UNIT 66 CULTURAL DIMENSION OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE NOWADAYS. BRITISH ENGLISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH. PRESENCE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN SPAIN. ANGLICISMS. OUTLINE 1.
INTRODUCTION. 1.1. Aims of the unit. 1.2. Notes on bi bliography bliog raphy..
2.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE CULTURAL DIMENSION: IN AND AND OUT THE COMMONWEALTH. 2.1. The origins of the British colonial empire. 2.1.1. The first British empire. 2.1.1.1. XVth and XVIth century. 2.1.1.2. XVIIth century. 2.1.1.3. XVIIIth century. 2.1.2. The The second British empire: XIXth century. 2.1.3. The dismantling of the British empire: XXth and XXIst century. 2.2. Cultural Cultural dimension: dimension: t he Commonwealth. 2.2.1. Definition. 2.2.2. Main principles and values. 2.2.3. 2.2.3. Main countries: cultural dimension . 2.3. Cultural dimension: o ut of the Commonwealth. Commonwealth. 2.3.1. 2.3.1. English English as a native lan guage. 2.3.2. English English as a second lang uage. 2.3.3. 2.3.3. English as a foreign language.
3.
CULTURAL DIMENSION OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE NOWADAYS: BRITISH ENGLISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH. PRESENCE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN SPAIN: ANGLI ANGLI CISMS. 3.1. British vs. American English: main differences. 3.1.1. Spelling. 3.1.2. Vocabulary. 3.1.3. Grammar. 3.1.4. Punctuation. 3.1.5. Pronunciation. 3.2. Presence of the English language in Spain: anglicisms. 3.2.1. Anglicism: definition. 3.2.2. 3.2.2. Presence of the English language in Spain.
4.
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING.
5.
CONCLUSION.
6.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
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1. INTRODUCTION. 1.1. Aims of the unit.
The present unit, Unit 66 , aims to provide a useful introduction to the cultural dimension of the English language language nowadays nowadays from a general overview. Then we shall focus on two specific manifestations of the English language, that is, the so-called distinction between British British Englis English h and American English. English. Moreover, we shall examine the impact of the English language out of English-speaking countries by addressing the question of the presence presence of the English languag languagee in Spain and the introduction of anglicisms. anglicisms . In doing so, it is within the richness of the English language that we shall approach its cultural diversity and development of its linguistic varieties not only in English-speaking English-speaking countries, but also in terms of intercultural influences all around around the world.
So, the unit is to be divided into four four main chapters which correspond to the four main tenets of this unit. Thus, Chapter 2 provides 2 provides a brief history of the English language cultural dimension in and out ou t the the Commonwealth so as to offer a general overview of the influence of English around the world. Yet, why do we relate it to the Commonwealth? It must be borne in mind that, though it originated in England and built from several other languages (Germanic, Norse, French), English spread worldwide with the rise of British colonialism, from the British Isles to Australia, Canada, India, South Africa, New Zealand, the United States and elsewhere. Hence the link to these group of countries under the common heading of Commonwealth.
Then, The n, we w e shal shalll star st artt by reviewing (1) the origins of the British colonial empire from the seventeenth century to the present day. Hence we shall review basic notions on (a) the first British empire, which traces back to the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth century; (b) the second empire, which ranges the nineneteenth century; and (c) the dismantling of the British empire in the twentieth and twenty-first century in terms of colonies, and for our purposes, purposes, states members. members. In doing so, so, we aim at offering offering a general general overview overview of those those countries countries which adopted the English language as a native (mother tongue) or second language, commonly known as the Commonwealth. So, we shall review (2) the cultural dimension of the English language within the Commonwealth countries in terms of (a) definition, (b) main principles and values in terms of cultural diversity, diversity, and how these principles and values are present in linguistic terms in (c) the countries which founded the Commonwealth, namely (i) Canada, (ii) Australia, (iii) New Zealand, (iv) South Africa, (v) India, and (vi) the Caribbean Islands.
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1. INTRODUCTION. 1.1. Aims of the unit.
The present unit, Unit 66 , aims to provide a useful introduction to the cultural dimension of the English language language nowadays nowadays from a general overview. Then we shall focus on two specific manifestations of the English language, that is, the so-called distinction between British British Englis English h and American English. English. Moreover, we shall examine the impact of the English language out of English-speaking countries by addressing the question of the presence presence of the English languag languagee in Spain and the introduction of anglicisms. anglicisms . In doing so, it is within the richness of the English language that we shall approach its cultural diversity and development of its linguistic varieties not only in English-speaking English-speaking countries, but also in terms of intercultural influences all around around the world.
So, the unit is to be divided into four four main chapters which correspond to the four main tenets of this unit. Thus, Chapter 2 provides 2 provides a brief history of the English language cultural dimension in and out ou t the the Commonwealth so as to offer a general overview of the influence of English around the world. Yet, why do we relate it to the Commonwealth? It must be borne in mind that, though it originated in England and built from several other languages (Germanic, Norse, French), English spread worldwide with the rise of British colonialism, from the British Isles to Australia, Canada, India, South Africa, New Zealand, the United States and elsewhere. Hence the link to these group of countries under the common heading of Commonwealth.
Then, The n, we w e shal shalll star st artt by reviewing (1) the origins of the British colonial empire from the seventeenth century to the present day. Hence we shall review basic notions on (a) the first British empire, which traces back to the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth century; (b) the second empire, which ranges the nineneteenth century; and (c) the dismantling of the British empire in the twentieth and twenty-first century in terms of colonies, and for our purposes, purposes, states members. members. In doing so, so, we aim at offering offering a general general overview overview of those those countries countries which adopted the English language as a native (mother tongue) or second language, commonly known as the Commonwealth. So, we shall review (2) the cultural dimension of the English language within the Commonwealth countries in terms of (a) definition, (b) main principles and values in terms of cultural diversity, diversity, and how these principles and values are present in linguistic terms in (c) the countries which founded the Commonwealth, namely (i) Canada, (ii) Australia, (iii) New Zealand, (iv) South Africa, (v) India, and (vi) the Caribbean Islands.
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Finally, we shall approach (3) the cultural dimension of the English language out of the Commonwealth scope. In doing so, we shall establish three parametres with respect to the way the English language is used in other countries, for instance, (a) as a native language (as in the United States), (b) as a second language (as in India), and (c) as a foreign language (as in Spai Spain). n). This distinction will prepare the ground for next chapters on the distinction between British English and American English and the presence of English in Spain.
Then, with this background in mind, Chapter 3 3 approaches the cultural dimension of the English language from two different perspectives: first, regarding two specific manifestations of the English language: first, the so-called distinction between (1) British British English English and American American English within the scope of English-speaking countries, in terms of differences in (1) spelling, (2) vocabulary (3) grammar, (4) punctuation, and (5) pronunciation; and secondly, regarding the (2) presence (2) presence of the English English language language in a non English-speaking country, in particular, in particular, in Spain and the presence of anglicisms. anglicisms . This section shall be approached by offering (a) a definition of the term ‘anglicism’, and examining (b) the presence of the English language in Spain.
Chapter 5 5 will be devoted to the main educational implications in language teaching regarding the introduction of this issue in the classroom setting. Chapter 6 will offer a conclusion to broadly broadly overview overview our present present study, study, and Chapter 7 will include all the bibliographical references for further information.
1.2. Not 1.2. Notes es on bibli bibliogra ography phy..
An influential introduction to the Commonwealth is namely drawn from historical background of the Victorian period, Imperialism and the Industrial Revolution is based on Thoorens, Panorama Panorama de las literaturas Daimon: Daimon: Inglaterra Inglaterra y América América del Norte. Gran Bretaña Bretaña y Estados Estados Unidos de América América (1969); the Encyclopaedia Britannica (2004); a brief guide to the association
provided
by
the
Commonwealth
Secretariat
(2003);
and
the
website
www.norton.com. www.norton.com. Other important sources in relation to the distinction between British English and American English, and the presence of English in Spain, that is, anglicisms, include: Pratt, Prat t, El Anglicismo Anglicismo en el Español Peninsular Peninsular Contemporáneo Contemporáneo (1980); Marckwardt, American American English English (1980); Algeo & Pyles, The origins and development of the English language (1982); Bryson, Moth Bryson, Mother er Tongue (1991); Tongue (1991); and two outstanding webpages www.wikipedia.org (2004) (2004) and www.britannica.com (2004). www.britannica.com (2004).
The background for educational implications is based on the theory of communicative competence and communicative approaches to language teaching are provided by the most
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complete record of current publications within the educational framework is provided by the guidelines in B.O.E. (2004) for both E.S.O. and Bachillerato; and the Council of Europe, Modern Languages: Languages: Learning, Learning, Teaching, Teaching, Assessment. Assessment. A Common Common European European Framework Framework of reference (1998).
2. A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE CULTURAL DIMENSION: IN AND OUT THE COMMONWEALTH.
Chapter 2 2 provides a brief history of the English language cultural dimension nowadays, a question which is closely related to the British empire and the countries which made up the the Commonwealth afterwards. Note that the political history of Colonial America and, in particular particular,, the loss of the American American colonie coloniess with the Declarati Declaration on of Independen Independence ce in 1776, will will make us comprehend the distinction between British and American English afterwards. Therefore, we shall review (1) the origins of the British colonial empire from the seventeenth century to the present day by providing basic notions on (a) the first British empire, which traces back to the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth century; (b) the second empire, which ranges the nineneteenth century; and (c) the dismantling of the British empire in the twentieth and twenty-first century in terms of colonies, and for our purposes, states members. In doing so, we aim at offering a general overview of those countries which adopted the English language as a native (mother tongue) or second language, commonly known as (2) the Commonwealth. So, we shall also review this concept in terms of (a) definition, the Commonwealth’s (b) main principles and values, and how these principles and values are present present in (c) the countries countries which which founded founded the Commonwe Commonwealth alth,, namely namely (i) Canada, Canada, (ii) Australia, (iii) New Zealand, (iv) South Africa, (v) India, and (vi) the Caribbean Islands. Finally, we sh all approach the international international scope of the English language (3) out of the Commonwealth. In doing so, we shall establish three parametres paramet res with respect to the way the English language is used in several countries, for instance, (a) as a native language, (b) as a second language, and (c) as a foreign language, so as to prepare the ground for next chapter.
2.1. The origins of the British colonial empire.
On providing providing a historical background of the policy of the colonial expansion in general terms, it must be borne in mind that the term ‘imperialism’ refers to the principle, spirit, or system of empire, and is driven by ideology whereas the term ‘colonialism’ refers to the principle, spirit, or system of establishing colonies, which is driven by commerce. Hence, the worldwide system
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of dependencies –colonies, protectorates, and other territories- that over a span of three centuries came under the British government will lead us to what historians call the imperial expansion of Great Britain.
