Tema 1 LA LENGUA COMO COMUNICACIÓN: LENGUAJE ORAL Y LENGUA LENGUAJE JE ESCRIT ESCRITO. O. FACTORE ACTORES S QUE DEFINE DEFINEN N UNA SITU SITUAC ACIÓ IÓN N COMU COMUNI NICA CATI TIV VA: EMIS EMISOR OR,, RECE RECEPT PTOR OR,, FUNCIONALIDAD Y CONTEXTO. 1. INTRODUCTION Traditi raditi!a" !a""# "#,, t$%ri t$%ri%& %& ' "a!()a "a!()a(% (% $a* $a*%% +! +!+% +%!tr !trat% at%dd ! t$% &t)d# &t)d# ' it& di''%r di''%r%!t %!t +-!%!t& i! i&"ati!, &)+$ a& (raar, &%a!ti+&, -$!"(#, &%%i!( "a!()a(% a& a &#&t% &#&t% t$at i!+")d% i!+")d%dd a"" ' t$%. t$%. /%* /%*%r %r,, /$% /$%!! "a!()a "a!()a(% (% i& 'ir&t 'ir&t a+0)ir% a+0)ir%dd i! +$i"d$d, i& %r%"# 1# %a!& ' +)!i+ati!( +)!i+ati!( /it$ t$% -%-"% ar)!d. ar)!d. I! t$i& &%!&%, t$ !%/ !%/ a--r a--ra a+$ +$%& %& i! t$% t$% "a&t "a&t t$ir t$irdd ' t$% t$% 23 C, -aid -aid att% att%!t !ti i!! t "a!( "a!()a )a(% (% a& +)!i+ati!. 4%, a& $)a! 1%i!(&, !%%d t +)!i+at%, a!d a& &t ' )& "i*% i! a "it%rar# &+i%t#, /% !ra""# )&% ra" a!d /ritt%! "a!()a(% t tra!&it r r%+%i*% i!'rati!. A& 'ar a& ra" +)!i+ati! i& +!+%r!%d, &t $)a! 1%i!(& &-%a5 )&i!( ra" "a!()a(% i! rd%r t %6+$a!(% i!'rati! a!d i!t%ra+t /it$ t$%r -%-"%, 1)t t$% )&% ' ra" "a!()a(% %!tai"& t$% 5!/"%d(% ' +%rtai! -arti+)"ar %"%%!t&, !r&, r)ti!%&, 'r)"a% a!d &trat%(i%& t$at ar% -)t i!t /r5 /$%! /% ar% i! +!*%r&ati!&. +!*%r&ati!&. O! t$% t$%r t$%r $a!d $a!d,, /riti!( /riti!( a!d r%adi!( r%0)ir% r%0)ir% 'ra" 'ra" i!&tr)+ti! i!&tr)+ti!,, a!d +$i"dr%! +$i"dr%! 'a+% a &%ri%& ' di''i+)"ti%& /$%! "%ar!i!( t$%&% &5i""&, 1%+a)&% t$%# $a*% t +'rt ra" t /ritt%! di&+)r&%, ada-ti!( r)"%&, "%ar!i!( &-%""i!(, di*idi!( &-%%+$ +$ai!& i!t +$)!5& +a""%d /rd&, %t+. /%*%r, /%*%r, "%ar!i!( t /rit% a!d r%ad i& -r1a1"# t$% &t ')!da%!ta" &t%- i! %d)+ati!, 1%+a)&% i& t$% 1a&i& 'r ')t)r% ' )t)r% i!&tr)+ti! a!d a++%&& t a!# 'i%"d& ' 5!/"%d(%. I! t$i& )!it, /% ar% (i!( t r%*i%/ t$% ai! +$ara+t%ri&ti+& ' ra" a!d /ritt%! "a!()a(%, a!d t$%! /% /i"" a!a"#&% t$% 'a+tr& t$at d%'i!% a +)!i+ati*% &it)ati!, !a%"# t$% &%!d%r a!d t$% r%+%i*%r ' t$% %&&a(%, t$% ')!+ti!a"it# a!d t$% +!t%6t.
2. ORAL LANGUAGE AND COMMUNIC COMMUNICA ATION A!( a"" t$% +)!i+ati! +d%& /$i+$ ar% )&%d 1# $)a! 1%i!(& 7)&i+, 5i!%&i+&, &i(! "a!()a(%8, /ritt%! a!d ra" "a!()a(% i& t$% &t %''i+i%!t 'r t$% tra!&i&&i! a!d r%+%-ti! ' i!'rati!, t$)($t&, '%%"i!(& a!d -i!i!& . I! additi!, t$%&% "i!()i&ti+ +d%& ar% %6+")&i*%"# $)a! a!d $)a! a!d a5% )& di&ti!+t 'r a!ia"&. 9)t /ritt%! a!d ra" "a!()a(% ar% di''%r%!t -r+%&&%&: -r+%&&%& : /$%r%a& /% "%ar! t /rit% t$r)($ a 'ra" i!&tr)+ti!, &-%a5i!( a!d "i&t%!i!( +% !at)ra""# a"!( di''%r%!t &ta(%& ' t$% +$i"d& %*")ti!. T$%r%'r% /% +a! &a# t$at ra" "a!()a(% +%& 'ir&t i! )r $i&tr# a& i!di*id)a"&. T$%r%'r%, &-%%+$ a!d /riti!( ar% !t a"t%r!ati*% -r+%&&%&, 1)t rat$%r /% )&t +!&id%r t$% +)!t%r-art&: a"" ra" "a!()a(% &$)"d $a*% a (d r%-r%&%!tati*% &#&t% i! a /ritt%! 'r.
