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TOPIC 13

Language Teaching Theories in the 20 th Century. The Current Approach For For over over a centu century ry,, langu languag age e educ educato ators rs have have atte attempt mpted ed to solve solve the the probl problems ems of langu languag age e teach teaching ing by focus focusing ing attent attention ion almos almostt exclu exclusiv sively ely on teaching method. Although the question of how to teach languages has been debated even longer than that - for over twenty-five centuries - theory development as a debate on teaching methods has evolved particularly over the last hundred years.

1- FOCUS, METHOD, TECHNIQUE AND CURRICULUM

When speaking about language teaching theories we have to clarify four basic terms since these sustain all the conceptual skeleton of what we are going to speak about.

Focus: t!s the group of theories that have resulted from practical and theoretical

discussions in a given historical context. t usually implies and sometimes overtly expresses certain ob"ectives, and a particular view of language. t makes about assumptions about the language learner# and underlying it are certain beliefs about the nature of the language learning process. t also expresses a view of language teaching teaching by emphasi emphasisin sing g certain certain aspects aspects of teaching teaching as crucial crucial to success successful ful learning.

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Method# the manner of teaching Tech!"ue # the activities in the classroom.

We will understand that a different focus means a different method and of course different techniques. $o these terms we must add another concept# the cu##!cu$u%.

Cu##!cu$u%# t!s a document, which contains the design of a concrete teaching and

learning program. $he curriculum has three parts according to the ob"ectives aimed# these are# -

The coce&ts# the listing of the elements that one must teach in order to

get these ob"ectives. - $he procedures# the materials that should be used in order to cover these contents. -

The 'tt!tudes# We have, according to the latest tendencies in language

teaching, to make them appreciate the fact of learning a foreign language as well as the fact of meeting new cultures, etc.

(- THE E)OLUTION OF LAN*UA*E TEACHIN*+

%umanity has been learning languages for more than two thousand years but it!s especially in the last century when language teaching has evolved. Anyway, we can distinguish three main schools of thought. - $he first one focuses the attention on leaning the language as a formal code. t is the result of two important beliefs# one, that grammatical structures until the early seventies and although they &  have begun to disappear, they partly survive in the design of some textbooks. - $he second one focuses on communication. $he great ob"ective is the development of the student!s communicative capacity. $he external reality appears in the classroom through the use of authentic material. From now on the grammatical code starts to lose its importance as the only element of planning.

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- With the third school of thought, the concept and practice of communication evolves towards richer forms. With it the task based approach and the pro"ect-based approach develop# the student makes things with 'nglish. $he foreign language is now an instrument. (anguage teaching has to bear in mind the student)s characteristics and his way of learning, the task which has to be carried out, the learning strategies and the attitudes, etc.

(+1  THE *RAMMAR-TRANSLATION OR TRADITIONAL APPROACH

As its name suggests, this method emphasises the teaching of the second language grammar. ts principal practice technique is translation from and into the target language. *o full and carefully documented history of grammar-translation exists. $here is evidence that the teaching of grammar and translation has occurred through the ages but the regular combination of grammar rules with translation into the target language became especially popular only in the late eighteenth century. $he standard was# a statement of the rule, followed by a list of vocabulary and translation exercises. +ut in the final decades of the nineteenth century grammartranslation was attacked as a cold and lifeless approach to language teaching. $he ma"ority of language teaching reforms in the late nineteenth century and throughout the first half of the twentieth developed in opposition to grammar translation. n the nineteenth century translation was considered by practitioners as a necessary preliminary to the study of literary works and even if that goal was not reached grammar-translation was regarded as an educationally valid mental discipline in its own right. rammar-translation lay no emphasis on the speaking of the second language or listening to second language speech# it is a mainly bookoriented method of working out and learning the grammatical system of the language.

