others2 Psy*holo.i*al Sta.nation Ehen the organismic sel* and the sel*$ conce!t are at variance -ith one another6 a !erson may e,!erience incongruence6 -hich includes
vulnerability6 threat6 de*ensiveness6 and even disorgani8ation2 The greater the incongruence bet-een sel*$conce!t and the organismic e,!erience6 the more vulnerable that !erson becomes2 An,iety e,ists -henever the !erson becomes dimly a-are o* the discre!ancy bet-een organismic e,!erience and sel*$conce!t6 -hereas threat is e,!erienced -henever the !erson becomes more clearly a-are o* this incongruence2 To !revent incongruence6 !eo!le react -ith de*ensiveness6 ty!ically in the *orms o* distortion and denial2 Eith distortion6 !eo!le misinter!ret an e,!erience so that it 5ts into their sel*$conce!t4 -ith denial6 !eo!le re*use to allo- the e,!erience into a-areness2 Ehen !eo!leMs de*enses *ail to o!erate !ro!erly6 their behavior becomes disorgani8ed or !sychotic2 Eith disorgani8ation6 !eo!le sometimes behave consistently -ith their organismic e,!erience and sometimes in accordance -ith their shattered sel*$ conce!t2 Psy*hothera+y For client$centered !sychothera!y to be e3ective6 certain conditions are necessary: A vulnerable client must have contact o* some duration -ith a counselor -ho is congruent6 and -ho demonstrates unconditional !ositive regard and listens -ith em!athy to a client2 The client must in turn !erceive the congruence6 unconditional !ositive regard6 and em!athy o* the thera!ist2 I* these conditions are !resent6 then the !rocess o* thera!y -ill ta#e !lace and certain !redictable outcomes -ill result2 Con#itions Three conditions are crucial to client$ centered thera!y6 and Rogers called them the necessary and suCcient conditions *or thera!eutic gro-th2 The 5rst is counselor congruence6 or a thera!ist -hose organismic e,!eriences are matched by a-areness and by the ability and -illingness to o!enly e,!ress these *eelings2 'ongruence is more basic than the other t-o conditions because it is a relatively stable characteristic o* the thera!ist6 -hereas the other t-o conditions are limited to a s!eci5c thera!eutic relationshi!2 Bnconditional !ositive
regard e,ists -hen the thera!ist acce!ts the client -ithout conditions or ?uali5cations2 "m!athic listening is the thera!istMs ability to sense the *eelings o* a client and also to communicate these !erce!tions so that the client #no-s that another !erson has entered into his or her -orld o* *eelings -ithout !rejudice6 !rojection6 or evaluation2 Pro*ess Rogers sa- the !rocess o* thera!eutic change as ta#ing !lace in seven stages: ./0 clients are un-illing to communicate anything about themselves4 .10 they discuss only e,ternal events and other !eo!le4 .;0 they begin to tal# about themselves6 but still as an object4 .<0 they discuss strong emotions that they have *elt in the !ast4 .=0 they begin to e,!ress !resent *eelings4 .>0 they *reely allo- into a-areness those e,!eriences that -ere !reviously denied or distorted4 and .0 they e,!erience irreversible change and gro-th2 O(t*o)es Ehen client$centered thera!y is success*ul6 clients become more congruent6 less de*ensive6 more o!en to e,!erience6 and more realistic2 The ga! bet-een their ideal sel* and their true sel* narro-s and6 as a conse?uence6 clients e,!erience less !hysiological and !sychological tension2 Finally6 clientsM inter!ersonal relationshi!s im!rove because they are more acce!ting o* sel* and others2 The Person of To)orrow Rogers -as vitally interested in the !sychologically healthy !erson6 called the *ully *unctioning !erson or the !erson o* tomorro-2 Rogers listed seven characteristics o* the !erson o* tomorro-2 The !erson o* tomorro./0 is able to adjust to change6 .10 is o!en to e,!erience6 .;0 is able to live *ully in the moment6 .<0 is able to have harmonious relations -ith others6 .=0 is more integrated -ith no arti5cial boundaries bet-een conscious and unconscious !rocesses6 .>0 has a basic trust o* human nature6 and