Note that within this policy of imperial expansion and the establishment of new colonies all over the world, historians make a distinction between two British empires which follows a temporal classification within different centuries. Thus, according to www.wwnorton.com (2004), the first British empire is to be set up in the seventeenth century, “when the European demand for sugar and tobacco led to the development of plantations on the islands of the Caribbean and in southeast North America. These colonies, and those settled by religious dissenters in northeast North America, attracted increasing numbers of British and European colonists”. Hence, “the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries saw the first British Empire expanding into areas formerly controlled by the Dutch and Spanish Empires (then in decline) and coming into conflict with French colonial aspirations in Africa, Canada, and India. With the Treaty of Paris in 1763, the British effectively took control of Canada and India, but the American Revolution (1776) brought their first empire to an end”. On the other hand, a further phase of territorial expansion that led to the second British Empire was initiated by the exploratory voyages of Captain James Cook to Australia and New Zealand in the 1770s. “This reached its widest point during the reign of Queen Victoria (1837–1901). At no time in the first half of her reign was empire a central preoccupation of her or her governments, but this was to change in the wake of the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), which altered the balance of power in Europe”. During the next decades, the British empire was compared to the Roman empire because of its extension, but the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (up to the present day) were just about to see the development in the dismantling of the British Empire with the declaration of independence of the British colonies in India (1947) and Hong Kong (1997). So, one by one, the subject peoples of the British Empire have entered a postcolonial era, in which they must reassess their national identity, their history and literature, and their relationship with the land and language of their former masters (www.wwnorton.com).
2.1.1. The first British empire.
2.1.1.1. XVth and XVIth century.
There is no doubt that the political, social and economic background of the seventeenth-century Great Britain established the main basis for the policy of colonial expansion in the following
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centuries (the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries). Yet, previous events, which trace back to the fifteenth century and take place within the field of exploration, mark the beginning of this colonial adventure on the part of the most powerful empires at that time, thus Scandinavia, Spain, Portugal, France and Great Britain.
2.1.1.2. XVIIth century.
The seventeenth century has its starting point in the death of Elizabeth I (1603) and the accession of James I to the crown. This period, known as the Stuart Age (1603-1713) and also called the Jacobean Era, the age of Cromwell and the Restoration, is characterized by crisis, civil wars, the Commonwealth and the Restoration, and establishes the immediate background to the Industrial Revolution and the establishment of the first Americ an colonies.
Under the rule of James I (1603-1625), Britain achieved the unification of the crowns of England and Scotland, and brought the long war with Spain to an end. Although this greatly helped the English treasury and also James’s reputation (as rex pacificus), the policy was, in part, unpopular because peace meant that both the English and the Dutch had to acknowledge the Spanish claim to a monopoly of trade between their own South American colonies and the rest of the world.
Whereas for the first half of the century the population continued to grow and, as a result, there was pressure on food resources, land and jobs, and increased price inflation, the late seventeenth century saw the easing, if not the disappearance of these problems. Family-planning habits started to change and new methods of farming increased dramatically. From the 1670s, England became an exporter as opposed to a net importer of grain. The seventeenth century is also probably the first in English history in which more people emigrated than immigrated, hence the period of American colonization.
Yet, undoubtely, the most important step which favoured the imperial expansion was made in the economic field: the foundation of the Bank of England in 1694. As mentioned above, the continental wars of James II (1685-1689) and William of Orange, known as William III (16891707), were really expensive, and as a result, England was forced to raise a considerable national debt. In 1694, the Scotsman William Paterson founded the Bank of England to assist the crown by managing the public debt, and eventually it became the national reserve for the British Isles. Yet, in 1697, any further joint-stock banks were forbidden just to secure its position of prominence in England.
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It was this debt that forced the British government to use the colonies as a source of economic income. In fact, the Secretary of state for the South was established in London so as to deal with colonial business. Other government departments, such as the treasury, the customs, the admiralty, and the war office also had representatives in the colonies, where the chief representative of the Imperial government was the governor, appointed by the king or by the proprietors with his approval.
The general desire in this century was for the American continent and islands serve as a source for products and as a market for their manufacturers. Till the end of this century the pressure of France expansion on almost all sides of the American colonies, except the sea, was a constant remainder to them of their ultimate dependence on England’s military support and their main aim was to develop a naval supremacy over France.
So, in North America the establishment of American colonies meant the starting point of British colonial activity in the Western hemisphere and also, a new place for immigrants to hide from political and religious crisis in England. The political history of Colonial America will make us comprehend the preparation of the whole people for the radical change of government they were so soon to undergo in British colonies, and the strong spirit of democracy which led Britain to the loss of the American colonies with the Declaration of Independence in 1776.
In the XVIIth century we distinguish two types of earlier colonies: non-British and British; whereas the first group namely includes Viking, Portuguese, Spanish, French, Dutch and Danish colonists, the second group is formed by Anglosaxons. Moreover, non-British colonies, namely French and Dutch, were founded on aristocratic principles and strove vigorously to gain liberal institutions. Following Daimon (1969), had their political circumstances been different in Europe, they could have also gained the control of the continent. Yet, Holland was quite wealthy and had few immigrants, and France had a great number of immigrants but was not interested in the snow land. Yet, the struggle for control of this land would continue for more than a hundred years.
The thirteen British colonies of America were formed under a variety of differing conditions. The settlement of Virginia was the work of a company of London merchants, that of New England of a body of Puritan refugees from persecution. Most of the other colonies were formed through the efforts of proprietors, to whom the king had made large grants of territory. None of them were of royal or parliamentary establishment and therefore, the government of the mothercountry took no part in the original formation of the government of the colonies, except in the somewhat flexible requirements of the charters granted to the proprietors.
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The colonies were classified into (1) New England colonies, made up by Rhode, Connecticut, New Hampshire and Massachusetts. Among them, the most famous first colonies were Plymouth colony (1620) and Massachusetts Bay Colony (1629), which were settled by two groups of of religious dissenters who escaped religious persecution in England: the Pilgrims and the Puritans; (2) the rest of British colonies in America followed after Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay, consisting of Middle colonies, such as New York, Pennsylvania, the three counites of Delaware, and Maryland, which were namely characterized by a wide diversity, both religious, political, economic, and ethnic; and (3) the southern colonies which include Maryland, Virginia, Georgia and the two Carolinas (north and south). Yet, the most important to mention is Virgina colony, which is considered to be the first permanent settlement in North America under the name of the English colony of Jamestown (1607), was the first English 1
colony in America to survive and become permanent and become later the capital of Virginia and the site of the House of Burgesses.
But the main causes of social decentralization were soon to be noticed. As the colony of Virginia was so heavily influenced by the cultivation of tobacco and the ownership of slaves, in 1619 large numbers of Africans were brought to this colony into the slave trade. Thus, individual workers on the plantation fields were usually without family and separated from their nearest neighbours by miles. This meant that little social infrastructure developed for the commoners of Virgina society, in contrast with the highly developed social infrastructure of colonial New England.
By this time, the English colonies were thirteen: Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. Although all these British colonies were strikingly different, throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries several events took place and brought relevant changes in the colonies: whereas some of the them sprung from their common roots as part of the British Empire, others led up to the American Revolution, and to the final separation from England.
1
The settlement was struck by severe droughts in centuries and as a result, only a third of the colonists furvived the first winter, and even, source documents indicate that some turned to cannibalism. Yet, the colony survived in large part to the efforts of John Smith, whose moto was ‘No work, no food’. He put the colonists to work, and befriended Pocahontas, daughter of Chief Powhatan, who supplied the colony with food.
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2.1.1.3. XVIIIth century.
The eighteenth century was to witness the most important consequences of the industrial revolution within the British colonial expansion, both in America and overseas. Although there was general properity in the Middle and Southern colonies, as well as social and political struggle, American colonies had to face the arrival of loads of immigrants from Europe. Their economy, based on the production of rice, indigo and naval stores, was booming in contrast to the hostile attitude of Indians at the frontier. In the upper south, Virginia and Maryland’s tobacco prices were falling and crop failures became very usual. Yet, in New England, the social and political atmosphere was quite calm, but not the economy since the Sugar Act imposed taxes and new commercial regulations on them. The main causes which led the thirteen colonies to revolution are stated as follows:
The first event relates to the French and Indian War (1754-1763), which meant the American extension of the general European conflict known as the Seven Years’ War. Also, this war increased a sense of American unity in men who might normally have never left their colonies to travel across the continent, and fighting alongside men from decidedly different. On the other hand, the second event, the Royal Proclamation (1763) , which was a prohibition against settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains , aroused opposition in the colonies over the next years and through a series of measures, which were to be named as acts. These acts lead to the declaration of their independence in a remarkable document, the Declaration of Independence. The committee had intrusted that task to Thomas Jefferson, who was chosen for two main reasons: first, because he was held to possess a singular felicity in the expression of popular ideas and, second, because he represented the province of Virginia, the oldest of the AngloAmerican colonies.
The debate on the proposed Declaration came to a termination two days later, on the evening of the 4th of July. The document was then reported by the committee, agreed to by the House, and signed by every member present, except General Dickinson. The signature of New York was not given till several days later, and a New Hampshire member, Matthew Thornton, was permitted to append his signature on November 4 (four months after the signing). With the help of their French allies they were eventually able to win the American Revolutionary War against Great Britain, settled by the Treaty of Paris (1783). So, we can say that the United States of America was founded in 1776 from British colonies along the Atlantic Coast of North America and was declared to be independent in 1778.
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In the rest of the world, interests expanded through the eighteenth century to such extent that in th
the early years of the 18 century the East India Company proves successful regarding commercial interchanges in India and, in fact, a statutory monopoly of trade was established between England and India (1708). The number and importance of factories made the English Company have the control on the area (it had three presidencies at Bombay, Calcutta and Madras) although Bombay was the only absolute possession in French or English hands. Despite the fact that it was not a pure trading company, it found no rivalry from other European states in India since the Portuguese and Dutch, which had established their position in India, left with few and unimportant possessions or factories.
Overseas, during the earlier half of the century the British empire established more successful trading companies not only in the West Indies but also in Africa (the Royal African Company) and in the South Sea (the South Sea Company). On the American Continent, the Caribbean islands not only provided Britain with sugar and slave trade but also with strategic possessions, which was a crucial issue in the fight between England and France for colonial possessions. In fact, as stated above, the British government established the Navigation Act (1773) so as to monopolize the trade of its products (namely tobacco and sugar) and therefore, establish a close economic system and guarantee a sheltered market in Britain, not subject to competition from other colonies, such as those of France, Portugal and Spain.