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$he language is presented in short grammatical chapters or lessons each containing a few grammar points or rules which are set out and illustrated by examples. A technical grammatical terminology is not avoided. $he learner is expected to study and memorise a particular rule and examples, for instance, a verb paradigm or a list of prepositions. *o systematic approach is made to vocabulary or any other aspect of the second language. 'xercises consist of words, phrases and sentences in the first language which the learner, with the help of a bilingual vocabulary list, translates into the target language in order to practise the particular item or group of items. ther exercises are designed to practise translation into the first language. As the learner progresses, he may advance from translating isolated sentences to translating coherent second language texts into the first language or first language texts into the second language. $he target language is primarily interpreted as a system of rules to be observed in texts and sentences to be related to first language rules and meanings. (anguage learning is implicitly viewed as an intellectual activity involving rule learning, the memorisation of rules and facts related to first language meanings by means of massive translation practice. $he first language is maintained as the reference system in the acquisition of the second language. n spite of the virulent attacks that reformers made, the grammar translation or traditional method has maintained itself remarkably well. $he first language as a reference system is indeed very important for the second language learner. $herefore translation in one form or other crosslingual techniques can play a certain part in language learning. oreover, some learners endeavour to understand the grammatical system of the second language. %ence grammar teaching, too, may have some importance for them. Furthermore, thinking about formal features of the second language and translation as a practice technique put the learner into an active problem-solving situation. $ranslating forms part of the /academic/ learning strategies. Finally, grammar-translation appears didactically relatively easy to apply. $he ma"or defect of grammar-translation lies in the overemphasis on the language as a mass of rules and exceptions and in the imitations of practice techniques, which never emancipates the learner from the

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dominance of the first language.

(+(  THE DIRECT METHOD

As a reaction to the traditional way of teaching foreign languages, early reformers, who included %enry 0weet in 'ngland, Wilhelm 1i2tor in ermany, and 3aul 3assy in France, believed that language teaching should be based on scientific knowledge about language, that it should begin with speaking and expand to other skills, that words and sentences should be presented in context, that grammar should be taught inductively, and that translation should, for the most part, be avoided. n the late 4566s and early 4766s, linguists became interested in the problem of the best way to teach languages. An increasing attention to naturalistic principles of language learning was given by other reformers, and for this reason

they are sometimes called advocates of a /natural/ method. n fact several attempts to make second language learning more like first language learning had been made throughout the history of language teaching. For instance, if we trace back to the sixteenth century, we find out that the Frenchman ontaigne described his own experience on learning (atin for the first years of his life as a process where he was exclusively addressed in (atin by a erman tutor. $hese ideas spread, and these natural language learning principles consolidated in what became known as the D!#ect Method, the first of the /natural methods/, both in 'urope and in the 8nited 0tates. t was quite successful in private language schools, and difficult to implement in public secondary school education. Among those who tried to apply natural principles to language classes in America were (. S'ueu# 945:;-476<= and aximiliam .e#$!t/ who promoted the use of intensive oral interaction in the target language. 0aveur!s method became known as the N'tu#'$ Method and was seriously considered in language teaching. n his book /An ntroduction to the $eaching of (iving (anguages without rammar or >ictionary/ 945
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tongue, even for grammar explanations. .e#$!t/, however, never used the term /natural/ and named his method 0the .e#$!t/ method/ 945<5=, and it was known for being taught in private language schools, high-motivated clients, the use of nativespeaking teachers, and no translation under any circumstances. n spite of his success, this method lacked a basis in applied linguistic theory, and failed to consider the practical realities of the classroom. n 'urope, one of the best known representatives of language teaching was *ou! who, in 4556 attempted to build a methodology around observation of child

language learning when publishing L'Art d'Enseigner et d'Étudier les Langues. %e developed this technique after a long struggle trying to learn to speak and understand erman through formal grammar-based methods. %owever, their total failure and his turning to observations of how children learn a second language is one of the %ost !%&#ess!e &e#so'$ test!%o!'$s in the recorded annals of language learning. According to @ichards  @odgers 9477:=, although the >irect ethod en"oyed popularity in 'urope, not everyone had embraced it enthusiastically. n the 47:6s and 47B6s, the +ritish applied linguist %enry 0weet and other linguists recogniCed its

limitations. $hey

argued for

the

development of sound

methodological principles as the basis for teaching techniques. $hese linguists systematiCed the principles stated earlier by the @eform ovement and so laid the foundations for what developed into the +ritish approach to teaching 'nglish as a foreign language. $his would led later to Audiolingualism in the 8nited 0tates and the ral Approach or 0ituational (anguage $eaching in +ritain.