.0 enjoys a greater richness in li*e2 The *actors have im!lications both *or the individual and *or society2 Philoso+hy of S*ien*e Rogers agreed -ith (aslo- that scientists must care about and be involved in the !henomena they study and that !sychologists should limit their objectivity and !recision to their methodology6 not to the creation o* hy!otheses or to the communication o* research 5ndings2 The Chi*a.o St(#y Ehen he taught at the Bniversity o* 'hicago6 Rogers6 along -ith colleagues and graduate students6 conducted a so!histicated and com!le, study on the e3ectiveness o* !sychothera!y2 Hy+otheses This study tested *our broad hy!otheses2 As a conse?uence o* thera!y ./0 clients -ill become more a-are o* their *eelings and e,!eriences6 .10 the ga! bet-een the real sel* and the ideal sel* -ill lessen4 .;0 clientsM behavior -ill become more sociali8ed and mature4 and .<0 clients -ill become both more sel*$acce!ting and more acce!ting o* others2 ðo# Partici!ants -ere adults -ho sought thera!y at the Bniversity o* 'hicago counseling center2 ",!erimenters as#ed hal* o* them to -ait > days be*ore receiving thera!y -hile beginning thera!y -ith the other hal*2 In addition6 they tested a control grou! o* normals -ho -ere matched -ith the thera!y grou!2 This control grou! -as also divided into a -ait grou! and a non$ -ait grou!2 Fin#in.s Rogers and his associates *ound that the thera!y grou!$but not the -ait grou!$sho-ed a lessening o* the ga! bet-een real sel* and ideal sel*2 They also *ound that clients -ho im!roved during thera!y$but not those rated as least im!roved$sho-ed changes in social behavior6 as noted by *riends2 S())ary of Res(lts Although client$centered thera!y -as success*ul in changing clients6 it -as not success*ul in bringing them to the
level o* the *ully *unctioning !ersons or even to the level o* normal !sychological health2 Relate# Resear*h (ore recently6 other researchers have investigated RogersMs *acilitative conditions both outside thera!y and -ithin thera!y2 Fa*ilitative Con#itions O(tsi#e Thera+y In the Bnited Kingdom6 )uncan 'ramer has conducted a series o* studies investigating the thera!eutic ?ualities o* RogersMs *acilitative conditions in inter!ersonal relationshi!s outside o* thera!y2 'ramer *ound !ositive relationshi!s bet-een sel*$esteem6 as measured by the Rosenberg el*$ "steem cale6 and the *our *acilitative conditions that ma#e u! the &arrett %ennard Relationshi! Inventory$level o* regard6 unconditionality o* regard6 congruence6 and em!athy2 (oreover6 the direction o* the relationshi! strongly suggested that RogersMs *acilitative conditions !recede the ac?uisition o* higher levels o* sel*$esteem2 Fa*ilitative Con#itions an# Co(+les Thera+y In &elgium6 Al*ons ansteen-egen ./>0 used a revised *orm o* the &arrett$%ennard to determine i* RogersMs *acilitative conditions related to success during cou!les thera!y2 He *ound that client$centered cou!les7 thera!y can bring about !ositive changes in cou!les6 and that some o* these changes lasted *or at least seven years a*ter thera!y2 Criti3(e of Ro.ers RogersMs !erson$centered theory is one o* the most care*ully constructed o* all !ersonality theories6 and it meets ?uite -ell each o* the si, criteria o* a use*ul theory2 It rates very high on internal consistency and !arsimony6 high on its ability to be *alsi5ed and to generate research6 and high$average on its ability to organi8e #no-ledge and to serve as a guide to the !ractitioner2 Con*e+t of H()anity Rogers believed that humans have the ca!acity to change and gro-$!rovided that certain necessary and suCcient conditions are !resent2 There*ore6 his theory rates very high