In the second half of the century, some remaining British colonies were lost temporarily after the treatise, for instance, the Caribbean islands were controlled by France and Tobago and Minorca were no longer British. However, the rest of colonies were not economically strong enough to think of independence even if they had wanted it, as it was the case of South Africa, which was a military and trading port, a naval station and a port of call. Canada was of greater economic importance in the sense that its citizens were free to manage their local affairs, so the demand for self-government did not imply a wish for separation. The colonies were therefore asking for something like municipal independence.
In 1768, the first British empire reached the second phase of expansion with the exploratory voyages of James Cook, who undertook the first of three voyages to the Pacific, surveying New Zealand, modern Australia, Tahiti and Hawaii. His second voyage (1773) made him the first Britain to reach Antarctica, and his third voyage (1778-1779) led him to discover and name island groups in the South Pacific, such as the Sandwich Islands. Unfortunately, Cook was killed on Hawai on 14 February 1779.
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Eventually, the colonisation of the Antipodes, that is, Australia and New Zealand took place as an attempt to find a place for penal settlement after the loss of the original American colonies. The first shipload of British convicts landed in this largely unexplored continent in 1788, on the site of the future city of Sydney. Most convicts were young men who had only committed petty crimes. In the nineteenth century (1819) new settlers were allowed to set up in New South Wales and by 1858 transportation of convicts was abolished.
2.1.2. The second British empire: XIXth century.
Following the information given in www.wwnorton.com, “During the next decades, two great statesmen brought the issue of imperialism to the top of the nation’s political agenda: the flamboyant Benjamin Disraeli (1804–1881), who had a romantic vision of empire that the sterner William Ewart Gladstone (1809–1898) distrusted and rejected. Disraeli’s expansionist vision prevailed and was transmitted by newspapers and novels to a reading public dramatically expanded by the Education Act of 1870. Symbolically, the British Empire reached its highest point on June 22, 1897, the occasion of Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee, which the British celebrated as a festival of empire. It was a 2
great moment where the British Empire was compared to the Roman Empire , comparison which was endlessly invoked in further discussions and literary works (Conrad’s Heart of Darkness (1902); Thomas Hardy’s Poems of Past and Present (1901)). In 1897 the Empire seemed invincible, but only two years later British confidence was shaken by the news of defeats at Magersfontein and Spion Kop in the Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902). Those and other battles were lost, but eventually the war was won, and it took two world wars to bring the British Empire to its end. Those wars also were won, with the loyal help of troops from the overseas empire”.
The political background is namely represented by the accession of Queen Victoria to the throne when her uncle, William IV dies in 1837. So Victoria would reign from 1837 to 1901 and would be the longest reigning British monarch. In general terms, during Victoria’s reign, the revolution
2
“The Roman Empire, at its height, comprised perhaps 120 million people in an area of 2.5 million square miles. The British Empire, in 1897, comprised some 372 million people in 11 million square miles. An interesting aspect of the analogy is that the Roman Empire was long held - by the descendants of the defeated and oppressed peoples of the British Isles - to be generally a good thing. Children in the United Kingdom are still taught that the Roman legions brought laws and roads, civilization rather than oppression, and in the second half of the nineteenth century, that was the precedent invoked to sanction the Pax Britannica” (www.wwnorton.com).
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in industrial practices continued to change British life, bringing about urbanisation, a good communications network and wealth. In addition, Britain became a champion of Free Trade across her massive Empire, and industrialisation and trade were glorified in the Great Exhibitions. Yet, by the turn of the century, Britain’s empire was being challenged successfully by other nations such as France and Germany on the continent.
Generally speaking, the nineteenth century development and administration of British colonies was focused on the consolidation of existing colonies and the expansion into new areas, especially in Africa, India and Canada. Actually, in the early nineteenth century new British colonies were to be acquired or strengthened because of their strategic value, thus Malaca and Singapore because of their trading ports of growing importance, and the settlements of Alberta, Manitobba, and the British Columbia in Canada as potential areas of British migration. The main causes for other new acquisitions were, among others, the Treaty of Amiens (1802) by adding Trinidad and Ceylon; the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815) with the addition of the Cape of Good Hope; the War with the United States (1812) brought about the Canadian unity; and the first Treaty of Paris (1814) gained Tobago, Mauritius, St. Lucia and Malta.
Also, between the years 1857 and 1858 Britain acquired in India the cities of Agra, Bengal and Assam after some local wars against French influence. Perhaps the Napoleonic Wars brought about more new acquisitions to the British empire in this century than any other war, since the Crimean War (1854-1856), the pacification programs in Africa, and some conflicts in New Zealand (against the Maoris) made little or no difference to the British empire. Yet, the most serious conflict was just about to come towards the end of the century with the War in Sudan (1884) and the Boer War (1881, 1899-1902). So, as we can see, still in the nineteenth century, Great Britain maintained her political and imperial sovereignty.
In order to control these colonies, the British government created a sophisticated system for colonial administration: the Colonial Office and Board of Trade (1895-1900). Already in the 1850s, they were ruled by legislative bodies, since the colonies continuously asked for independence. They were separate departments with an increasing staff and a continuing policy of establishing discipline and pressure on the colonial goverments. Hence most colonial governements were left to themselves.
However, these legislative bodies governing the new settlements were soon to be replaced by an executive body which took over the financial control. This elected assembly would be represented by the figure of the governor and would be responsible for the colonial government. Therefore, these settlements became ‘crown colonies’, and were subject to direct rule, as we can
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see in the African and Pacific expansion where the crown colony system was established. Let us examine how this new colonial governing body was applied in the colonies of Australia, Asia and Africa.
•
In the Antipodes, New Zealand and Oceania were systematically colonized in the 1840s under the pressure of British missionaries. Yet, territorial disputes were brought up between the new colonists and the homeland tribes, the Maoris. Hence the Maori Wars (1840s-1860s) which eventually ended with the withdrawal of British troops and a peaceful agreement of settlement for the newcomers. In the last quarter of the century, the British empire took the control over other islands in the Pacific, again because of missionary pressure and international naval rivalry and, eventually, the Fiji Island was annexed in 1874. Three years later the governement established a British High Commission for the Western Pacific Islands (1877) as well as a protectorate in Papua (1884) and in Tonga (1900). These protectorates were soon to be governed by Australia and New Zealand.
•
In Asia, India was conquered and therefore, had an expansion policy. As stated previously, the suppressed Indian ‘mutiny’ (1857) gave way to the abolishment of the East India Company (1858) and, therefore, the local executive body was replaced by that of the crown. Known as ‘the brightest jewel in the British crown’ (a Disraeli’s phrase), India was a strategic settlement for the British empire and her conquest was justified in terms of benefits and discipline. Further acquisitions (Burma, Punjab, Baluchistan) provided new crucial settlements in the area in order to set up a new route in India. Since the opening of the Suez Canal, new territories were under the influence of Britain within this route: Aden, Somaliland, territories in southern Arabia and the Persian Gulf. Moreover, further expansion took place with the development of the Straits settlements and the federated Malay states; Borneo (1880s), Hong Kong (1841); and adjacent territories in China, Shangai (1860, 1896), which had trading purposes.
•
Finally, the greatest development of the British Empire took place in Africa in the last quarter of the century. The reign of Queen Victoria brought about a great enthusiasm for a ‘similar Roman empire’, whose power might extend from the Cape of Good Hope to El Cairo. This idea fascinated the British citizens who, in Queen Victoria’s two jubilees, offered colonial conferences, the search of new areas of opportunity, and the discoveries and wars for mining wealth in South Africa. In fact, the spread of the British empire comprised by the nineteenth century nearly a quarter of the land surface and more than a quarter of the population of the world.
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From 1882 onwards Britain controlled Egypt and Alexandria (by force), and a joint administration half British-half Egyptian was established in the Sudan area in 1899. Also, on the western coast the Royal Niger Company began the expansion over the area of Nigeria. By then there were two main British Companies: the Imperial British East Africa Company, which operated in nowadays Kenya and Uganda, and the British South Africa Company in the areas now called Rhodesia, Zambia, and Malawi. Hence the missionary migrations to Africa in the eventual transfer of these territories to the crown.
2.1.3. The dismantling of the British empire: XXth and XXIst century.
Therefore, by 1897 the Empire seemed invincible, but only two years later British confidence was shaken by the news of defeats at Magersfontein and Spion Kop in the Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902). Hence, after the Boer War (1902), the countries of the overseas empire wanted a greater measure of self-government, and those and other battles were lost. Yet, eventually the war was won, and it took two world wars to bring the British Empire to its end. Those wars also were won, with the loyal help of troops from the overseas empire (more than 200,000 of whom were killed in World War I alone)”. After a century of almost unchallenged political security, Britain perceived the aggressive militarisation of the new German state and Hitler’s empire as a threat. Britain and, therefore, her empire, lost a large part of a generation of young men in the First World War. Yet, after the First World War the British Empire continued to grow and, in addition to the self-governing territories of Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, it annexed large tracts of Africa, Asia and parts of the Caribbean. Also, following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, Britain included Iraq and Palestine. Soon nationalist movements were to be strongly felt in India, Egypt and in the Arab mandated territories. In 1922 Egypt was granted a degree of independence by Britain and full independence in 1936. Similarly, Iraq gained full independence in 1932. On the other hand, India achieved its independence in 1947 after the movement of Indian nationalism, boosted by the 1919 Amritsar Massacre. In 1931, the British Parliament, by means of the Statue of Westminster, recognized the legislative independence and equal status under the Crown of its former dominions and the Irish Free State within a British Commonwealth of Nations. The
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resultant relationship is sometimes thought to have been a precursor to the post-war British Commonwealth. During the Second World War, Britain’s civilian population found themselves under severe domestic restrictions, and occasionally bombing. Also, conf lict accelerated many social and political developments and growing nationalist movements impacted both on the British rule of Empire and on the individual nations of the British Isles. Hence, most of the remaining imperial possessions were granted independence, for instance, fifty years after Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee, India was cut in two to become the Commonwealth countries of India and Pakistan. The most recent development in the dismantling of the British Empire was the restoration to Chinese rule, under a declaration signed in 1984, of the former British crown colony of Hong Kong, on the southeastern coast of China, where the Union Jack was finally and symbolically lowered on July 1, 1997. So, one by one, the subject peoples of the British Empire have entered a postcolonial era, in which they must reassess their national identity, their history and literature, and their relationship with the land and language of their former masters.