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Fr a -&#+$"(i+a" -i!t ' *i%/, ra" +)!i+ati! i& a t/;/a# -r+%&& i! /$i+$ 1t$ &-%a5%r 7%!+d%r8 a!d $%ar%r 7d%+d%r8 )&t 1% -r%&%!t i! t$% &a% &it)ati!a" +!t%6t at a -arti+)"ar ti% a!d -"a+% 7)!"%&& /% ta"5 a1)t &-%+ia" +a&%& ' ra" +)!i+ati! &)+$ a& -$!% +!*%r&ati!&8. T$% ')!+ti!& ' ra" +)!i+ati! ar%, a& /% &aid 1%'r%, t +)!i+at% r %6+$a!(% )r id%a& r t i!t%ra+t /it$ t$%r -%-"%. U!"i5% /ritt%! +)!i+ati!, i! ra" i!t%ra+ti! /% +a! !itr t$% r%a+ti!& ' t$% $%ar%r t$r)($ t$% '%%d1a+5 & t$at /% +a! )r &-%%+$ i! t$% +)r&% ' t$% +)!i+ati!, a& /%"" a& )&% di''%r%!t "i!()i&ti+ a!d !!;"i!()i&ti+ '%at)r%& 7(%&t)ri!(, i!t!ati!...8 t a5% )r %&&a(%& +"%ar%r. /%*%r, a& it ta5%& -"a+% i! a -arti+)"ar -"a+% a!d ti%, t$% i!t%r"+)tr& $a*% t a5% t$%ir +!tri1)ti!& at a $i($ &-%%d, /it$)t )+$ ti% t t$i!5 , )!"i5% /riti!(. A"!( $i&tr#, t$% &t)d# ' &-5%! "a!()a(% $a& !t )+$ traditi! , )!"i5% /ritt%! "a!()a(%, d)% t &%*%ra" r%a&!&: -
it /a& +!&id%r%d a &%+!dar# t#-% ' "a!()a(% a& it /a& !t r%&%r*%d !"# t +)"ti*at% -%-"%. )!"i5% /ritt%! "a!()a(%, t$%r% /a& a "a+5 ' -%ra!%!t r%+rd& ' ra" "a!()a(% d)ri!( )r -a&t $i&tr#. it -r%&%!t& r% )ta1i"it# i! t$% )!d%r&ta!di!( a!d i!t%r-r%tati! ' /$at it i& &aid t$a! i! /ritt%! "(.
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a""ida# /a& a!( t$% 'ir&t "i!()i&t& t &t)d# ra" "a!()a(% , &a#i!( t$at it /a& !t a 'r"%&& a!d '%at)r%"%&& *ari%t# ' /ritt%! "a!()a(%. Si!+% t$%!, t$%r% $a& 1%%! a! i!+r%a&i!( i!t%r%&t t /$i+$ it $a& +!tri1)t%d t$% i!*%!ti!& ' a)di, *id% a!d +-)t%r d%*i+%&. I! ra" +)!i+ati!, /% di&ti!()i&$ t/ di''%r%!t t#-%&: Pr%-ar%d &-%%+$ T$% 'ra" &%tti!( i& r(a!i&%d a& /riti!( 7&#!ta6, "%6i& < di&+)r&% r(a!i&ati!8 It i& %ri&%d r /ritt%! d/! 1%'r% 7"%+t)r%&, &-%%+$, ra" -%tr#8 S-!ta!%)& &-%%+$ S-%a5%r $a& !t t$)($t r %ri&%d t$% %&&a(% 1%'r%$a!d. It a# -r%&%!t i!a++)ra+i%&, $%&itati!&, &i"%!+%& a!d i&ta5%& A& &-!ta!%)& &-%%+$ i& t$% ai! 'r ' ra" +)!i+ati!, a!d dir%+t"# r%'"%+t& r%a" +)!i+ati! -r+%&&%& /it$ di''%r%!t d%a!d& a!d &it)ati!&, a!d -r%-ar%d &-%%+$ d%& !t a""/ 'r '%%d1a+5 a!d !itri!(, t$% a!a"#&i& a!d &t)d# ' ra" +)!i+ati! &$)"d +!+%!trat% ! &-!ta!%)& &-%%+$ , /$%r% t$% !%(tiati! ' %a!i!( -"a#& a! i-rta!t r"% 'r t$% +)!i+ati! -)r-&% t 1% +rr%+t"# a+$i%*%d. 9)t 1%+a)&% ' it& -%r*a&i*% a!d %*%r#da# !at)r%, it& &+i%!ti'i+ &t)d# $a& -r*%d -arti+)"ar"# +-"%6. It $a& 1%%! di''i+)"t t 1tai! a+)&ti+a""# +"%ar, !at)ra" &a-"%& ' &-!ta!%)& +!*%r&ati!, %&-%+ia""# ' it& r% i!'ra" *ari%ti%&. 4$%! &a-"%& $a*% 1%%! 1tai!%d, t$% *ari%t# ' t-i+&, -arti+i-a!t&, a!d &+ia" &it)ati!& /$i+$ +$ara+t%ri&% +!*%r&ati! $a*% ad% it di''i+)"t t d%t%ri!% /$i+$ a&-%+t& ' t$% 1%$a*i)r ar% &#&t%ati+ a!d r)"%;(*%r!%d.