on o!timism2 In addition6 it rates high on *ree choice6 teleology6 conscious motivation6 social inuences6 and the uni?ueness o* the individual2
&ASLO%S HOLISTIC5DYNA&IC THEORY Overview of &aslow;s Holisti*5Dyna)i* Theory Abraham (aslo-Ms holistic$dynamic theory holds that !eo!le are continually motivated by one or more needs6 and that6 under the !ro!er circumstances6 they can reach a level o* !sychological health called sel*$actuali8ation2 -io.ra+hy of A1raha) H< &aslow Abraham H2 (aslo- -as born in De- Lor# in /@6 the oldest o* seven children o* Russian Je-ish immigrants2 A*ter t-o or three mediocre years as a college student6 his -or# im!roved at about the time he -as married2 He received both a bachelorMs degree and a Ph2)2 *rom the Bniversity o* Eisconsin -here he -or#ed -ith Harry Harlo- conducting animal studies2 (ost o* his !ro*essional career -as s!ent at &roo#lyn 'ollege and at &randeis Bniversity2 Poor health *orced him to move to 'ali*ornia -here he died in / at age >12 &aslow;s 4iew of &otivation (aslo-Ms theory rests on 5ve basic assum!tions about motivation: ./0 the -hole organism is motivated at any one time4 .10 motivation is com!le,6 and unconscious motives o*ten underlie behavior4 .;0 !eo!le are continually motivated by one need or another4 .<0 !eo!le in di3erent cultures are all
motivated by the same basic needs4 and .=0 needs can be arranged on a hierarchy2 Hierar*hy of Nee#s (aslo- held that lo-er level needs have !re!otency over higher level needs4 that is6 they must be satis5ed be*ore higher needs become motivators2 (aslo-Ms hierarchy includes ./0 !hysiological needs6 such as o,ygen6 *ood6 -ater6 and so on4 .10 sa*ety needs6 -hich include !hysical security6 stability6 de!endency6 !rotection6 and *reedom *rom danger6 and -hich result in basic an,iety i* not satis5ed4 .;0 love and belongingness needs6 including the desire *or *riendshi!6 the -ish *or a mate and children6 and the need to belong4 .<0 esteem needs6 -hich *ollo- *rom the satis*action o* love needs and -hich include sel*$con5dence and the recognition that one has a !ositive re!utation4 and .=0 sel*$actuali8ation needs6 -hich are satis5ed only by the !sychologically healthiest !eo!le2 Bnli#e other needs that automatically are activated -hen lo-er needs are met6 sel*$actuali8ation needs do not inevitably *ollo- the satis*action o* esteem needs2 Only by embracing such &$values as truth6 beauty6 oneness6 and justice6 can !eo!le achieve sel*$ actuali8ation2 The 5ve needs on (aslo-Ms hierarchy are conative needs2 Other needs include aesthetic needs6 cognitive needs6 and neurotic needs2 Aestheti* Nee#s Aesthetic needs include a desire *or beauty and order6 and some !eo!le have much stronger aesthetic needs than do others2 Ehen !eo!le *ail to meet their aesthetic needs6 they become sic#2 Co.nitive Nee#s 'ognitive needs include the desire to #no-6 to understand6 and to be curious2 Kno-ledge is a !rere?uisite *or each o* the 5ve conative needs2 Also6 !eo!le -ho are denied #no-ledge and #e!t in ignorance become sic#6 !aranoid6 and de!ressed2 Ne(roti* Nee#s Eith each o* the above three dimensions o* needs6 !hysical or !sychological illness results -hen the