2.2. Cultural dimension: the Commonwealth.
As seen above, “territorial acquisition began in the early 17th century with a group of settlements in North America and West Indian, East Indian, and African trading posts founded th
by private individuals and trading companies. In the 18 century the British took Gibraltar, established colonies along the Atlantic seacoast, and began to add territory in India. With its victory in the French and Indian War (1763), it secured Canada and the eastern Mississippi Valley and gained supremacy in India” (Britannica, 2004). By 1776 the American colonies were controlled by governors appointed by the British government and by 1783, North American colonists got their independence by establishing the Constitution of the United States. After that, the British began to build power in Malaya and acquired the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), and Malta. The English settled Australia in 1788, and subsequently New Zealand. Aden was secured in 1839, and Hong Kong in 1842. Britain went on to control the th
Suez Canal (1875-1956) and after the 19 -century partitition of Africa, it acquired Nigeria, Egypt, the territories that would become British East Africa, and part of what would become the Union of South Africa. It must be borne in mind that prior to 1783, Britain claimed full authority over colonial legislatures, but after the U.S. gained independence, Britain gradually evolved a system of self-government for some colonies. Hence since Dominion status was given
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to Canada (1867), the British Empire started to change into a ‘Commonwealth’ of independent nations as later on it was also given to Australia (1901), New Zealand (1907), the Union of South Africa (1910), and the Irish Free State (1921). After World War I, Britain secured mandates to German East Africa, part of the Cameroons, part of Togo, German South-West Africa, Mesopotamia, Palestine, and part of the German Pacific islands. Yet, the dominions signed the peace treaties themselves (Paris Peace Conference (1919), where commissions were appointed to study specific financial and territorial questions, and the Treaty of Versailles, an international agreement signed in 1919) and joined the League of Nations, an organization for international cooperation established by the Allied Powers so as to be independent states. The league established a system of colonial mandates, but it was weakened by the failure of the United States, which had not ratified the Treaty of Versailles (1919). So, the League ceased its activities during World War II and it was replaced in 1946 by the United Nations. In 1931 the Statute of Westminster recognized the mentioned dominions as independent countries “within the British empire,” referring to the “British Commonwealth of Nations.” Following the Encyclopaedia Britannica (2004), at the time of its founding, the Commonwealth consisted of the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, the Irish Free State (withdrew in 1949), Newfoundland (which became a Canadian province in 1949), New Zealand, and the Union of South Africa (withdrew in 1961), but after World War II, with “British” no longer officially used, the Commonwealth was joined by more countries. Yet, at this point, how do we relate the notion of Commonwealth to our current issue? As stated above, it is the first basis where to frame the cultural dimension of the English language within all the English-speaking countries. In next section (2.3.) we shall approach the scope of the English language at an international level in those countries which do not have the English language as a mother tongue or second language, but as a foreign language.
2.2.1. Definition.
Following the Encyclopaedia Britannica (2004), the term ‘commonwealth’ refers to “a body politic founded on law for the common “weal,” or good. The term was often used by 17thcentury writers to signify an organized political community, its meaning thus being similar to the modern meaning of state or nation.” For instance, nowadays we talk about the commonwealth to make distinction in name only regarding the four U.S. states (Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia) which call themselves ‘commonwealths’; Puerto
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Rico, which has been a commonwealth rather than a state since 1952; and “its residents, though U.S. citizens, have only a nonvoting representative in Congress and pay no federal taxes.” Yet, traditionally, it primarily referred to the Commonwealth of Nations regarding the “fr ee association of sovereign states consisting of Britain and many of its former dependencies who have chosen to maintain ties of friendship and cooperation. It was established in 1931 by the Statute of Westminster as the British Commowealth of Nations. Later its name was changed and it was redefined to include independent nations. Most of the dependent states that gained independence after 1947 chose Commonwealth membership.” Moreover, “the British monarch serves as its symbolic head, and meetings of the more than 50 Commowealth heads of government take place every two years.” definition, the Commonwealth’s (b) main principles and values, and how these principles and values are present in (c) the countries which founded the Commonwealth, namely (i) Canada, (ii) Australia, (iii) New Zealand, (iv) South Africa, (v) India, and (vi) the Caribbean Islands. Finally, (3) we shall approach the scope of the English language at an international level in those countries which do not have the English language as a mother tongue or second language, but as a foreign language.
2.2.2. Main principles and values. The Commonwealth strengths lie in the following principles and values. First of all, among the three most important principles we include (Secretariat, 2003): first, “the combination of the diversity of its members with their shared inheritance in language, culture and the rule of law”; secondly, “seeking consensus through consultation and the sharing of experience”; and finally, “sharing a commitment to certian fundamental principles set out in a Declaration of Commonwealth Principles agreed at the Singapore meeting in 1971 and in follow-up Declarations and Communiqués.” On the other hand, “Commonwealth ‘values’ are the principles that bind Commonwealth member countries together and they derive from various Commonwealth Declarations and Principles agreed upon at various Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings (CHOGMs). These values are enshrined in the 1991 Harare Commonwealth Declaration (Zimbabwe), which enshrines common interests and a set of basic principles. At Millbrook (New Zealand) in 1995, Heads of Government adopted an action programme to fulfil their commitment to the Harare Principles. At Coolum (Australia) in 2002, Heads of Government committed to ‘The Coolum st
Declaration on the Commonwealth in the 21 Century: Continuity and Renewal’.”(Secretariat, 2003).
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Then, Commonwealth values include: “respect for diversity, human dignity and opposition to all forms of discrimination; adherence to democracy, rule of law, good governance, freedom of expression and the protection of human rights; elimination of poverty and the promotion of people-centred development; and finally, international peace and security, the rule of international law and opposition to terrorism” (Secretariat, 2003). “The adherence to democracy, rule of law, good governance, freedom of expression and the protection of human rights is reflected through the capacity building programme to strengthen civil society organisations;” and by means of documenting good practice. For instance, “the Foundation has produced a document ‘NGO Guidelines for Good Policy and Practice’ to guide civil society organisations and is available in ten languages.” It is worth mentioning that all these states have at some time been under British rule so in some of them, English is the first language; others, with several different languages of their own, find English the most convenient means of communication.
2.2.3. Main countries: cultural dimension.
The Commonwealth is made up by the association of 54 different states which consult, cooperate and work together with the aim of promoting international understanding and world peace. “Diversity is central to the Commonwealth. Membership includes people of many different races and origins, encompasses every state of economic development, and comprises a rich variety of cultures, traditions and institutions” (Secretariat, 2003), including their language. Yet, let us examine the status of the English language under the influence of the Commonwealth in some countries such as Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, India, and the Caribbean Islands, among others (note that we do not include here othe r British dominions such as Gibraltar).
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Canada, which was given the dominion status in 1867, is regarded as a transplanted society (Maxwell, 1982) as well as Australia and New Zealand since the majority of its population is of European origin and had to change the already established cultural habits in the new land. So, it retained a non-indigenous language. In linguistic terms, Canada has developed a type of Canadian English which is difficult for us to understand since it is different from other North American varieties. It is regarded as a homogeneous language, which has not been affected by its nearest linguistic neighbour, American English. The differences lie mainly in vocabulary and pronunciation, since Canadian spelling preserves some British forms (theatre, centre, colour, behaviour) and
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there are no distinctive grammar features. We also highlight the fact that there are also several words of Canadian origin (chesterfield). •
Australia was long inhabited by Aboriginals until the first English settlement, at Port Jackson (1788). It consisted mainly of convicts and seamen, who were to make up a large proportion of the incoming settlers. In linguistic terms, Australian English starts in the second half of the eighteenth century when pidgin English appeared due to the interrelationship of settlers and Aboriginals. The Aboriginal vocabulary of Australian English has become one of the trademarks of the national language (boomerang, jumbuck –sheep-). Yet, the number of Aboriginal words in Australian English is quite small and confined to the naming of plants, trees, animals, and place-names. Nowadays, though English is the official language, Australian English is known for its preserving nature, since it still keeps eighteenth and nineteenth-century lexis from the European Continent (Wessex, Scotland, Ireland). Moreover, it has no regional variation of accent.
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New Zealand was originally inhabited by Polinesian population which traced back to the early Christian centuries. In the eighteenth century it was explored by J. Cook between 1769-1770 and soon it was a target for European settlement in spite of some th
indigenous Maori resistance. Then the 19 century saw the arrival of catholic missionaries and English protestants and the reorganization of New Zealand started. Subsequently, the two races achieved considerable harmony. Yet, unlike Australia it was a free colony, as in practice it has been self-determining since 1901. In linguistic terms, the New Zealand language has been influenced by its Australian neighbours (bush lawyer, bush telegraph) as well as by the Scottish language, namely in family names (Dunedin, Murray). From Australia, many Zealanders were influenced by the native Maori culture, hence many maori words were borrowed on making reference to animals, plants and local trees (kiwi). In addition, Zealanders created their own vocabulary for some places, roads and local places (lines).
•
Before British colonization, certain highlands of East Africa attracted settlers from Europe since these colonies were confined to coastal enclaves. British penetration of the area began at Zanzibar in the late 19th century and before WWI most of the European conquest of Africa had been accomplished. In linguistic terms, the development of the English language in Africa is related to the term ‘pidgin’, hence ‘pidgin English’ is commonly spoken in Africa. Traditionally, pidgin languages are defined as those auxiliary languages that have no native speakers and are used for communicating
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between people who have no common language. Actually, we find two different English versions in Africa: East and West African English. On the one hand, East African Commonwealth countries had no contact with Britain until the early twentieth century when they were colonized, so the use of English was limited to military and administrative vocabulary (white administrators and army officials), still used in the East African states of Kenya. Yet, in Uganda and Tanzania, Swahili is the used as lingua franca and goes through ethnic and political boundaries whereas English is the main language of education (secondary, tertiary). So, we may say that the language of Black Africa is pidgin English, not standard British or American English (Uganda, Zambia, Simbabwe). On the other hand, West African Commonwealth countries use pidgin English as a result of the slave experience of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. For instance, in Sierra Leona, pidgin English has evolved into ‘Krio’, a mixture of English and an African language (Yoruba), with includes Portuguese elements, which is used everywhere. Brought by traders and missionaries to Nigeria and Cameroon, it influenced the local pidgin. Recent governments are trying to establish Krio as the national language of Sierra Leone, even though English is still the official language. •
Historically speaking, India is the home of one of the world’s oldest and most influential civilisations of South Asia. By the early seventeenth century, the East India Company was founded and attracted many European visitors up to the eighteenth century. In linguistic terms, it was in the nineteenth century that, at the highest peak of the British empire, there was a flood of English administrators, educators, army officers and missionaries who spread the English language throughout the sub-continent. Hence by the turn of the century English had become the prestige language of India. After a century, the Jewel of the Crown had added many Indian words into the English language, so as to be able to express different concepts. In additio n, Indian English possesses a number of distinctive stylistic fatures, some of which are inspired by local languages and some by the influence of English educational traditions (change of heart vs. God is merciful). Nowadays, even after Indian’s independence (1947), there are more speakers of English in India than in Britain (over 70 million). English became the official language of everyday life at any sphere. It is worth noting that, though the speakers of English belonged to the educated ruling elite, English is taught at every stage of education in all the states of the country.