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2.1. ELEMENTS AND NORMS THAT RULE ORAL DISCOURSE Linguistic elements
STRESS 4$%! /% ta"5 /% $a*% t 1ar% i! i!d t$%r% i& a r%()"ar di&tri1)ti! ' a++%!t& a"!( /rd& a!d &%!t%!+%&. /%*%r, i' /% /a!t t (i*% &-%+ia" %-$a&i& t a -arti+)"ar /rd r -$ra&%, /% +$a!(% t$at r%()"ar -att%r! ' &tr%&& a!d a++%!t i! rd%r t a5% r% -ri!%!t /$at /% /a!t. RYTM It i& t$% r%"ati!&$i- /% a5% 1%t/%%! a++%!t& 7+$)!5& ' /rd&8 a!d &i"%!+%&. R$#t$ +a! ra!(% 'r *%r# !t!)& !% 7i! 0)i+5 r -r%-ar%d &-%%+$8 t r$#t$ /it$ +!tra&t& i! rd%r t (i*% %6-r%&&i*%!%&& a!d &%!&% t )r &-%%+$. Pa)&%& ar% a"& i-rta!t, 1%+a)&% &%ti%& ar% ad% t di*id% (raati+a" )!it& a!d t$%r ti%& ar% )!-r%di+ta1"% a!d +a)&%d 1# $%&itati!&. INTONATION i& t$% 'a""i!( a!d ri&i!( ' *i+% d)ri!( &-%%+$ . A!# d%-art)r% 'r /$at it i& +!&id%r%d =!ra"> i!t!ati! &$/& &-%+ia" %''%+t& a!d %6-r%&&%& %ti!& a!d attit)d%& . Nra""#, 'a""i!( t!%& &$/ +!+")&i! a!d +%rtai!t#, /$%r%a& ri&i!( t!%& a# &$/ i!+!+")&i! r d)1t 7I"" d it ? I"" d it... 8 Paalinguistic elements
4% +a!!t +!&id%r ra" *%r1a" +)!i+ati! /it$)t r%%1%ri!( t$at t$% /$"% 1d# ta5%& -art. I! 'a+t, a!# ti%&, a -%r&! +a! %6-r%&& &#-at$#, $&ti"it# r i!+r%d)"it# 1# %a!& ' 1d# a!d 'a+ia" (%&t)r%& . T$i& =1d# "a!()a(%> i& !ra""# +)"t)ra""# r%"at%d < i& "%ar!t t$% &a% /a# a& *%r1a" 1%$a*i)r i& "%ar!t, a"t$)($ it a""/& 'r &-!ta!%it# a!d +r%ati*it#: /% )&% $%ad, 'a+%, $a!d&, ar&, &$)"d%r&, 'i!(%r&... Ot$%r "i!()i&ti+ '%at)r%& t$at +$ara+t%ri&% +!*%r&ati!a" "a!()a(% ar% : S-%%d ' &-%%+$ i& r%"ati*%"# ra-id@ t$%r% ar% a!# a&&ii"ati!& < %"i&i!& ' "%tt%r&@ +-r%&&i!& ' a)6i"iar# &%0)%!+%& 7 gonna8@ it +a! 1% di''i+)"t t id%!ti'# &%!t%!+% 1)!dari%& i! "!( "&% -a&&a(%&@ i!'ra" di&+)r&% ar5%r& ar% +! 7 you know, I mean8@ (r%at +r%ati*it# i! t$% *+a1)"ar# +$i+%, ra!(i!( 'r )!%6-%+t%d +i!a(% 7 Be unsad 8 t )&% ' *a()% /rd& 7 thingummy8. 2.2. RULES
4$%! /% )&% "a!()a(%, /% d !t !"# )tt%r (raati+a""# +rr%+t &%!t%!+%&, 1)t /% 5!/ /$%r%, /$%! a!d t /$ /% ar% addr%&&i!( )r )tt%ra!+%& . T$i& i& t$% r%a&! /$# a &-%a5%r !%%d& t 5!/ !t !"# t$% "i!()i&ti+ a!d (raati+a" r)"%& ' a "a!()a(% 7C$&5#& linguistic competence8 r r)"%& ' )&a(%, 1)t a"& $/ t -)t i!t %''%+t t$%&% r)"%& i! rd%r t a+$i%*% %''%+ti*% +)!i+ati!, & t$at /% a"& !%%d t 1% 'ai"iar /it$ r)"%& ' )&%. R)"%& ' )&a(% I! rd%r t -rd)+% a!d )!d%r&ta!d %&&a(%& i! a -arti+)"ar "a!()a(% /% !%%d t 1% 'ai"iar /it$: 3
PONOLOGY 4% !%%d t 5!/ t$% r(a!i&ati!, +$ara+t%ri&ti+& a!d -att%r!& ' &)!d& t +)!i+at%. MORPOLOGY 4% !%%d t 5!/ t$% /rd 'rati! r)"%& a!d t#-%& ' +1i!ati!& ' 1a&%& < a''i6%&. SYNTAX 4% !%%d t 5!/ $/ /rd& ar% -)t t(%t$%r t 'r &%!t%!+%& a!d /$i+$ ar% t$%ir r%"ati!&$i-&. SEMANTICS 4% !%%d t 5!/ $/ /rd& +a! 1% +1i!%d t -rd)+% t$% %a!i!( /% /a!t r t )!d%r&ta!d t$% %a!i!( %6-r%&&%d 1# t$%r&, %*%! i' it i& !!"it%ra", %t$a-ri+a" r a!a")&. R)"%& ' )&% T 1% +)!i+ati*%"# %''i+i%!t, /% !%%d t &$/ )r "i!()i&ti+ +-%t%!+% i! r%a" &-%%+$ t$r)($: APPROPRIATENESS r 5!/"%d(% ' /$at t#-% ' "a!()a(% &)it& 1%&t i! a (i*%! &it)ati!, ta5i!( i!t a++)!t t$% +!t%6t /it$ it& -arti+i-a!t& a!d t$%ir &+ia" r%"ati!&$i-&, t$% &%tti!(, t$% t-i+, t$% -)r-&%.. COERENCE r a1i"it# t r(a!i&% )r %&&a(%& i! a "(i+a" a!d +-r%$%!&i1"% /a# t tra!&it %a!i!(. COESION r +a-a+it# t r(a!i&% a!d &tr)+t)r% )tt%ra!+%& t 'a+i"itat% i!t%r-r%tati! 1# %a!& ' %!d-$ra& a!d %6-$ra& 7 r%'%r%!+%& t "i!()i&ti+ < &it)ati!a" +!t%6t&8, r%-%titi!&, %""i-&i&... 2.!. ROUTINES AND HA"ITUAL #ORMULAE