(-3  THE READIN* METHOD

$his method deliberately restricts the goal of language teaching to training in reading comprehension. As a creation of the twenties this theory was advocated by some +ritish and

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American educators. West 947:;=, teaching in ndia, argued that learning to read fluently was more important for ndians learning 'nglish than speaking West recommended an emphasis on reading not only because he regarded it as the most useful skill to acquire in a foreign language, but also because it was the easiest. %e constructed readers with a controlled vocabulary and regular repetition of new words. $he student was given detailed instructions on reading strategies. $he course of study that was developed over a period of decades provided graded reading materials and a systematic approach to learning to read. $he spoken language was not entirely neglected, but it was the reading ob"ective that received the main emphasis. $he techniques were not radically different from those developed under the traditional methods. As under grammar-translation, the use of the first language was not banned in language instruction. $he introduction of the second language was oral as in the direct method because facility in pronunciation as Dinner speechE was regarded as an important aid in reading comprehension. Above all, vocabulary control in reading was regarded as of prone importance, and so was the distinction between intensive reading for detailed study and extensive rapid reading of graded. /readers/ for general comprehension. $his method had a strongly pragmatic basis. ts educational assumptions were similar to those current in the American school curriculum of the twenties, namely to gear educational activities to specified ultimate practical uses. $he reading method grew out of practical educational considerations, not from a shift in linguistic or psychological theory. t introduced in language teaching some important new elements# a= the possibility of devising techniques of language learning geared to specific purposes. b= the application of vocabulary control to second language texts, as a means of better grading of texts. c= the creation of graded readers. d= thanks to vocabulary control, the introduction of techniques of rapid reading to the foreign language classroom,

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(-  THE AUDIOLIN*UAL METHOD

$his method of the sixties has several distinctive characteristics#

4= separation of the skills - listening, writing, reading and speaking - and the primacy of the audio-lingual over the graphic skills. := the use of dialogues as the chief means of presenting the

languages.

B= emphasis on certain practice techniques, mimicry, memorisation and patterns drills. ?= the use of the language laboratory. = establishing a linguistic and psychological theory as basis for the teaching method.

While the principal methods of the first half of the century, the grammar translation and direct methods, had largely developed in the 'uropean school systems, audiolingualism is in origin mainly American. t was given different names 9aural-oral method, *ew Gey method, etc.=, bur whatever it was called, its period of clearest definition as a distinct language teaching theory and of greatest influence was quite brief# it lasted from about 477 to 47;;. n the audio-lingual method the dominant emphasis is placed on the /fundamental skills/, i.e., listening and speaking. While reading and writing are not neglected, listening and speaking are given priority and in the teaching sequence precede reading and writing. (ike the direct method, audiolingualism tries to develop target language skills without reference to the mother tongue. (anguage learning was viewed as the acquisition of a practical set of communicative skills. Audiolingualism does not emphasise a presentation of grammatical knowledge or information as grammar-translation does but it does not taboo it completely. t does re"ect the intellectual, the problem-solving approach of grammar translation and does not favour the isolation of paradigmatic features such as list of pronouns or verb forms. $he use of the first language is not as severely restricted as it was in the direct method. $he learning process is viewed in the audio-lingual method as one of habituation and conditioning without intervention of any

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intellectual analysis. 'mphasis is laid on active and simple practice. $he intention is to make language learning less of a mental burden and more a matter of relatively effortless and frequent repetition and imitation .$he audiolingual method has introduced memorisation of dialogue and imitative repetition 9mimicry= as specific learning techniques. n addition it has developed pattern drills 9also called structural drills=. 0uch drills were not unknown before, but they became essential features of audiolingualism. Audiolingualism techniques, therefore, appeared to offer the possibility of language learning without requiring strong academic background and inclination. Audiolingualism reflects the descriptive, structural and contrastive linguistics of the fifties and the sixties. 0kinner in /1erbal +ehaviour/ applied his theories of how human language is acquired. %e suggested that language is a kind of behaviour. 0timulus-response-reinforcement. According to 0kinner , languages are made up of a series of habits, and if learners could develop all these habits, they would be able to speak the language correctly. %e also believed that a contrastive analysis of languages would be invaluable in teaching languages. n the early sixties audiolingualism had raised hopes of ushering in a golden age of language learning but in practical terms its hopes were not fulfilled. n the long run, students were not creative. $hey repeated things like parrots but most of the time they didn!t know what they were saying $eachers applying the Audiolingual method conscientiously, complained about the lack of effectiveness of the techniques in the long run and the boredom engendered among students. Another problem was that these patterns excluded semantics. n view of these criticisms it is necessary to remind oneself of the ma"or contributions of audiolingualism to language teaching. First, it was among the first theories to recommend the development of a language teaching theory on declared linguistic and psychological principles. 0econd, it attempted to make language learning accessible to large groups of ordinary learners. $hird, it stressed syntactical progression, while previously methods had tended to be preoccupied with vocabulary and morphology. Fourth, it led to the development of simple techniques, without translation, of varied, graded and intensive practice of specific features of

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the language. (ast, it developed the separation of the language skills into a pedagogical device. $he audiolingual method introduced specifically designed techniques of auditory and oral practice.