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•
The Commonwealth Caribbean Islands have a distinctive history. The Encyclopaedia Britannica (2004) states that “permanently influenced by the experiences of colonialism and slavery, the Caribbean has produced a collection of societies that are markedly different in population composition from those in any other region of the world. Lying on the sparsely settled periphery of an irregularly populated continent, the region was “discovered” by Christopher Columbus in 1492. Thereafter, it became the springboard for the European invasion and domination of the Americas, a transformation that historian D. W. Meinig has aptly described as the "radical reshaping of America." In linguistic terms, we may highlight the fact that the tiny Indian population, once native to the region, speak creolized forms of the invading European languages, and from this merging we obtained a Caribbean English and a Caribbean culture. Of all the varieties of Caribbean English, the most appealing is the Jamaican creole, defined as a language that has evolved from pidgins used by speakers of unintelligible people. So, we may differenciate two different types of language: on the one hand, standard English, used in newspapers and news reporting, engages in conversation, journalists; and on the other hand, Jamaican English, which is virtually unintelligible to the outsider since this is the language of the streets (originally oral, recently written).
2.3. Cultural dimension: out of the Commonwealth.
When approaching the cultural dimension of the English language out of the Commonwealth, we deal with a widespread phenomena: English as a common means to communicate all over the world. Actually, namely spoken in the United Kingdom, the United States of America, and 103 other countries, “English is the second most popular ‘first’ language (native speakers), with around 402 million people in 2002” (wikipedia, 2004). Also, “it is the most widely used ‘second’ and ‘learning’ language in the world, and as such, many linguists believe, it is no longer the exclusive cultural emblem of ‘native English speakers’, but rather a language that is absorbing aspects of cultures worldwide as it grows in use. Others theorise that there are limits to how far English can go in suiting everyone for communication purposes.”
The fact is that English has become the most important and the most spoken language in the world due to two main reasons: first, in the past, because of the highest number of colonies at the beginning of the century and, second, nowadays, because of its status as a lingua franca, due to the military, economic, scientific, political and cultural influence of the United Kingdom and later the United States. In fact, it has become the official language of international organisms such as the European Parliament, the EU Committee, the UNESCO, and NATO, among others.
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This overall influence of the United States throughout the modern world has made English become by far the dominant language of contemporary science and technology, multinational industry and commerce, and of computerized information networks. Where possible, virtually all students worldwide are required to learn some English, and knowledge of English is virtually a prerequisite for working in many fields and occupations. Higher academic institutions, for example, require a working command of English. Yet, nowadays, recent figures show that over 320 million people speak English as a mother tongue and further 400 million people use it as a foreign language. In short, over 700 million people use English nowadays as a first, second or foreign language and have become international users of English.
Hence English has a lot of varieties which depend on regional, educational, ethnic, attitudinal, medium and subject matter aspects. In particular, varieties according to the region are called ‘dialects,’ which are namely distinguished in phonological terms since we generally recognize a different dialect from a speaker’s pronunciation before we notice differences in grammar or 3
vocabulary. For instance, the main dialects of the English language are American English, Australian English, British English, Canadian English, Caribbean English, Filipino English, Hiberno-English, Indian English, Jamaican English, Liberian English, Malaysian English, New Zealand English, Scottish English, Singapore English, and South African English (wikipedia, 2004).
So, figures regarding the use of the English language around the world have been continuously increasing during the twentieth and twenty-first century. Actually, we may find people who speak English as a native, second and foreign language. Yet, let us clarify the difference between these similar but confusing concepts. For instance, a mother tongue is considered to be the first language (L1) one learns as a child whereas a second language (L2) is acquired under the need of learning the language of another country. On the other hand, when languages are acquired in school, it is considered as a foreign language. The acronyms ESL and EFL stand for the learning of English as a Second and as a Foreign Language.
So, these concepts will help us to establish the three main parametres under which we shall examine the way the English language is used in countries out of the Commonwealth, for instance, (a) as a native language in the United States, (b) as a second language in India, and (c)
3
Note that “these varieties may, in most cases, contain several subvarieties, such as Cockney within British English, Newfoundland English within Canadian English and African American Vernacular English within American English” (wikipedia, 2004).
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as a foreign language in Spain (so as to prepare the ground for next chapters on the distinction between British English and American English; and the presence of English in Spain).
2.3.1. English as a native language.
Regarding the countries that use English as their native language or mother tongue, it is worth noting that most of those 402 million people (mentioned above) who speak English as their native language are citizens of the United States (est. 287,602,000 by 2002). Moreover, regarding its geographic distribution English is regarded as the first language in Australia, the Bahamas, Barbados, Bermuda, Guyana, Jamaica, New Zealand, Antigua, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Trinidad and Tobago, the United Kingdom and the United States of America (wikipedia, 2004).
“English is also one of the primary languages of Belize (with Spanish), Canada (with French), Cameroon (with French and African languages), Dominica, St. Lucia and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (with French Creole), the Federated States of Micronesia, Ireland (with Irish), Liberia (with African languages), Singapore and South Africa (with Afrikaans and other Afric an languages).”
2.3.2. English as a second language.
Regarding English as a second language it is worth noting that the estimated number of English speakers are possibly between 350 and 1,000 million. The reason is that English is not used as a native language, but as a practical or educated first language within a largely bilingual society or due to the necessity to use it for some practical purposes due to administrative, professional, educational or commercial reasons. So, English as a second language is an official language in Fiji, Ghana, Gambia, Hong Kong, India, Kiribati, Lesotho, Kenya, Namibia, Nigeria, Malta, the Marshall Islands, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, the Solomon Islands, Samoa, Sierra Leone, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Moreover, “it is the most commonly used unofficial language of Israel and an increasing number of other countries such as Switzerland, Norway and Germany” (wikipedia, 2004).
2.3.3. English as a foreign language.
Recent figures show that the number of people who speak English as a foreign language nowadays exceeds 400 million or even more. English has become one of the main aims in teaching foreign languages so grammars, dictionaries, and manuals on it proliferate nowadays.
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There is also a general raising of consciousness, with new language courses in schools, regarding the learning of a foreign language, namely English, so as to help people keep pace with current developments (scientific, technological, educational); and this is to be achieved predominantly by means of the media (popular programmes on radio and television, songs, documentaries, press). Current figures show that English is the language “most often studied as a foreign language in Europe (32.6%) and Japan, followed by French, German and Spanish” (wikipedia, 2004).
3. CULTURAL DIMENSION OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE NOWADAYS: BRITISH ENGLISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH. PRESENCE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN SPAIN: ANGLICISMS.
Then, with this background in mind, Chapter 3 approaches the cultural dimension of the English language from two different perspectives: first, regarding two specific manifestations of the English language: first, the so-called distinction between (1) British English and American English within the scope of English-speaking countries, in terms of differences in (1) spelling, (2) vocabulary (3) grammar, (4) punctuation, and (5) pronunciation; and secondly, regarding the (2) presence of the English language in a non English-speaking country, in particular, in Spain and the presence of anglicisms. This section shall be approached by offering (a) a definition of the term ‘anglicism’, and examining (b) the presence of the English language in Spain.
3.1. British vs. American English: main differences.
Namely, this section will outline the main differences between British English (more precisely known as Commonwealth English) and American English (the form of the English language spoken in the United States) following the website wikipedia (2004). Broadly speaking, it is worth mentioning that “although American and British English are generally mutually intelligible, there are enough differences to occasionally cause awkward misunderstandings or complete failures to communicate. George Bernard Shaw said that the United States and United Kingdom are “two countries divided by a common language. A similar comment is ascribed to Winston Churchill.”
Moreover, already in 1877 Henry Sweet predicted that “within a century, American English, Australian English and British English would be mutually unintelligible, but it may be the case
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that increased world-wide communication through radio, television, the Internet, or globalization has reduced the tendency to regionalisation. This can result either with some variations becoming extinct (as, for instance, truck has been gradually displacing lorry in much of the world) or that wide variations are accepted as ‘perfectly good English’ everywhere” as Received Pronunciation is known.
On the one hand, American English (AmE, abbreviated) “refers to the language spoken by U.S. government officials, network newscasters, etc., rather than to regional dialects. It does not include Canadian English, which does not fall within this definition of ‘American English’ in any case. Canadian pronunciation is similar to that in the United States, but spelling more often than not takes the Commonwealth form. American English is also used by countries and organisations, such as Liberia and the Organization of American States, whose use of English is most influenced by the United States.” On the other hand, British English (BrE, abbreviated) “is assumed to be the form of English spoken in southeast England, used by the British Government and the BBC and understood in other parts of the United Kingdom. The section on pronunciation assumes the received pronunciation of British English, from which there are many regional variations.”
Yet, let us concentrate on the main differences between both variations. Though there is no definite agreement in the number of differences, we shall examine the small number that has entered the standard written language of each nation, namely regarding (1) spelling, (2) vocabulary (3) grammar, (4) punctuation, and (5) pronunciation.
3.1.1. Spelling.
Within orthographical differences, the most outstanding is spelling. Following wikipedia (2004), “some words shared by all English speakers are spelled one way by Americans but are spelt differently in other English speaking countries. Many of the differences were introduced, somewhat artificially, into the United States by Noah Webster’s dictionary, and have never spread to other English-speaking countries. In some cases, the American versions have become common Commonwealth usage, for example program (in the computing sense). Other important changes include (1) words endings, (2) Greek-derived words, (3) doubled consonants and (4) other special cases.