Ma!& a1i"it# t 1% +r%ati*% /it$ "a!()a(% i& &%t$i!( 1*i)&, 1)t t$%r% ar% ti%& /$%! /% +$&% $/, /$%! a!d /$# !t t 1% +r%ati*%, t r%-%at /$at $a& 1%%! &aid r $%ard a!# ti%&, 't%! i! %6a+t"# t$% &a% 'r. Li!()i&ti+ r)ti!%& ar% 'i6%d )tt%ra!+%& /$i+$ )&t 1% +!&id%r%d a& &i!("% )!it& t )!d%r&ta!d t$%ir %a!i!(, a!d t$%# ar% ' a "%ar!%d +$ara+t%r 7 Hi! 'ai"iar r %-t# How do you do? 8, t$% -r+%&& t$r)($ /$i+$ /% a+0)ir% rit)a" +-%t%!+% 1%i!( -%r$a-& t$% &t i-rta!t &+ia"i&ati! /% a5% ' "a!()a(%. U!d%r&ta!di!( r)ti!%& < 'r)"a% r%0)ir% &$ar%d +)"t)ra" 5!/"%d(% 1%+a)&% t$%# ar% (%!%ra""# %ta-$ri+a" i! !at)r% a!d )&t 1% i!t%r-r%t%d at a !!;"it%ra" "%*%". P%-"% ar% 't%! 0)it% --&%d t r)ti!%&, 'r)"a% a!d rit)a"& 1%+a)&% t$%# ar% %a!i!("%&& a!d d%-%r&!a"i&% )r id%a&, 1%+a)&% "it%ra" &%a!ti+ *a")% i& "ar(%"# irr%"%*a!t. S% t#-i+a" r)ti!%& a!d $a1it)a" 'r)"a% ar% )&%d i! ')!%ra" +!d"%!+%&, r%"i(i)& +%r%!i%&, /%ddi!(&, (rad)ati! +%r%!i%&...
2.$. STRATEGIES SPECI#IC O# ORAL COMMUNICATION
Parti+)"ar att%!ti! $a& 1%%! -aid t t$% ar5%r& ' +!*%r&ati!a" t)r!&: $/ -%-"% 5!/ t$%ir t)r! t &-%a5 . I! 'ra" dia"()%, t$%r% ar% 't%! %6-"i+it ar5%r&, &$/i!( t$at a &-%a5%r i& a1)t t ta"5@ i! d%1at%, t$% -%r&! i! t$% +$air r% r "%&& +!tr"& &-%a5%r& t)r!&. I! +!*%r&ati!, $/%*%r, t$% +)%& ar% r% &)1t"%, i!*"*i!( *ariati!& i! t$% %"d#, r$#t$, a!d &-%%d ' &-%%+$, a!d i! -att%r!& ' %#% *%%!t . 4$%! -%-"% ta"5 i! a (r)-, t$%# "5 at a!d a/a# 'r t$%ir "i&t%!%r& i! a1)t %0)a" -r-rti!&, 1)t /$%! a--ra+$i!( t$% %!d ' /$at t$%# $a*% t &a#, t$%# "5 at t$% 4
"i&t%!%r& r% &t%adi"#, a!d i! -arti+)"ar ai!tai! +"&%r %#% +!ta+t /it$ t$&% t$%# %6-%+t t +!ti!)% t$% +!*%r&ati!. A "i&t%!%r /$ /i&$%& t 1% t$% !%6t &-%a5%r a# i!di+at% a d%&ir% t d & 1# &$/i!( a! i!+r%a&% i! 1di"# t%!&i!, &)+$ a& 1# "%a!i!( 'r/ard r a)di1"# dra/i!( i! 1r%at$. I! additi!, t$%r% ar% a!# %6-"i+it i!di+ati!& , *%r1a" a!d !!;*%r1a", t$at a &-%a5%r i& +i!( t a! %!d 7 Last but not least... 8, /i&$%& t -a&& t$% +!*%r&ati!a" 1a"" 7 What do you think? , &tari!( t &%!%8, /i&$%& t i! i! 7Could I just say that..., "%a*% 7 Well, that is all... 8, +$a!(% t$% t-i+ 7 peaking o" #a$y...8, r +$%+5 ! "i&t%!%r& att%!ti! r attit)d% 7 %$e you with me?8. T$% &)1%+t;att%r i& a! i-rta!t *aria1"%, /it$ &% t-i+& 1%i!( =&a'%> i! +%rtai! &+ia" (r)-& 7i! 9ritai!, t$% /%at$%r, -%t&, +$i"dr%!, a!d t$% "+a"it#8, t$%r& r% r "%&& =)!&a'%> 7r%"i(i)& a!d -"iti+a" 1%"i%'&, 0)%&ti!& ' -%r&!a" i!+% &)+$ a& How much do you ea$n& 8. T$%r% ar% )&)a""# &% ar1itrar# di*i&i!& : 'r %6a-"%, i! 9ritai!, it i& -"it% t +%!t t$% ta&t% a!d -r%&%!tati! ' a %a", 1)t )&)a""# i-"it% t %!0)ir% a't%r $/ )+$ it +&t. I! Gice& *i%/, /% +-%rat% i! a +!