needs are not satis5ed2 Deurotic needs6 ho-ever6 lead to !athology regardless o* -hether they are satis5ed or not2 Deurotic needs include such motives as a desire to dominate6 to inict !ain6 or to subject onesel* to the -ill o* another !erson2 Deurotic needs are non!roductive and do not *oster health2 2eneral Dis*(ssion of Nee#s (aslo- believed that most !eo!le satis*y lo-er level needs to a greater e,tent than they do higher levels needs6 and that the greater the satis*action o* one need6 the more *ully the ne,t highest need is li#ely to emerge2 In certain rare cases6 the order o* needs might be reversed2 For e,am!le6 a starving mother may be motivated by love needs to give u! *ood in order to *eed her starving children2 Ho-ever6 i* -e understood the unconscious motivation behind many a!!arent reversals6 -e -ould see that they are not genuine reversals at all2 Thus6 (aslo- insisted that much o* our sur*ace behavior is actually motivated by more basic and o*ten unconscious needs2 (aslo- also believed that some e,!ressive behaviors are unmotivated6 even though all behaviors have a cause2 ",!ressive behavior has no aim or goal but is merely a !ersonMs mode o* e,!ression2 In com!arison6 co!ing behaviors .-hich are motivated0 deal -ith a !ersonMs attem!t to co!e -ith the environment2 The conative needs ordinarily call *orth co!ing behaviors2 )e!rivation o* any o* the needs leads to !athology o* some sort2 For e,am!le6 !eo!leMs inability to reach sel*$ actuali8ation results in meta!athology6 de5ned as an absence o* values6 a lac# o* *ul5llment6 and a loss o* meaning in li*e2 (aslo- suggested that instinctoid needs are innately determined even though they can be modi5ed by learning2 (aslo- also believed that higher level needs .love6 esteem6 and sel*$actuali8ation0 are later on the evolutionary scale than lo-er level needs and that they !roduce more genuine ha!!iness and more !ea# e,!eriences2 Self5A*t(ali7ation (aslo- believed that a very small !ercentage o* !eo!le reach an ultimate level o*
!sychological health called sel*$actuali8ation2 4al(es of Self5A*t(ali7ers (aslo- held that sel*$actuali8ers are metamotivated by such &$values as truth6 goodness6 beauty6 justice6 and sim!licity2 Criteria for Self5A*t(ali7ation Four criteria must be met be*ore a !erson achieves sel*$actuali8ation: ./0 absence o* !sycho!athology6 .10 satis*action o* each o* the *our lo-er level needs6 .;0 acce!tance o* the &$ values6 and .<0 *ull reali8ation o* oneMs !otentials *or gro-th2 Chara*teristi*s of Self5A*t(ali7in. Peo+le (aslolisted /= ?ualities that characteri8e sel*$actuali8ing !eo!le6 although not all sel*$actuali8ers !ossess each o* the characteristics to the same e,tent2 These characteristics are ./0 more eCcient !erce!tion o* reality6 meaning that sel*$actuali8ers o*ten have an almost uncanny ability to detect !honiness in others6 and they are not *ooled by sham4 .10 acce!tance o* sel*6 others6 and nature4 .;0 s!ontaneity6 sim!licity6 and naturalness6 meaning that sel*$ actuali8ers have no need to a!!ear com!le, or so!histicated4 .<0 !roblem$centered -hich is the ability to vie- age$old !roblems *rom a solid !hiloso!hical !osition4 .=0 the need *or !rivacy6 or a detachment that allo-s sel*$ actuali8ing !eo!le to be alone -ithout being lonely4 .>0 autonomy6 meaning that they no longer are de!endent on other !eo!le *or their sel*$esteem4 .0 continued *reshness o* a!!reciation and the ability to vie- everyday things -ith a *resh vision and a!!reciation4 .@0 *re?uent re!orts o* !ea# e,!eriences6 or those mystical e,!eriences that give a !erson a sense o* transcendence and *eelings o* a-e6 -onder6 ecstasy6 reverence6 and humility4 .0 emeinscha*tsge*hl6 that is6 social interest or a dee! *eeling o* oneness -ith all humanity4