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1. Words ending in:
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-our (BrE) vs. –or (AmE). “American words ending in “or” may end in “our” in British Englis h. For example, in American English, one would use color , flavor , honor , whereas in British English one would use colour , flavour and honour . In addition, Americans replace “ou” with “o” in derivatives and inflected forms such as favourite, savoury versus favorite, savory. One exception to this distinction is glamour , which is usually spelled that way in American English as well as in British usage. In both systems, the adjectival forms that end in -ous are spelled without the penultimate u (e.g. glamorous, vigorous, humorous and laborious). Words in which the stress falls on the “our”, such as hour , our , flour , velour , sour , and soury, are the same in both usages.
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-re (BrE) vs. –er (AmE). Note the British words ‘centre, fibre, metre, theatre’ (showing an influence from French) vs. American ‘center, fiber, meter, theater’. “The adjectival forms of these words are the same in both conventions, however; Americans do not write ‘centeral, fiberous, meteric or theaterical’ (adjectival forms derived as past participles, however, are written -ered, as in centered). The British uses ‘meter’ for a measuring device and ‘metre’ for the unit of measure. The British forms are recognizable by Americans and occasionally found in American texts, though their usage may be considered an affectation. The British spelling that has perhaps gained the most currency in American English is ‘theatre’. However, ‘theater’ is still more common in everyday use, and ‘theatre’ is generally reserved for more formal settings or for the names of specific venues (e.g. the Kodak Theatre).”
•
-gue (BrE) vs. –g (AmE). Note the differences between “British ‘analogue, catalogue, dialogue’ vs. American ‘analog, catalog, dialog’.” The -gue forms are also relatively common in the United States. Some -gue forms are common in both British and American usages, such as ‘demagogue’ and ‘vogue’ (as opposed to vog).
•
-ise (BrE) vs. –ize (AmE). British words, such as ‘colonise, harmonise, realise’ are set in contrast with the American ones ‘colonize, harmonize, realize’ (and derivatives and inflexions therefrom: colonisation - colonization). “This is a somewhat artificial distinction, since the most authoritative British sources, the Oxford English Dictionary and Fowler’s Modern English Usage, prefer -ize, and most British writers use either freely; however, British
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editors tend to enforce that the norm is to use -ise as the standard orthographical practice. Also: British ‘analyse’ vs. American ‘analyze’. It should also be noted that not all spellings are interchangeable; some words take the -z- form exclusively, for instance ‘capsize, prize (to value), seize, size,’ whereas others take only -s-: ‘advertise, advise, apprise, arise, circumcise, comprise, demise, despise, devise, disguise, exercise, franchise, improvise, incise, promise, poise, praise, raise, rise, supervise, surmise, surprise and televise’. ” •
-xion (BrE) vs. –ction (AmE). Note that “the spellings ‘connexion, inflexion, deflexion, reflexion’ are now somewhat rare, perhaps understandably as their stems are ‘connect, inflect, deflect, and reflect’ and there are many such words in English that result in a -tion ending. The more common American ‘connection, inflection, deflection, reflection’ have almost become the standard internationally. However, the Oxford English Dictionary lists the older spellings as the etymological form, since these four words actually derive from the Latin root ‘xio’. Given this, it might be preferable to retain the original spellings. In both forms, complexion is used in preference to complection, as it comes from the stem complex in British and in American English, just like ‘crucifix’ and ‘crucifixion’. British Methodism retains the eighteenth century spelling ‘connexion’ to describe its national organisation, for historical reasons.”
2. Greek-derived words.
This group includes words derived from Greek which are formed with the clusters ‘a e’ (separated) or ‘ae’ (together: the ash), and ‘o e’ (separated) or ‘oe’ (together). Among the most common names we find: BrE ‘anaemia, anaesthesia, diarrhoea, foetus, gynaecology, mediaeval, encyclopaedia’ vs. AmE ‘anemia, anesthesia, diarrhea, fetus, gynecology, medieval, encyclopedia.’
Special cases include the term ‘manoeuvre,’ which seems to be special since its ‘oe’ was not derived from Greek, but was apparently changed to ‘maneuver’ in American English on the mistaken belief that it was. British ‘aeroplane’ and American ‘airplane’ is also a special case in that it’s not a straight ‘ae ? e’ substitution like the rest, but it’s in fact a different word rather than a different spelling. Some words retain the ‘ae’ in American usage, such as ‘aesthetic ’ and ‘archaeology’, although ‘esthetic ’ and ‘archeology’ are also seen. The spelling ‘encyclopedia’ is commonly used in British English, although the earlier form ‘encyclopaedia ’ is also used
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coined independently (‘car vs. automobile’, ‘railway vs. railroad’). Other sources of difference are slang or vulgar terms, where frequent new coinage occurs, and idiomatic phrases, including phrasal verbs. The differences most likely to create confusion are those where the same word or phrase is used for two different concepts. So, we shall examine how these differences make reference to grammatical differences and, in particular, morphology, where we may find relevant changes. For instance, we find five main subdivisions: words with the same form and different meaning; same form and additional meaning in one variety; same form and difference in style; different form and same meaning.
•
Words with the same form and different meaning. For instance, the word ‘pants’ is referred to as ‘underpants’ (BrE) vs. ‘trousers (AmE), and similarly, ‘pavement’ as ‘footpath’ vs. ‘road surface’, among others.
•
Same form and additional meaning in one variety. For instance, the word ‘leader’ is referred to as ‘one who commands guides and directs’ both in BrE and AmE, but it may also has an additional meaning in British English as ‘an editorial’; and similarly, ‘dumb’ as ‘mute’ in both varieties and ‘stupid’ as the additional meaning in AmE, among others.
•
Same form and difference in style . For instance, the word ‘leader’ is referred to as ‘one who commands guides and directs’ both in BrE and AmE, but it may also has an additional meaning in British English as ‘an editorial’; and similarly, ‘dumb’ as ‘mute’ in both varieties and ‘stupid’ as the additional meaning in AmE; and ‘autumn’, which is common to all styles in BrE, but it is namely used in poetic or formal writing in AmE, where we use ‘fall’ instead.
•
Different form and same meaning, which is the major type wit hin the two varieties. They are words which may be used almost interchangeably within a wide range of fields, among which we may mention: food and cooking, clothing and accessories, household, commerce, transportation, and miscellaneous. For instance, note the words such as while (BrE) vs. whilst (AmE) (though Whilst is more often used in instruction manuals, legal documents, etc); pancake vs. crepe, to grill vs. to broil, cooker vs. stove, jug vs. pithcer, jumper vs. sweater, vest vs. undershirt, purse vs. changepurse, sitting room vs. living room, garden vs. yard, dustbin vs. garbage can, chemist’s vs. drug store, off-licence vs. liquor store, pram vs. baby buggy, caravan vs. mobile home; and miscellaneous, such as flat vs. apartment. solicitor vs. attorney, pub vs. bar, cupboard vs. closet, lift vs. elevator, rubbish vs. garbage, petrol vs. gas, taxi vs. cab, handbag vs. purse, cotton vs. thread, and flyover vs. overpass, among others.
•
Miscellaneous changes, such as in (1) nouns of direction with -wards: note British English ‘forwards, upwards, afterwards’ vs. American forward, ‘ upward, afterward’ . 29/41
However, there is no real distinction here, as both forms are used in both dialects, except that afterward is rare in British English. (2) Prepositions, which may differ in form in the two varieties, for instance, BrE ‘behind, out of, round’ vs. AmE ‘in back of, out, around.’ Also, prepositions (usually of time) which are used identically in some contexts in both BrE and AmE differ in usage in other contexts, for instance, BrE ‘for weeks; for ages’ vs. AmE ‘in weeks; in ages’ in a sentence like ‘I haven’t travelled.’ Other miscellaneous differences include: twenty to four (BrE) vs. twenty of four (AmE) and similarly, five past eight vs. five after eight, behind the building vs. in back of the building, Monday to Friday vs. Monday through Friday, and so on. (3) And finally, adjectives where the most outstanding change is noticed in the comparative form of the adjective ‘different’, which is usually followed by ‘from’ in BrE whereas in AmE is usually followed by ‘than’. Regarding adverbs, it is worth noting that adverb placement is somewhat freer in American English than in British English.
3.1.3. Grammar.
There are many small points of difference in the grammar of the two varieties, though the influence of American English on British English is such that many of the usages which were once restricted to the former now appear in the latter. Also, some of the British English usages are found in American English, withh varying preference, depending on dialect and style. Thus,
•
Regarding plural formation processes, we may note that singular attributives in one country may be plural in the other, and vice versa. For example, Britain has ‘a drugs problem’ while the United States has ‘a drug problem’.
•
Word order regarding names of American rivers, for instance, the word river usually comes after the name (for example, Colorado River), whereas for British rivers it comes before (as in River Thames).
•
Verbal tenses in the past ending by –t. Note the difference between ‘dreamt, leapt, learnt, spelt’ (BrE) vs. ‘dreamed, leaped, learned, spelled’ (AmE). The forms with -ed are more common in British usage (i.e. the two-syllable form learned [l3:nId], usually spelled simply as learned, is still used to mean ‘educated’, or to refer to academic institutions), though they are also used in American English.
•
Other verb past tense forms: note British English words such as ‘fitted, forecasted, knitted, lighted, wedded’ vs. American ones: ‘fit, forecast, knit, lit, wed’. But the former forms are also found in American. However, other forms such as ‘lit’ and ‘forecast’ are also the usual forms in British English. Also, the past participle ‘gotten’ is never used in
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3. Doubled consonants.
Following wikipedia (2004), British English “generally doubles final -l when adding suffixes that begin with a vowel, where American English doubles it only on stressed syllables. (Thus American English treats -l the same as other final consonants, whereas British English treats it irregularly).” Hence, “British ‘counsellor, equalling, modelling, quarrelled, signalling, travelled’ vs. American ‘counselor, equaling, modeling, quarreled, signaling, traveled’. But ‘compelled, excelling, propelled, rebelling’ in both (notice the stress difference). When such suffixes are appended to words ending in -eal, the -l is doubled neither in American nor in British usage: ‘revealing, dealing, concealed’. British writers also use a single ‘l’ before suffixes beginning with a consonant where Americans use a double: British ‘enrolment, fulfilment, instalment, skilful’ vs. American ‘enrollment, fulfillment, installment, skillful’.”
4. Other special cases.
Among other cases, we include two main orthographic situations. First, British English “often keeps silent ‘e’ when adding suffixes where American English doesn’t. British ‘ageing, routeing’ vs. American ‘aging, routing’. Both systems retain the silent ‘e’ when necessary to preserve a soft ‘c’ or ‘g’: ‘traceable, judgement’ (although judgment is also standard in American English).