*%r&ati! i! rd%r t -rd)+% a rati!a" a!d %''i+i%!t %6+$a!(% ' i!'rati!, & t$at t r%a+$ a (d 'i!a" r%&)"t i! a +)!i+ati*% -r+%&&, /% a--"# B +-%rati*% -ri!+i-"%& r a6i&: ; Ma6i ' 0)a"it#: O)r +!tri1)ti!& $a*% t 1% &i!+%r%, 1%"i%*i!( /$at /% &a# < a*idi!( t$i!(& /% "a+5 %*id%!+% ' ; Ma6i ' 0)a!tit#: 4% &$)"d a5% )r +!tri1)ti!& a& 1ri%'"#, rd%r"# < i!'rati*% a& r%0)ir%d 'r t$% %6+$a!(%. ; Ma6i ' r%"%*a!+%: A! )tt%ra!+% $a& t 1% r%"%*a!t /it$ r%&-%+t t t$% &ta(% t$% +!*%r&ati! $a& r%a+$%d. ; Ma6i ' a!!%r : 4$i+$ +!+%r!& t$% a!!%r ' %6-r%&&i! 7a*idi!( 1&+)rit#, a1i()it#...8.
!.%RITTEN LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION 4ritt%! +)!i+ati! i& a t#-% ' +)!i+ati!, a!d a& &)+$, it& ai! -)r-&% i& t %6-r%&& id%a& a!d %6-%ri%!+%& r %6+$a!(% %a!i!(& 1%t/%%! i!di*id)a"& /it$ a -arti+)"ar &#&t% ' +d%&, /$i+$ i& di''%r%!t t t$at )&%d i! ra" +)!i+ati!. I! /ritt%! +)!i+ati!, t$% %!+d%r ' t$% %&&a(% i& t$% /rit%r a!d t$% d%+d%r a!d i!t%r-r%t%r ' t$% %&&a(% i& t$% r%ad%r , a!d a!# ti%&, t$i& i!t%r-r%tati! d%& !t +i!+id% /it$ t$% /rit%r& i!t%!d%d %a!i!(. 4$%! /% /rit%, /% )&% ga&'ic s(m)*ls, /$i+$ r%"at% t t$% &)!d& /% a5% /$%! /% &-%a5. 9)t /riti!( i& )+$ r% t$a! t$% -rd)+ti! ' (ra-$i+ "&, )&t a& &-%%+$ i& r% t$a! t$% -rd)+ti! ' &)!d&: t$%&% "& $a*% t 1% aange+, acc*+ing t* cetain c*n-enti*ns, t* *m /*+s, an+ /*+s t* *m sentences. T'ese sentences t'en 'a-e t* )e *+ee+ an+ lin0e+ t*get'e in cetain /a(s, *ming a c*'eent /'*le calle+ tet.
Si!+% +"a&&i+a" ti%&, t$%r% $a*% 1%%! t/ +!tradi+tr# a--ra+$%& t &-%%+$ a!d /riti!(: 'ir&t"#, t$% *i%/ t$at /riti!( i& t$% -riar# a!d &-%%+$ t$% &%+!dar# %di), 1%+a)&% /riti!( i& r% +)"t)ra""# &i(!i'i+a!t a!d "a&ti!("# *a")a1"% t$a! &-%%+$@ a!d &%+!d"#, t$% *i%/ t$at &-%%+$ i& -riar# a!d /riti!( &%+!dar# 1%+a)&% &-%%+$ i& -rir
5
t /riti!( 1t$ $i&tri+a""# a!d i! t%r& ' a +$i"d& a+0)i&iti! ' "a!()a(%. 9)t "%a*i!( a&id% t$i& di+$t#, t$% 'ir&t t$i!( /% )&t !ti+% i& t$at &-%%+$ a!d /riti!( ar% !t a"t%r!ati*% -r+%&&%&: &-%%+$ +%& 'ir&t, 1)t /riti!( d%a!d& r% &5i"" a!d -ra+ti+%, a!d t$%# $a*% di''%r%!t 'ra" -att%r!&. M&t i-rta!t ' a"", $/%*%r, i& t$at /ritt%! a!d &-5%! "a!()a(% ar% +)!t%r-art&: a /riti!( &#&t% &$)"d 1% +a-a1"% ' r%-r%&%!ti!( a"" t$% -&&i1"% /rdi!(& ' a -%r&!& t$)($t&. T$i& i-"i%& t$at 1t$ &#&t%& +)"d 1% r%(ard%d a& t$% t/ &id%& ' t$% &a% +i!. Fr a -&#+$"(i+a" -i!t ' *i%/ , /riti!( i& a s*lita( a+ti*it#, t$% intel*cut* is n*t &esent, & /% ar% r%0)ir%d t /rit% ! )r /!, /it'*ut t'e inteacti*n * t'e 'el& * t'e ee+)ac0 )&)a""# -r*id%d i! ra" +)!i+ati!. T$at i& /$# /% $a*% t +-%!&at% 'r t$% a1&%!+% ' &% "i!()i&ti+ '%at)r%& /$i+$ $%"- t 5%%+)!i+ati! (i!( ! i! &-%%+$, &)+$ a& -r&d# a!d -ara"i!()i&i+ d%*i+%& &)+$ a& (%&t)ri!(, i!t!ati!, %t+. O)r t%6t& ar% i!t%r-r%t%d 1# t$% r%ad%r a"!%, a!d /e cann*t m*nit* 'is * 'e eacti*ns, )!"i5% t$% &-%a5%r: /% $a*% t &)&tai! t$% /$"% -r+%&& ' +)!i+ati! a!d t &ta# i! +!ta+t /it$ )r r%ad%r t$r)($ /rd& a"!%, a!d t$i& i& /$# /% )&t 1% *%r# +"%ar a!d %6-"i+it a1)t )r i!t%!ti!& /$%! /% /rit% . /%*%r, !t a"" t$% a+*a!ta(%& ar% ! t$% &id% ' t$% ra" +)!i+ati!: i! /riti!(, /% !ra""# $a*% ti% t t$i!5 a1)t /$at /% ar% tr#i!( t %6-r%&&, & t$at /% +a! r%*i&% it a!d r%;/rit% it, i' !%%d 1%, a!d t$% r%ad%r, t )!d%r&ta!d a t%6t, +a! a"& r%ad a!d r%;r%ad it a& a!# ti%& a& /a!t%d. !.1. STRUCTURE COMMUNICATION