./0 !ro*ound inter!ersonal relations6 but -ith no des!erate need to have a multitude o* *riends4 .//0 the democratic character structure6 or the ability to disregard su!er5cial di3erences bet-een !eo!le4 ./10 discrimination bet-een means and ends6 meaning that sel*$ actuali8ing !eo!le have a clear sense o* right and -rong6 and they e,!erience little conict about basic values4 ./;0 a !hiloso!hical sense o* humor that is s!ontaneous6 un!lanned6 and intrinsic to the situation4 ./<0 creativeness6 -ith a #een !erce!tion o* truth6 beauty6 and reality4 ./=0 resistance to enculturation6 or the ability to set !ersonal standards and to resist the mold set by culture2 Love: Se/: an# Self5A*t(ali7ation (aslo- com!ared )$love .de5ciency love0 to &$love .love *or being or essence o* another !erson02 el*$ actuali8ing !eo!le are ca!able o* &$love because they can love -ithout e,!ecting something in return2 &$love is mutually *elt and shared and not based on de5ciencies -ithin the lovers2 Philoso+hy of S*ien*e (aslo- critici8ed traditional science as being value *ree6 -ith a methodology that is sterile and nonemotional2 He argued *or a Taoistic attitude *or !sychology in -hich !sychologists are -illing to resacrali8e their science6 or to instill it -ith human values and to vie!artici!ants -ith a-e6 joy6 -onder6 ra!ture6 and ritual2 &eas(rin. Self5A*t(ali7ation (aslo-Ms methods *or measuring sel*$ actuali8ation -ere consistent -ith his !hiloso!hy o* science2 He began his study o* sel*$actuali8ing !eo!le -ith little evidence that such a classi5cation o* !eo!le even e,isted2 He loo#ed at healthy !eo!le6 learned -hat they had in common6 and then established a syndrome *or !sychological health2 De,t6 he re5ned the de5nition o* sel*$actuali8ation6 studied other !eo!le6 and changed the syndrome2 He continued this !rocess until he -as satis5ed that he had a clear de5nition o* sel*$actuali8ation2 Other researchers have
develo!ed !ersonality inventories *or measuring sel*$actuali8ation2 The most -idely used o* these is "verett hostromMs Personal Orientation Inventory .POI06 a /=$item *orced$ choice inventory that assesses a variety o* sel*$ actuali8ation *acets2 The 6onah Co)+le/ &ecause humans are born -ith a natural tendency to move to-ard !sychological health6 any *ailure to reach sel*$actuali8ation can technically be called abnormal develo!ment2 One such abnormal syndrome is the Jonah com!le,6 or *ear o* being or doing oneMs best6 a condition that all o* us have to some e,tent2 (aslo- believed that many !eo!le allo- *alse humility to stie their creativity6 -hich causes them to *all short o* sel*$actuali8ation2 Psy*hothera+y The hierarchy o* needs conce!t has obvious rami5cations *or !sychothera!y2 (ost !eo!le -ho see# !sychothera!y !robably do so because they have not ade?uately satis5ed their love and belongingness needs2 This suggests that much o* thera!y should involve a !roductive human relationshi! and that the job o* a thera!ist is to hel! clients satis*y love and belongingness needs2 Relate# Resear*h Researchers have investigated (aslo-Ms conce!t o* sel*$actuali8ation in many divergence settings and *or a variety o* !ur!oses2 Self5A*t(ali7ation an# Inti)ate Inter+ersonal Relations (ichael heCeld and his colleagues used the POI as a measure o* sel*$ actuali8ation and *ound that high scores on the POI -ere inversely related to inter!ersonal relations2 (ore s!eci5cally6 !eo!le -ho a!!roached sel*$actuali8ation tended to be sel*$ motivated6 acce!ted *eelings o* aggression6 and -ere able to sustain intimacy2 Self5A*t(ali7ation an# Creativity (ar# Runco and his colleagues used the hort Inde, o* el*$Actuali8ation to assess sel*$actuali8ation and *ound a !ositive relationshi! bet-een sel*$ actuali8ation scores and t-o measures o* creativity2 Although the relationshi!s -ere not strong6 they suggest that6 as