The second case refers to nouns ending in -ce with -se verb forms: American English retains the noun/verb distinction in ‘advice / advise’ and ‘device / devise’ (pronouncing them differently), but has lost the same distinction with ‘ licence / license’ and ‘practice / practise’ that British English retains. Americ an English uses practice exclusively for both meanings, and ‘license’ for both meanings (although ‘licence’ is an accepted variant spelling). Also, British ‘defence, offence, pretence’ vs. American ‘’defense, offense, pretense.’
3.1.2. Vocabulary.
Vocabulary is perhaps the most noticiable field where to find differences between British and American English. It is worth noting that the differences are in connection with concepts originating from the nineteenth century to the mid twentieth century, where new words were
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modern British English, which uses got (as do some Americans), except in an entire archaic expression such as ill-gotten gains. Yet, British usage retains the form ‘forgotten’. ‘Fitted’ is used in both conventions as an adjective (‘fitted sheets’ are the same size as the mattress) and as the past tense of fit ‘to suffer epilepsy’; however, ‘fit’ and ‘fitting’ are not in ordinary British use for ‘to suffer epilepsy’ (though that usage is common within medical circles), with the same effect being achieved by to have a fit or to throw a fit. American English favours the past participle proven, whereas it remains proved in England (except in adjectival use sometimes). American English further allows other irregular verbs, such as strive (strove - striven), which remain regular in British English, and often mixes the preterite and past participle forms (spring - sprang (US sprung) sprung), sometimes forcing verbs such as shrink (shrank - shrunk) to have a further form, thus shrunk – shrunken (wikipedia, 2004). •
In British English the word ‘sat’ is often used to cover ‘sat, sitting and seated’, for instance, “I’ve been sat here for ten minutes” or “Your boyfriend will be sat on the right side of the table”. Not all British people do this, but it is not often heard outside Britain. Similarly stood can be used instead of standing.
•
In other verbal tenses, such as the present perfect tense, which is much more common in British dialects than in American, where the simple past tense is usually used instead. For example, BrE I've gone in vs. AmE I went. Similarly, the past perfect tense is often replaced by the past simple tense in the USA; this, even more than the dropping of the present perfect, is generally regarded as sloppy usage by those Americans who consider themselves careful users of the language.
•
On informal occasions, the British use ‘have got’, whereas Americans say ‘have", as the only form to be used in formal writing.
•
Also, American English allows do as a substitute for have (the full verb, in the sense of possess), just as for other verbs such as ‘walk’ or ‘think’; in the past, British English did not allow this, but it is becoming increasingly common. Compare BrE ‘Have you any coins? Yes, I have’ vs. AmE ‘Have you any food?’ or much more common, ‘Do you have any food?’ Yes, I do.’ Note that such substitution is not possible for the auxiliary verb ‘have’ in ‘Have you eaten? Yes, I have.’ for both American and British English.
•
Similarly, in informal usage, American English often uses the form ‘did’ +infinitive where British English would use ‘have/has’+past participle. For instance, ‘Did you tidy your room yet?’ would be usual American English where most British speakers would say ‘Have you tidied your room yet?’. The ‘have’ form is regarded as correct in both countries, however, and is required in all formal contexts.
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•
The subjunctive mood is more common in Americ an English in expressions like ‘They suggested he study for the exam’ whereas British English would have ‘They suggested he should study for the exam’ or even ‘They suggested he studied for the exam’. Yet, these British usages are heard in the United States.
3.1.4. Punctuation.
Punctuation differences are often given in letter-writing, above all, because of the visual effect of the addition or lack of punctuation markers in the two varieties. For instance,
•
American students in some areas have been taught to write a colon after the greeting (“Dear Sir:” ) while Britons usually write a comma (“Dear Sir,”). However, this practice is not consistent throughout the United States, and it would be regarded as a highly formal usage by most Americans.
•
Regarding abbreviations, note the difference between BrE: ‘US’, ‘UN’, ‘Mr’, ‘Mrs’, ‘St’, ‘Dr’ whereas Americans tend to write a full point after each letter: ‘U.S.’, ‘U.N.’, ‘Mr.’, ‘Mrs.’, ‘St.’, ‘Dr.’, following the rule that a period is used only when the last letter of the abbreviation is not the last letter of the complete word. However, many British writers would tend to write without a full stop other abbreviations, such as ‘Prof’, ‘etc’, or ‘eg’, among others.
•
Regarding the use of hyphens, it is sometimes believed that British English does not hyphenate multiple-word adjectives, as in: ‘a first class ticket’ as this is considered to be rare and incorrect. So, the most common form takes place in American English, for instance: ‘a first-class ticket’.
•
Regarding quoting, British English use single quotation marks (‘) for quotations (though not on every occasion) whereas Americans start with double quotation marks (“). Moreover, inside the quotation mark, British English places the punctuation inside if it belongs to the quote whereas American English usually put commas and periods inside quotation marks.
3.1.5. Pronunciation.
It is a well-known fact that British and American people pronounce differently, though having the same language. Actually, “the most widely current pronunciation of a given word in
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American English may occur in standard British English as a less frequently used variant” (Algeo & Pyles, 1982:225), for instance, ‘either’ and ‘neither’. Yet, both varieties differ in the pronunciation of vowels and consonants providing numerous instances of allophones, homophones and specific types of sounds (the ‘r’ alveolar flap, the ‘t’ glottal stop). Actually, common features of British English pronunciation are the pronunciation of vowels before /r/, which involves the epenthesis of a schwa in between any of the vowels involved and the following /r/ (i.e. beer, chair, more); the /r/ dropping, which involves the delection of /r/ at the end of a word in isolation (i.e. far, near) in contrast to the insertion of /r/ at the end of a word when next word starts by a vowel (i.e. far away, near us). Moreover, the glide cluster reduction occurs in the environment of homophonous pairs (i.e. whine -wine, pair-pear); suffix vowels, which concerns dysillabic suffixes in words of four or more syllables (-ary as in secretary, -ory as in category, -mony as in testimony, -berry as in strawberry); and finally, smoothing referrring to a monphtongal realization when diphthongs occur in a prevocalic environment (i.e. coward, player). On the other hand, regarding common features of American English pronunciation we highlight the phenomena of, first, Lot Unrounding (a vowel ranging from back to centralized front), and secondly, tapping, which is the pronunciation of the intervocalic consonant /t/ as a rapid tap rather than a more deliberate plosive. Yet, let us examine the main differences between the two varieties regarding vowels and consonants following the website wikipedia (2004). •
Regarding vowels, “American English generally has a simplified vowel system as compared to the British dialects. In particular, many Americans have lost the distinction between the vowels of ‘awl’ and ‘all’, as well as ‘caught’and ‘cot’, the so-called cotcaught merger tending to pronounce all of these with something between a long form of the sound in ‘cot’ and the ‘a’ of ‘father’ (those two sounds being distinct in British English.”
•
The long ‘a’ of ‘father’, the famous British broad ‘a’, is used in many British RP words, especially common ones, in two phonetic situations. Firstly, before three of the four voiceless fricatives, as in ‘path, laugh, pass, past’, though not before ‘sh’. Secondly, before some instances of ‘n’ and another consonant, as in ‘aunt, plant, dance’. In most northern dialects, not to mention Scotish and Irish, though, the short ‘a’ is the norm. An ‘a’ at the beginning of a word (such as ‘ant’) is usually short throughout the country, just as in the American. Note that Australian usually follows RP in the first case, though ‘castle’ and ‘graph’, among others, often have the short vowel, and ‘aunt’ and ‘can't’ invariably have the broad one.
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•
British Received Pronunciation (RP) has generally lost the long /o:/ as in boat, replacing it with a diphthong that is close to /au/. Some British speakers still have /o:/, but it appears only as a result of a lost /r/, in words like ‘force’. More northerly and westerly British speech preserves /o:/. The British diphthong /au/ is enunciated as /ou/ or sometimes as /o/ in American English.
•
American speech usually does not soften consonants /n/, /t/ and /d/ with /j/, unlike British pronunciation in certain cases. This is particularly noticeable in the British words ‘new, tune and dual’, which are respectively pronounced like /nju:/, /tju:n/ and /dju:al/ whereas in American English we find /nu:/, /tu:n/ and /du:al/.
•
Most American dialects “have not lost the non-prevocalic r. That is, ‘standard’ American English preserves the sound of ‘r’ in all occurrences, whereas British English only preserves it when it is followed by a vowel (see rhotic r). However, this holds true neither for all American dialects nor for all British dialects; the dialects of New England and the American South both exhibit a similar sound change found in southern England. In England, however, when a former syllable final /r/ appeared before a consonant not at a word boundary, a schwa was substituted for it, giving British English a new class of falling diphthongs. The non-rhotic North American dialects do not show this. This phenomenon also partially accounts for the interlocution of ‘r’ between a word ending in a vowel and one beginning with a vowel (such as ‘the idear of it’) exhibited both in some dialects of Britain and in the Boston (USA) dialect of American English. Most other American dialects interpose a glottal stop where ‘r’ appears in the Boston example, and appears to perform the same function of separating adjacent (nondipthongized) vowels.”
•
Words ending in -ile and -ine ( fertile, docile , missile, turbine) are pronounced with the last syllable sounding the same as isle for the -ile words in British English, and with a short, reduced i (rhyming with turtle) in American (although exceptions can be found, such as reptile, which is pronounced by most Americans so that the last syllable rhymes with ‘style’).
•
The name of the letter Z is pronounced zed in British English in contrast with the American English zee, though the words are normally only spelled out when noting the difference. Other Greek letters are also pronounced differently, for instance, BrE beta /beata/ whereas the American pronunciation sounds like /baita/, similarly, BrE epsilon /epp-SIGH-lon/ vs. AmE /Epsa:lon/. Note that American English is more in keeping with the ancient Greek, whereas the British reflects sound changes in English since the borrowing as well as being more in keeping with modern Greek.
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3.2. Presence of the English language in Spain: anglicisms.
European countries (France, Spain, Italy, Germany) tend to pick up words from other countries for several reasons (historical, social, commercial). Then these foreign words undergo a gradual process of linguistic borrowing resulting from living English speakers all around the world. In particular, Spain has mostly adopted this type of words from the United States or Great Britain in recent decades due to the post-World War consequences and the international dominance of English. Actually, as society changed new concepts appeared, and new words were created so as to represent new realities: these particular words taken and adapted from the English language are called anglicisms.