AND
#ORMAL
ELEMENTS
O#
%RITTEN
T$%r% ar% &% '%at)r%& +$ara+t%ri&ti+ ' /ritt%! "a!()a(%, 1)t t$i& &$)"d !t 1% ta5%! t i-"# t$at t$%r%& a /%"";d%"iit%d di*idi!( "i!% 1%t/%%! /riti!( a!d &-%%+$. /%*%r, t$% %6t%!d t /$i+$ %a+$ ' t$% a5%& )&% ' di''%r%!t r%&)r+%& i& dir%+t"# r%"at%d t t$% !at)r% ' t$% t/ +$a!!%"&: &-%%+$ i& t$% "a!()a(% ' i%diat% +)!i+ati!, a!d /riti!( i& a t#-% ' +)!i+ati! /it$ a di&ta!+% i! 1%t/%%!. T$i& i& t$% r%a&! /$# /ritt%! t%6t& -r%&%!t t$% '""/i!( 'ra" %"%%!t&: A (d /riti!( &#&t% )&t 1% 'i6%d,
Linguistic eatues * /itten language
'"%6i1"%, a!d ada-ta1"% at a ti%, & t$at: -
it )&t -r*id% a +di'i%d %6-r%&&i! 'r t$% %"%%!t& %6-r%&&%d 1# ra" "a!()a(%: %a+$ id%a a /ritt%! 'r it )&t -r*id% %a!& 'r +r%ati!( %6-r%&&i!& 'r %"%%!t& !t +di'i%d #%t: !%"(i&&, 1rr/i!(&...
S(ntactic eatues * /itten language
T$% &#!ta+ti+ %"%%!t& /$i+$ a5% /riti!(
di''%r%!t 'r &-%%+$ ar%: -
ar5%r& a!d r$%tri+a" r(a!i&%r& 'r +"a)&%& r%"ati!&$i-& a!d +"arit# 7/ritt%! t%6t& ar% r% -%ra!%!t8 )&% ' $%a*i"# -r%;di'i%d NP& , SVO rd%ri!( a!d )&% ' -a&&i*% +!&tr)+ti!& a!d &)1rdi!at% -$ra&%& 6
-
I! rd%r t +-%!&at% t$% a1&%!+% '
Leical eatues * /itten language
-ara"i!()i&ti+ d%*i+%& a!d '%%d1a+5: -
r% a++)ra+# i! t$% )&% ' *+a1)"ar# , a*idi!( r%d)!da!+# a!d a1i()it# 7d)% t it& -%ra!%!t !at)r%8 )&% ' a!a-$ra& a!d +ata-$ra&, r%-%titi!&, &#!!#&... t &i(!a" r%"ati!&$i-& 1%t/%%! &%!t%!+%& t$%r% i& r% "%6i+a" d%!&it# i! /riti!( t$a! i! &-%%+$ 7r% "%6i+a" it%& t$a! (raati+a" !%&8
-
T%6t& +a! 1% -r%&%!t%d i! di''%r%!t /a#&, a& )r +)"t)r% *a")% a!# ti%& r% t$% 'r t$a! t$% +!t%!t. T +-%!&at% 'r t$% a1&%!+% ' '%%d1a+5 a!d -ara"i!()i&ti+ d%*i+%&, /ritt%! t%6t& !%%d t 1% a++)rat% i! &-%""i!(, -)!+t)ati!, +a-ita" "%tt%r& t ar5 &%!t%!+% 1)!dari%&, i!d%!tati! ' -ara(ra-$&, di''%r%!t '!t& t +a"" att%!ti! 7ita"i+&, 1"d...8 a!d i! -%tr# r t%6t& t dra/ att%!ti!, %6-"itati! ' r%&)r+%& &)+$ a& rd%r a!d +$i+% ' /rd&, *ariati!& i! &-%""i!( 79i1a "a 5)rt)ra8. Ga&'*l*gical im&licati*ns
I! a!# +a&%, /$at i& &t +$ara+t%ri&ti+ ' /ritt%! +)!i+ati! i& t$at /e see it 7t$% r(a!i&ati!, "%!(t$...8. !.2. TPES O# %RITTEN TE3TS4 NORMS GO5ERNING THEM, ROUTINES AND #ORMULAE
I! /riti!(, +)!i+ati! a"& ta5%& -"a+% '""/i!( &#&t% a!d rit)a" +!&trai!t&: t$i& i& t$% r%a&! /$# /$%! /% "5 at a t%6t /% +a! di&ti!()i&$ a!d 1tai! i!'rati! r%(ardi!( di''%r%!t t#-%& ' r(a!i&ati!, di''%r%!t -)r-&%& a!d di''%r%!t "%!(t$&. Traditi!a""#, /ritt%! t%6t& /%r% di*id%d '""/i!( t$% +"a&&i'i+ati! ' (%!r%&. T$%!, "i!()i&t& "i!5%d t$%ir r$%tri+a" d% t t$% &#!ta+ti+ &tr)+t)r%&, r)ti!%& a!d 'r)"a% t$at +$ara+t%ri&%d t$%, a!d %&ta1"i&$%d t$% '""/i!( +"a&&i'i+ati!: P*stca+s
Pi%+%& ' /riti!( !ra""# dir%+t%d t 'ri%!d& r 'ai"# /$%! tra*%""i!( ,a!d &%ti%& )&%d 'r +!(rat)"ati!& a!d (r%%ti!(&. 4% )&t /rit% ! !% &id% a!d t$% "a!()a(% )&%d i& +""0)ia".