(-2  THE AUDIO-)ISUAL METHOD

A visually represented scenario provides the chief means of involving the learner in meaningful utterance and contexts. (anguage learning is visualised as falling into several stages# a first stage to which the audio-visual method is particularly applicable in which the learner becomes familiar with everyday language. a second stage involving the capacity to talk more consecutively on general topics and to read non-specialised fiction and the newspaper# and a third stage involving the use of more specialised discourse of professional and other interests. $he audio-visual method is intended particularly for the first stage. Audio-visual teaching consists of a carefully thought-out but rigid order of events. $he lesson begins with the filmstrip and tape presentation. $he sound recordings provide a stylised dialogue and a narrative commentary. A filmstrip frame corresponds to an utterance. n other words, the visual image and spoken utterance complement each other and constitute a semantic unit. n the second phase of the teaching sequence the teacher through pointing, demonstrating, selective listening, question and answer explain the meaning of sense groups. n the third phase, the dialogue is repeated several times and memorised by frequent replays of the tape recordings and the filmstrip, or by laboratory practice. n the next stage of the teaching sequence, the developments phase 9exploitation or transposition=, students are gradually emancipated from the tape-and-filmstrip presentation# for example. the filmstrip is now shown without the tape recording, and the students are asked to recall the commentary or make up their ownH or the sub"ect matter of the scenario is modified and applied to the student himself, his family or friends, by means of question and answer or role playing. +esides this thorough treatment of the dialogue situation, each lesson contains a portion for grammatical drill which practises a pattern or a group of patterns which has

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previously occurred in the context of the tape and filmstrip dialogue presentation. rammatical as well as phonological features are practised. *o importance is attributed to linguistic explanations. Writing and reading are delayed but in due course are nonetheless given emphasis. $he audio-visual method seeks a basis in linguistics. t derives its grammatical and lexical context from descriptive linguistic studies. +ut in contrast to the antecedents of the audio-lingual method, the audio-visual method stresses the social nature and situational embeddedness of language. $he visual presentation is not an added gimmick. t is intended to simulate social context in which language is used. $he audio-visual approach represents a distinctive modern attempt to come to grips with the problem of language learning. t has defined three different levels of language instruction. it has attempted to place language learning into a simplified social context and to teach language from the outset as meaningful spoken communication. $he replacement of the printed text of the direct method by a visually and aurally presented scenario has provided a fresh alternative in language pedagogy and was a responsive and, at the same time, responsible way of exploiting technology for the benefit of language learning. $he audio-visual method is open to two ma"or criticisms. (ike the direct method, from which much of its pedagogy derives, it has difficulties in conveying meaning# the visual filmstrip image is no guarantee that the learner does not misinterpret the meaning of the utterance. $he equivalence between utterance and visual images is often theoretically questionable, and presents practical difficulties. $he other criticism that can be made is that the rigid teaching sequences imposed by this method are based $he other criticism that can be made is that the rigid teaching sequences imposed by this method are based on an entirely unproved assumption about learning sequences.

(-- THE CO*NITI)E THEOR4

$his theory or method has been interpreted by some as a !modified, updated grammar-translation theory! 9Iarroll 47;;.46:= and by others as a modified,

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up-to-date direct method approach 9%ester 47<6H >iller 47<4, 47<, 47<5=. n its recent forms, as expressed by >iller 947<4,  7<5= or Ihastain 947<;=, it lays emphasis on the conscious acquisition of language as a meaningful system and it seeks a basis in cognitive psychology and in transformational grammar. *o single theorist can be identified as the main proponent of a cognitive approach. Iarroll 947;;= was the first to characterise a cognitive theory of language teaching. Ihastain 947;7, 47<;= gives a helpful interpretation of cognitive theory and teaching. >iller 947<4, 47<, 47<5= has contrasted the cognitive and audio-lingual methods. As a fully-fledged language teaching theory the cognitive method has not as yet been critically examined. n the early eighties its contribution has been overshadowed by the increasing shift of interest to communicative approaches. As an alternative to the audiolingual method the cognitive theory developed from the mid-sixties in response to the criticisms levelled against the audiolingual method. $he rediscovery of grammar-translation or the direct method was no mere turning back of the clock. t was an attempt to bring to language pedagogy the new insights of psychology, psycholinguistics, and modern developments in linguistics. 0everal language programrnes have been published since the early seventies which claim to be based on cognitive theory. +ut the practice techniques that this method has yielded have hardly introduced much that is new. $he main effects of the cognitive theory seem to have been that it has loosened the tight hold that the audiolingual method had exercised on materials and practice and that it removed the stigma that had been placed on grammar-translation and direct method practices. +roadly speaking, the goal of cognitive teaching is the same as that proposed by audio-lingual theorists 9Ihastain 47<;# 4?;-<=, but is less differences in immediate ob"ectives are apparent. Iognitive theory is less concerned with the primacy of the audio-lingual skills. nstead it emphasises the control of the language in all its manifestations as a coherent and meaningful system, a kind of consciously acquired competence. which the learner can then put to use in real-life situations. Iarroll defines the ob"ective in these terms#