(aslo-Ms hy!othesi8ed6 creativity is at least !artly related to sel*$actuali8ation2 Self5A*t(ali7ation an# Self5 A**e+tan*e ome researchers have tested (aslo-Ms assum!tion that sel*$actuali8ing !eo!le acce!t themselves2 One study .umerlin S &undric#6 10 -ith A*rican$American businessmen *ound that those -ho scored high on sel*$ actuali8ation tended to have increased ha!!iness and sel*$*ul5llment2 Another study by Eilliam 'om!ton and his colleagues *ound that sel*$actuali8ation related to o!enness to e,!erience and to see#ing out ne- and e,citing e,!eriences2 Criti3(e of &aslow (aslo-Ms theory has been !o!ular in !sychology and other disci!lines6 such as management6 nursing6 and education2 The hierarchy o* needs conce!t seems both elementary and logical6 -hich gives (aslo-Ms theory the illusion o* sim!licity2 Ho-ever6 the theory is some-hat com!le,6 -ith *our dimensions o* needs and the !ossibility o* unconsciously motivated behavior2 As a scienti5c theory6 (aslo-Ms model rates high in generating research but lo- in *alsi5ability2 On its ability to organi8e #no-ledge and guide action6 the theory rates ?uite high4 on its sim!licity and internal consistency6 it rates only average2 Con*e+t of H()anity (aslo- believed that !eo!le are structured in such a -ay that their activated needs are e,actly -hat they -ant most2 Hungry !eo!le desire *ood6 *rightened !eo!le loo# *or sa*ety6 and so *orth2 Although he -as generally o!timistic and ho!e*ul6 (aslo- sa- that !eo!le are ca!able o* great evil and destruction2 He believed that as a s!ecies6 humans are becoming more and more *ully human and motivated by higher level needs2 In summary6 (aslo-Ms vie- o* humanity rates high on *ree choice6 o!timism6 teleology6 and uni?ueness and about average on social inuences2
&AY, EGISTENTIAL PSYCHOLO2Y Overview of &ay;s E/istential Theory ",istential !sychology began in "uro!e shortly a*ter Eorld Ear II and s!read to the Bnited tates6 -here Rollo (ay !layed a large !art in !o!ulari8ing it2 A clinical !sychologist by training6 (ay too# the vie- that modern !eo!le *re?uently run a-ay both *rom ma#ing choices and *rom assuming res!onsibility2 -io.ra+hy of Rollo &ay Rollo (ay -as born in Ohio in /6 but greu! in (ichigan2 A*ter graduating *rom Oberlin 'ollege in /;6 he s!ent three years roaming throughout eastern and southern "uro!e as an itinerant artist2 Ehen he returned to the Bnited tates6 he entered the Bnion Theological eminary6 *rom -hich he received a (aster o* )ivinity degree2 He then served *or t-o years as a !astor6 but ?uit in order to !ursue a career in !sychology2 He received a Ph2)2 in clinical !sychology *rom 'olumbia in /< at the age o* <2 )uring his !ro*essional career6 he served as lecturer or visiting !ro*essor at a number o* universities6 conducted a !rivate !ractice as a !sychothera!ist6 and -rote a number o* !o!ular boo#s on the human condition2 (ay died in /< at age @=2 -a*'.ro(n# of E/istentialis) ren Kier#egaard6 the )anish !hiloso!her and theologian6 is usually considered to be the *ounder o* modern e,istentialism2 %i#e later e,istentialists6 he em!hasi8ed a balance bet-een *reedom and res!onsibility2 Peo!le