Lettes
T$%# +a! 1% "o$mal 7t %!t%r-ri&%& r &%!% /% ar% !t +"&%d t8 a!d in"o$mal 7t 'ri%!d& r 'ai"#8 T$%r% ar% &% r)ti!%& t /rit% "%tt%r&: a-art 'r t$% /rit%r& addr%&& ! t$% t- ri($t;$a!d +r!%r, t$% dat%, t$% 'ir&t "i!% 7d%ar !a%?&ir?ada?Mr?Mr&...8, t$% +"&i!( 7Y)r&...8 a!d t$% &i(!at)r%, -r%&%!t i! 1t$ t#-%& ' "%tt%r&, %a+$ t#-% ' "%tt%r '""/& t$i& &tr)+t)ra" r(a!i&ati! i!t -ara(ra-$&: 'o$mal ( &t r%a&! /$# /riti!(, 2 !d /$at #) /a!t 'r addr%&&%%, rd +!+")&i!. In"o$mal : &t i!trd)+ti!, 2 !d r%a&!, rd additi!a" i!', Bt$ +!+")&i!. T$%r% ar% a"& di$ecti)e lette$s, t -r*5% &% r%a+ti! ! t$% r%ad%r, )&i!( i-%rati*%& < r%ar5&.
7
C!&i&t ' a!&/%ri!( /$at #) ar% a&5%d, a& 1ri%'"# a& -&&i1"%, & ! /riti!( &t#"% i& !%%d%d t d &.
#illing6in *ms
C!&i&t& ' a +"%ar &)ar# t (i*% t$% a+ad%i+ 5!/"%d(% a!d %6-%ri%!+% &%!% $a& ! a +%rtai! att%r, & it i!+")d%& -%r&!a" d%tai"&, +)rr%!t ++)-ati!, a+ad%i+ 0)a"i'i+ati! a!d -r'%&&i!a" %6-%ri%!+%.
Cuiculum -itae
Summaies
9ri%' r&)& ' arti+"%&, 15"%t& a!d 15& t$at d)% t t$%ir &-%+ia" 'r ' +-&iti! a!d /riti!( t$%# a""/ t$% r%ad%r t (at$%r t$% ai! i!'rati! a1)t t$% ri(i!a" /r5 /it$)t r%adi!( it.
Re&*ts
T$%# ar% )&%d t -r%&%!t +"%ar"# a!d /it$ d%tai"& t$% &)ar# ' -r%&%!t a!d -a&t 'a+t& r a+ti*iti%&, a!d &%ti%& ' -r%di+ta1"% ')t)r% 'a+t& 'r +$%+5%d data, &%ti%& +!tai!i!( t$% i!t%r-r%tati! ' t$% /rit%r 1)t !ra""# /it$ t$% i!t%!ti! ' &tati!( t$% r%a"it# ' a! %!t%r-ri&% r i!&tit)ti! /it$)t d%'rati*% -%r&!a" *i&i!&, a!d +a! 1% e*positi)e, inte$p$etati)e < demonst$ati)e T$% &t )!i*%r&a" ' a"" t$% t#-%& ' /ritt%! t%6t&, r%'%r 1a+5 t t$% &tr#;t%""i!( traditi!& ' &t +)"t)r%&. I! 'a+t t$%r% &%% t 1% &% 1a&i+ )!i*%r&a" &tr)+t)r% t$at (*%r!& t$i& t#-% ' t%6t&: ; +$ientation 7ti%, -"a+% a!d +$ara+t%r id%!ti'i+ati! t i!'r r%ad%r ' t$% &tr# /r"d8, oal . -$oblem. esolution. Coda a!d &%ti%& a mo$ale at t$% %!d.