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'The theory attaches more importance to the learner's understanding of the structure of the foreign language than to the facility in using that structure, since it is believed that provided the student has a proper degree of cognitive control over the structures of the language, facility will develop automatically with use of the language in meaningful situations .! 9Iarroll 47;;# 46:=

$he techniques are characterised by Iarroll as follows “.... learning a language is a process of acquiring conscious control of the phonological, grammatical, and lexical patterns of the second language, largely through study and analysis of these patterns as a body of knowledge.' (p. cit.!

n other words, the cognitive approach does not re"ect, disguise or deemphasise the conscious teaching of grammar or of language rules. t does not avoid the presentation of reading and writing in association with listening and speaking. nstead of expecting automatic command of the language and habitformation from intensive drill, it seeks the intellectual understanding by the learner of the language as a system and practice of meaningful material is regarded as being of greater merit than the drive towards automatic control. $he behaviourist view of learning in terms of conditioning, shaping, reinforcement, habit-formation, and over-learning, has been replaced by an emphasis on rule learning. eaningful practice, and creativity. Iognitive theory is principally a critique of audiolingualism in the light of changes in linguistics and psychological theory. t has pinpointed theoretical and practical weaknesses of the earlier theory and has drawn attention to important facets of language and language learning which the audiolingual theory had disregarded or underemphasiCed, such as creativity and meaning. it has also rediscovered valuable features in grammar-translation and in the direct method.

(-5  PRESENT-DA4 TRENDS: THE COMMUNICATI)E APPROACH

Iommunicative (anguage $eaching has its origins in two sources. First, the changes in the +ritish and American linguistic theory in the mid-late sixties and secondly, changes in the educational realities in 'urope. $herefore teaching

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traditions until then, such as 0ituational (anguage $eaching in +ritain and Audiolingualism in the 8nited 0tates started to be questioned by applied linguists who saw the need to focus in language teaching on communicative proficiency rather than on mere mastery of structures.

eanwhile, the role of the 'uropean Iommon arket and the Iouncil of 'urope had a significant impact on the development of Iommunicative language teaching since there was an increasing need to teach adults the ma"or languages for a better educational cooperation. n 47<4 a system in which learning tasks are broken down into /units/ is launched into the market by a +ritish linguist, >.A. Wilkins. t attempts to demonstrate the systems of meanings that a language learner needs to understand and express within two types# notional categories 9time, sequence, quantity or frequency= and categories of communicative function 9requests, offers, complaints=. $he rapid application of these ideas by textbook writers and its acceptance by teaching specialists gave prominence to what became the Iommunicative Approach or simply Iommunicative (anguage $eaching. +eginning in the mid-47;6s, there has been a variety of theoretical challenges to the audio-lingual method. 0cholars such as %alliday, %ymes, (abov and the American linguist *oam Ihomsky challenged previous assumptions about language structure and language learning, taking the position that language is creative 9not memoriCed by repetition and imitation= and rule governed 9not based on habits=. For %ymes 947<:=, the goal of language teaching is to develop a /communicative competence/, that is, the knowledge and ability a learner needs to be communicatively competent in a speech community. %alliday 947<6= elaborated a functional theory of the functions of language, and Ianale and 0wain 94756= identified

five

dimensions

of

communicative

competence#

grammatical,

sociolinguistic, discourse, sociocultural and strategic competence. Ihomsky levelled some criticisms at structural linguistic theory in his book 0yntactic 0tructures 947<=. %e demonstrated that the fundamental characteristics of language -creativity and uniqueness of individual sentences- were not part of the