ac?uire *reedom o* action by e,!anding their sel*$a-areness and by assuming res!onsibility *or their actions2 Ho-ever6 this ac?uisition o* *reedom and res!onsibility is achieved at the e,!ense o* an,iety and dread2 hat Is E/istentialis)! The 5rst tenet o* e,istentialism is that e,istence ta#e !recedence over essence6 meaning that !rocess and gro-th are more im!ortant than !roduct and stagnation2 econd6 e,istentialists o!!ose the arti5cial s!lit bet-een subject and object2 Third6 they stress !eo!leMs search *or meaning in their lives2 Fourth6 they insist that each o* us is res!onsible *or -ho -e are and -hat -e -ill become2 Fi*th6 most ta#e an antitheoretical !osition6 believing that theories tend to objecti*y !eo!le2 -asi* Con*e+ts According to e,istentialists6 a basic unity e,ists bet-een !eo!le and their environments6 a unity e,!ressed by the term )asein6 or being$in$the$-orld2 Three simultaneous modes o* the -orld characteri8e us in our )asein: Bm-elt6 or the environment around us4 (it-elt6 or our -orld -ith other !eo!le4 and "igen-elt6 or our relationshi! -ith our sel*2 Peo!le are both a-are o* themselves as living beings and also a-are o* the !ossibility o* nonbeing or nothingness2 )eath is the most obvious *orm o* nonbeing6 -hich can also be e,!erienced as retreat *rom li*eMs e,!eriences2 The Case of Phili+ Rollo (ay hel!ed illustrate his notion o* e,istentialism -ith the case o* Phili!6 a success*ul architect in his mid$=s2 )es!ite his a!!arent success6 Phili! e,!erienced severe an,iety -hen his relationshi! -ith Dicole .a -riter in her mid$<s0 too# a !u88ling turn2 Bncertain o* his *uture and su3ering *rom losel*$esteem6 Phili! -ent into thera!y -ith Rollo (ay2 "ventually6 Phili! -as able to understand that his diCculties -ith -omen -ere related to his early e,!eriences -ith a mother -ho -as un!redictable and an older sister -ho su3ered *rom severe mental disorders2 Ho-ever6 he began to recover only a*ter he acce!ted that his need to ta#e care o* un!redictable Dicole -as merely !art o* his !ersonal history -ith unstable -omen2
An/iety Peo!le e,!erience an,iety -hen they become a-are that their e,istence or something identi5ed -ith it might be destroyed2 The ac?uisition o* *reedom inevitably leads to an,iety6 -hich can be either !leasurable and constructive or !ain*ul and destructive2 Nor)al An/iety ro-th !roduces normal an,iety6 de5ned as that -hich is !ro!ortionate to the threat6 does not involve re!ression6 and can be handled on a conscious level2 Ne(roti* An/iety Deurotic an,iety is a reaction that is dis!ro!ortionate to the threat and that leads to re!ression and de*ensive behaviors2 It is *elt -henever oneMs values are trans*ormed into dogma2 Deurotic an,iety bloc#s gro-th and !roductive action 2(ilt uilt arises -henever !eo!le deny their !otentialities6 *ail to accurately !erceive the needs o* others6 or remain blind to their de!endence on the natural -orld2 &oth an,iety and guilt are ontological4 that is6 they re*er to the nature o* being and not to *eelings arising *rom s!eci5c situations2
Intentionality The structure that gives meaning to e,!erience and allo-s !eo!le to ma#e decisions about the *uture is called intentionality2 (ay believed that intentionality !ermits !eo!le to overcome the dichotomy bet-een subject and object6 because it enables them to see that their intentions are a *unction o* both themselves and their environment2 Care: Love: an# ill 'are is an active !rocess that suggests that things matter2 %ove means to care6 to delight in the !resence o* another !erson6 and to aCrm that !ersonMs value as much as oneMs o-n2 'are is also an im!ortant ingredient in -ill6 de5ned as a conscious commitment to action2 Union of Love an# ill (ay believed that our modern society has lost sight o* the true nature o* love and -ill6 e?uating love -ith se, and -ill