3.2.1. Anglicism: definition.
Following wikipedia (2004), “an anglicism is a word borrowed from English into another language, but considered by a fair part of influential speakers of that language to be substandard or undesirable.” For an anglicism to be considered as such, we have to meet two premises: first, that a foreign language takes the English word as a model and adapts it into its own; second, that this new word is fully adapted to the foreign language so that it becomes linguistically productive; and finally, that it must be handled by a high percentage of the foreign population. It must be borne in mind that other words were not considered to be anglicisms and still remain as foreign words, and also, sometimes an anglicism will have a different meaning than the original English word (due to abbreviation or other reasons), but in most cases, an expression incorrectly translated from the English becomes more successful than the original one. Note, some words were borrowed from English into Spanish centuries ago, such as clown, chocolate, or café. These are not anglicisms, but rather are considered perfectly good Spanish words fully accepted by the ‘Real Academia Española’. Perhaps the only difference between an anglicism and a full-fledged Spanish word is the test of time.
3.2.2. Presence of the English language in Spain. Historically speaking, as stated before, English was inherited from British colonization. The first wave of English-speaking immigrants was settled in North America in the seventeenth Century. In this century, there were also speakers in North America of Dutch, French, German, Native American, Spanish, Swedish and Finnish languages. Nowadays, the most common way for foreign words to enter another language, for our purposes, from English to Spanish, is
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through the influence of the media (press, radio, television, magazines, the Internet) and the world of sports, fashion, or travelling through advertising. So, following Pratt (1980), there is no a cle ar-cut division between ‘well-known anglicisms’ and other similar words which, despite being used in Spain, are still considered ‘foreign words’. Yet, we shall present a list of words that are considered to be ‘anglicisms’ within all type of variations: •
Words which have been fully adapted from English and keep the same form. This group namely includes words from the fields of sports, music, fashion, business, food, or technology, among others. For instance, ‘corner’, ‘penalty’, ‘CD’, ‘radio cassette’, ‘single’, ‘catwalk’, ‘fashion’, ‘top-model’, ‘sex-appeal’, ‘hot-dog’, ‘pudding’, ‘sherry’, ‘photo shot’, ‘video’, ‘the Internet’, ‘e-mail’, and so on.
•
Words which have been adapted in form but differ in pronunciation, for instance, ‘playback’, ‘rugby’, ‘self-service’, ‘bungalow’, ‘show’, ‘cowboy’, ‘snow’, ‘hall’, ‘habitat’, and ‘telex’, among others.
•
Words which have been fully adapted from English and do not keep the same form, for instance, ‘mitin’ (from ‘meeting’), ‘estatus’ (from ‘status’), ‘estándard’ (from ‘standard’), and ‘güiski’ (from ‘whiskey’), among others.
•
Words which have lost their English appearance, and consequently, are to be felt to be Spanish words with a Spanish source: ‘agenda’ (vs. agenda), ‘apartamentos’ (vs. apartment), ‘evento’ (vs. event), ‘educación’ (vs. teaching process), ‘astro’ (vs. star), ‘canal’ (vs. channel).
•
Neologisms, which are words derived from words which already existed, but have been added a prefix or a suffix, for instance, ‘antioxidante,’ ‘coproducción,’ ‘coloquial,’ ‘devaluación,’ ‘educativo’, and so on.
•
Compound words, that is, compound English source words adapted to Spanish. For instance, ‘canción-protesta’, ‘ciudad-jardín’, ‘hockey-hierba’, ‘hombre-rana’, ‘perroguardián’, ‘rascacielos’, ‘luna de miel’, and so on.
•
Finally, just to mention those words which are misused due to the influence of journalistic language. These are words that exist in Spanish with a different meaning and are slowly acquiring the meaning they have in English. For instance, ‘sophisticated’ (Spanish ‘chic, modern’ vs. English ‘complex’), ‘routinary’ (Spanish ‘ordinary check
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up’ vs. English ‘daily’), ‘domestic’ (Spanish ‘referred to household’ vs. English ‘national affairs’), and so on.
4. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING.
Society and language, and therefore, sociocultural aspects and linguistic knowledge are two of the most outstanding aspects of educational activity. In the classroom setting all kinds of social aspects related to language may be approached in terms of spoken or written activities so as to bring them closer to the students’ reality. Moreover, we may handle in class those productions which make relevant the analysis of the cultural dimension of the English language for students both in the past (History) or at present (social events), for instance, through the use of anglicisms in sports, fashion, or the use of American English (the so-called speech of Aznar when he visited President Bush at the White House).
So, the distinction between British English and American English, or the presence of the English language in Spain is quite familiar for Spanish students, who are surrounded by lots of anglicisms in the fields of fashion, music, sports, and so on. Yet, how is this issue linked to our Spanish students? Basically, through the educational activity, both in and out the classroom, the former being developed in terms of tutorial or classroom activities and the latter by focusing on sociocultural aspects that exist within the students’ environment (home, friends, the media). Hence it makes sense to examine the historical background of the presence of English in Spain, and therefore, the relationship between Britain and Spain so as to understand this strong influence.
Currently, educational authorities are bringing about relevant changes for the school reality and, therefore, students feel how the English language is present in their daily life, when reading instructions, playing music, buying clothes or watching a football match. The integr ation of Spain into the European Union, and its military and business relationship with the United States, makes relevant for students to become aware of this influence so as to be able to compare and appreciate the main similarities and differences within each linguistic system.
So, the cultural dimension of the English language may be easily approached to students by the increasing number of European programs (Comenius, Erasmus, school trips) and technologies (the Internet, mobile phones, mail) which provide students the opportunity of exchanging information with other European teenagers and know other cultures using English. Actually, among the stage objectives for both E.S.O. and Bachillerato students (stated respectively in RD
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112 and RD 113/2002, 13 September) there is a clear reference to the fact of getting acquainted with other cultures so as to promote respect and, for our purposes, an attitude of critical awareness of other language systems.
Thus, E.S.O. objectives (2, 11) make reference to first, “understand and express oral and written messages appropriately and with communicative efficiency in the study of a foreign language or languages, and value the importance of doing so in an open and multicultural society” (objective 2); and secondly, “to know the traditions and cultural patrimony of other countries, value them critically, and respect the cultural and linguistic diversity as a people’s and countries’ right” (objective 11).
Furthermore, within the Foreign Language General Objectives (8, 9, 10), we find a closer approach to the cultural dimension of English when saying that students are expected to “accede to the knowledge of the culture transmitted by the foreign language, developing respect towards it and its speakers, to achieve a better understanding between countries” (objective 8); “recognise the value of foreign languages as a means of communication between people belonging to different cultures and as an enriching element for social and interpersonal relations” (objective 9); and “use the foreign language as a means of communication with a ludic and creative attitude and enjoy its use” (objective 10).
On the other hand, Bachillerato students are expected to “understand and know how to express oneself fluently and correctly in the foreign language or languages being studied” (objective 2); and also, “to use the information and communication technologies to acquire types of knowledge and transmit information, solve problems and facilitate interpersonal relations, valuing its use critically” (objective 7). Furthermore, within the Foreign Language General Objectives (6, 7), we find a closer approach to the cultural dimension of English when saying that students are expected to “know the sociocultural aspects of the target language as a means to improve communication in the foreign language and for the critical knowledge of one’s own culture” (objective 6) and also, to “value the importance of the study of foreign languages as an element of understanding and encouragement of respect and consideration towards other cultures.”
Actually, the success partly lies in the way this issue becomes real to the users. Actually, we have to recreate as much as possible the whole cultural environment in the classroom by means of documentaries, history books, or films. This is to be achieved within the framework of the European Council (1998) and, in particular, the Spanish Educational System which establishes a
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common reference framework for the teaching of foreign languages where students are intended to carry out several communication tasks with specific communicative goals. Broadly speaking, the main aims that our currently educational system focuses on are mostly sociocultural, to facilitate the study of cultural themes, as our students must be aware of their current social reality within the European framework.
5. CONCLUSION.
As we have seen, English usage in other countries has traditionally followed one model or the other. Throughout most of the Commonwealth, the spoken English has its roots in the British version, though local expressions abound. In fact, in addition to its use in English-speaking countries, English is used as a technical language around the world, in medicine, computer science, air traffic control, and many other such areas of concentrated expertise and international user populations. Hence, there are also many surviving dialects and local variations in English.
For instance, Canadian English, American English and, in particular, British English, which is also the dialect taught in most countries where English is not a native language. However, there are a few exceptions where American English is taught, such as in the Philippines and in Japan. On the other hand, another English-speaking country, Ireland, has another variety often described as Hiberno-English and differs in some respects from British English, in so far as phrases and terms often owe their origin to the original Irish language (Gaelic), which allowed for more variations in word structure.
The language may vary slightly from country to country or even between those country’s states, provinces and territories, but it is in all cases distinct from American English. It is mostly interchangeable with British English, and where “Britons” is used, “inhabitants of the Commonwealth” might be a more accurate , if more unwieldy, replacement. Commonwealth English is also used by countries and organisations, such as Ireland and the European Union, whose use of English is most influenced by the United Kingdom. In short, English is one of the official languages of the European Union (UK and Ireland) and, as we have seen, all over the world.
The aim of this unit has been, then, to provide a useful introduction to the cultural dimension of the English language nowadays from a general overview by focusing on two relevant manifestations of the English language, that is, British English and American English.
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Moreover, we have examined the impact of the English language out of English-speaking countries by addressing the question of the presence of the English language in Spain and the introduction of anglicisms.
In doing so, Chapter 2 has provided a brief history of the English language cultural dimension in and out the Commonwealth so as to offer a general overview of the influence of English around the world by reviewing (1) the origins of the British colonial empire from the seventeenth century to the present day; (2) the cultural dimension of the English language within the Commonwealth countries; and also, (3) the cultural dimension of the English language out of the Commonwealth scope.
Then, with this background in mind, Chapter 3 has approached the cultural dimension of the English language from two different perspectives: first, regarding two specific manifestations of the English language: first, the so-called distinction between (1) British English and American English within the scope of English-speaking countries, in terms of differences in (1) spelling, (2) vocabulary (3) grammar, (4) punctuation, and (5) pronunciation; and secondly, regarding the (2) presence of the English language in a non English-speaking country, in particular, in Spain and the presence of anglicisms . So far, we have attempted to provide the reader in this presentation with a historical background on the English cultural dimension, and its further influence on Spain. This information is relevant for language learners, even 2nd year Bachillerato students, who do not automatically detect differences between different varieties of English. So, learners need to have these associations brought to their attention in socio-cultural aspects within cross-curricular settings. As we have seen, understanding how language develops and is reflected in our world today is important to students, who are expected to be aware of the richness of the English language, not only in English-speaking countries, but also in Spain.
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