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structural theories of language. $his communicative view is considered an approach rather than a method which provides a humanistic approach to teaching where interactive processes of communication receive priority. ts rapid adoption and implementation resulted from a strong support of leading +ritish applied linguists and language specialist, as well as institutions, such as the +ritish Iouncil. %owever, some of the claims are still being looked at more critically as this approach raises important issues for teacher training, materials development, and testing and evaluation 9@ichards!  @odgers 477:=. $he Iommunicative Approach is in fact a set of principles about teaching including recommendations about method and syllabus where the focus is on meaningingful communication not structure, use not usage. n this approach, students are given tasks to accomplish using language, instead of studying the language. $he syllabus is based primarily on functional development 9asking permission, asking directions, etc.=, not structural development 9past tense, conditionals, etc.=. n essence, a functional syllabus replaces a structural syllabus. $here is also less emphasis on error correction as fluency and communication become more important than accuracy As well, authentic and meaningful language input becomes more important. $he class becomes more student-centered as students accomplish their tasks with other students, while the teacher plays more of an observer role. :.<.4- 8se and 8sage 8se is how the language is used in communication# $he function of language. $his can be contrasted with usage, which is the grammatical explanation of some language. %ave you ever . . . %ave you ever eaten fried snakeJ 8se# $o inquire about past experiences.

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8sage# A present perfect question with ever placed in front of the past participle. :.<.:- Functional syllabus and structural syllabus. n a functional syllabus functions are the primary organiCing feature. $he course content is based on functions not grammatical structures. A typical unit might be "iving #dvice. $he content of the unit would include#  think you should . . . Why don!t you . . . f  were you,  would . . . Kou!d better . . . $his could be a very basic unit taught to beginners even though the the grammatical complexity of these expressions is quite high 9including a second conditional with sub"unctive moodL=. $his can be contrasted to structural syllabuses where the syllabus is ordered according to grammatical complexity. ther examples of functions include# asking for directions, telling stories about the past, talking about rules, and requesting information

:.<.B- Fluency# Fluency refers to the ability to produce rapid, flowing, natural speech, but not necessarily grammatically correct speech. $his is often contrasted with accuracy

:.<.?- Accuracy# Accuracy refers to the ability to produce grammatically correct sentences that are comprehensible

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3+ CONCLUSION - NE6 DIRECTIONS ON LAN*UA*E TEACHIN*+

What!s now, what!s nextJ $he future is always uncertain when anticipating methodological directions in second language teaching, although applied linguistic "ournals assume the carrying on and refinement of current trends within a co%%u!c't!e approach. $hey are linked to present concerns on education, and

they reflect current trends of language curriculum development at the level of cognitive strategies, literature, grammar, phonetics or technological innovative methods. $he nternet Age anticipates the development of teaching and learning in instructional settings by means of an o-$!e co$$'7o#'t!o system, perhaps via on-line computer networks or other technological resources. A critical question for language educators is about !What cotet8 and /how much content/ best supports language learning. $he goal is to best match learner needs and interests and to promote optimal development of second language competence. $he natural content for language educators is $!te#'tu#e and $'9u'9e itself, and we are beginning to see a resurgence of interest in literature

and in d!scou#se 'd 9e#e analysis, schema theory, pragmatics, and uct!o'$ 9#'%%'# propose an interest in functionally based approaches to language

teaching. Also, 8Le'#!9 to Le'#8 the key theme in an instructional focus on language learning strategies. 0uch strategies include, at the most basic level, memory tricks, and at higher levels, co9!t!e 'd %et'co9!t!e strategies for learning, thinking, planning, and self-monitoring. @esearch findings suggest that strategies can indeed be taught to language learners, that learners will apply these strategies in language learning tasks. 0imple and yet highly effective strategies, such as those that help learners remember and access new second language vocabulary items, will attract considerable instructional interest.

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.I.LIO*RAPH4 -

Mespersen, H (anguage# ts *ature, >evelopment and rigin, Allen and 8nwin, 477:, (ondon

-

Irystal, >H (inguistics, 3enguin +ooks, 475, %armondsworth, 'ngland.

-

@ichards, M  @odgers, $H Approaches and ethods in (anguage $eaching, Iambridge 477:, Iambridge 8niversity 3ress

-

>e la IruC, sabel et aliH $a $ing%&stica #plicada a finales del iglo ) *nsayos y +ropuestas, artNculo aparecido en la revista de la AsociaciOn

'spaPola de (ingQNstica Aplicada 9A'0(A=, 8niversidad de AlcalR, ::64

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