-ith -ill !o-er2 He *urther held that !sychologically healthy !eo!le are able to combine love and -ill because both im!ly care6 choice6 action6 and res!onsibility2 For)s of Love (ay identi5ed *our #inds o* love in Eestern tradition: se,6 eros6 !hilia6 and aga!e2 (ay believed that Americans no longer vie- se, as a natural biological *unction6 but have become !reoccu!ied -ith it to the !oint o* triviali8ation2 "ros is a !sychological desire that see#s an enduring union -ith a loved one2 It may include se,6 but it is built on care and tenderness2 Philia6 an intimate nonse,ual *riendshi! bet-een t-o !eo!le6 ta#es time to develo! and does not de!end on the actions o* the other !erson2 Aga!e is an altruistic or s!iritual love that carries -ith it the ris# o* !laying od2 Aga!e is undeserved and unconditional2 Free#o) an# Destiny Psychologically healthy individuals are com*ortable -ith *reedom6 able to assume res!onsibility *or their choices6 and -illing to *ace their destiny2 Free#o) De"ne# Freedom comes *rom an understanding o* our destiny2 Ee are *ree -hen -e recogni8e that death is a !ossibility at any moment and -hen -e are -illing to e,!erience changes6 even in the *ace o* not #no-ing -hat those changes -ill bring2 For)s of Free#o) (ay recogni8ed t-o *orms o* *reedom: ./0 *reedom o* doing6 or *reedom o* action6 -hich he called e,istential *reedom6 and .10 *reedom o* being6 or an inner *reedom6 -hich he called essential *reedom2 Destiny De"ne# (ay de5ned destiny as the design o* the universe s!ea#ing through the design o* each one o* us2 In other -ords6 our destiny includes the limitations o* our environment and our !ersonal ?ualities6 including our mortality6 gender6 and genetic !redis!ositions2 Freedom and destiny constitute a !arado,6 because *reedom
gains vitality *rom destiny6 and destiny gains signi5cance *rom *reedom2 Phili+;s Destiny A*ter some time in thera!y6 Phili! -as able to sto! blaming his mother *or not doing -hat he thought she should have done2 The objective *acts o* his childhood had not changed6 but Phili!Ms subjective !erce!tions had2 As he came to terms -ith his destiny6 Phili! began to be able to e,!ress his anger6 to *eel less tra!!ed in his relationshi! -ith Dicole6 and to become more a-are o* his !ossibilities2 In other -ords6 he gained his *reedom o* being2 The Power of &yth According to (ay6 the !eo!le o* contem!orary Eestern civili8ation have an urgent need *or myths2 &ecause they have lost many o* their traditional myths6 they turn to religious cults6 drugs6 and !o!ular culture to 5ll the vacuum2 The Oedi!us myth has had a !o-er*ul e3ect on our culture because it deals -ith such common e,istential crises as birth6 se!aration *rom !arents6 se,ual union -ith one !arent and hostility to-ard the other6 inde!endence in oneMs search *or identity6 and6 5nally6 death2 Psy*ho+atholo.y (ay sa- a!athy and em!tiness$not an,iety and guilt$as the chie* e,istential disorders o* our time2 Peo!le have become alienated *rom the natural -orld .Bm-elt06 *rom other !eo!le .(it-elt06 and *rom themselves ."igen-elt02 Psycho!athology is a lac# o* connectedness and an inability to *ul5ll oneMs destiny2 Psy*hothera+y The goal o* (ayMs !sychothera!y -as not to cure !atients o* any s!eci5c disorder6 but to ma#e them more *ully human2 (ay said that the !ur!ose o* !sychothera!y is to set !eo!le *ree6 to allo- them to ma#e choices and to assume res!onsibility *or those choices2 Relate# Resear*h (ayMs theory o* !ersonality does not lend itsel* to easily testable hy!otheses6 and6 there*ore6 it has not generated much research2 Devertheless6 Je3 reenberg and his colleagues have investigated the conce!t o* terror management6 -hich is based on the notion o* e,istential an,iety2 In general6 reenbergMs 5ndings are consistent -ith (ayMs de5nition o* e,istential an,iety as an a!!rehension o* threats to oneMs e,istence2