Naati-e tets
Fr t$i& +$ara+t%ri&ti+ &tr)+t)r%, &% ' t$% r)ti!%& a!d 'r)"a% )&%d ar% -r%&%!tati*%& 7t$%r% i&...8, r%"ati*%&, ad)!+t& ' -"a+% a!d ti%, '"a&$; 1a+5&, di''%r%!t !arrati*% -..*., !arrati*% dia"()%&, %t+... T$%# ar% +!+%r!%d /it$ t$% "+ati! a!d +$ara+t%ri&ati! ' -%-"% a!d t$i!(& i! t$% &-a+%, a& /%"" a& -r*idi!( 1a+5(r)!d i!'rati! /$i+$ &%t& t$% &ta(% 'r !arrati!. T$i& t#-% ' t%6t& i& *%r# --)"ar i! L2 t%a+$i!(, a!d a"" t#-%& $a*% t$% &a% -r%;%&ta1"i&$%d r(a!i&ati!. 4it$i! d%&+ri-ti*% t%6t& /% i($t 'i!d: ; /*te$nal desc$iptions, -r%&%!ti!( a $"i&ti+ *i%/ ' t$% 1%+t 1# a! a++)!t ' a"" it& -art& ; 'unctional desc$iptions , /$i+$ d%a" /it$ i!&tr)%!t& a!d t$% ta&5& t$%# a# -%r'r ; -sychological desc$iptions , /$i+$ %6-r%&& t$% '%%"i!(& t$at &%t$i!( -rd)+%& i! &%!%
Desci&ti-e tets
S% ' t$% &t +$ara+t%ri&ti+ &tr)+t)r%& ar% -r%&%!tati*%& 7t$%r%...8, ad)!+t& ' "+ati!, &tati*% *%r1& 7"5, &%%, 1%...8, )&% ' %ta-$r&, +-ari&!&, 0)a"i'#i!( ad%+ti*%& a!d r%"ati*% &%!t%!+%&. T$%# id%!ti'# a!d +$ara+t%ri&% -$%!%!a, i!+")di!( t%6t 'r& &)+$ a& d%'i!iti!&, %6-"a!ati!&, i!&tr)+ti!&, ()id%"i!%&, &)ari%&, %t+...T$%# a# 1% &)1%+ti*% 7a! %&&a#8 a!d 1%+ti*% 7d%'i!iti!&, i!&tr)+ti!&8, r %*%! ad*i+% (i*i!(. T$%# a# 1% a!a"#ti+a", &tarti!( 'r a +!+%-t a!d t$%! +$ara+t%ri&i!( it& -art&, a!d %!di!( /it$ a +!+")&i!.
E&*sit*( tets
8
T#-i+a" &tr)+t)r%& ar% &tati*% *%r1&, =i! rd%r t>, =& a& t>, i-%rati*%&, da"& a!d *%r1& ' 0)a"it#. T$%# ar% t$&% /$&% -)r-&% i& t &)--rt r /%a5%! a!t$%r &tat%%!t /$&% *a"idit# i& 0)%&ti!a1"%. T$% &tr)+t)r%& /% 'i!d ar% *%r# '"%6i1"%, 1%i!( t$i& t$% r%a&! 'r t$% %6i&t%!+% ' &%*%ra" t#-%&:
Agumentati-e tets
Classical 0 -$os 1 cons 2ig2ag 0 +ne3sided a$g 0 /cclectic app$o 0 +pposition4s a$g "i$st 0 +the$ side 5uestioned
T$%r% ar% &%ti%& /$%! /% +$&% $/, /$%! a!d /$# !t t 1% +r%ati*% /it$ "a!()a(% t r%-%at /$at i& !ra""# )&%d i! a (i*%! &it)ati!: /% )&% "i!()i&ti+ r)ti!%& a!d 'r)"a%. T$%&% ar% +eine+ as ie+ utteances * se7uences * utteances /'ic' must )e c*nsi+ee+ as single units, )ecause t'ei meaning cann*t )e +ei-e+ * t'em unless c*nsi+ee+ as a /'*le.
I! /ritt%! t%6t& /% 'i!d di''%r%!t t#-%& ' r)ti!%& a!d 'r)"ai+ %6-r%&&i!&, /$i+$ *ar# d%-%!di!( ! t$% t#-% ' t%6t, a& /% $a*% 1%%! -r%*i)&"# &%%i!(. U!d%r&ta!di!( t$% )&)a""# r%0)ir%& &$ari!( +)"t)ra" 5!/"%d(%, 1%+a)&% t$%# ar% (%!ara""# %ta-$ri+a" i! !at)r% a!d )&t 1% i!t%r-r%t%d at a !!;"i!()i&ti+ "%*%" 7'r i!&ta!+%, 6ea$ i! a "%tt%r d%& !t a"/a#& +arr# a''%+ti*% %a!i!(8. A"" t$&% -$ra&%& a!d &%!t%!+%& t$at, t &% %6t%!d, $a*% a -r%&+ri-ti*% +$ara+t%r, +a! 1% +!&id%r%d a& r)ti!%& a!d 'r)"ai+ %6-r%&&i!&: t +!&id%r a"" t$% di''%r%!t %6i&ti!( r)ti!%& /)"d ta5% t "!(, 1)t &% %6a-"%& ar%, i! "%tt%r& < -&t+ard& 77ou$s &i!+%r%"#8 i! C.V&, t$% r(a!i&ati! ' i!' i! di''%r%!t 1"+5&, i! !arrati! 7+nce upon a ti%8 i! d%&+ri-ti!& 7on the le"t, high abo)e, %t+... All in all, /e can sa( t'at t'e( ae s*metimes -e( useul )ut *ten meaningless 8 +e&es*nalise *u e&essi*ns 8 i+eas.
$. THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS Deiniti*n
G%!%ra""# &-%a5i!(, +)!i+ati! i& t$% ec'ange * meanings )et/een in+i-i+uals t'*ug' a c*mm*n s(stem * s(m)*ls, a!d t$i& $a& 1%%! t$% +!+%r! ' &+$"ar& &i!+% t$% Gr%%5&. C)!i+ati! r%'%r& t t$% tansmissi*n * in*mati*n 9a message: )et/een a s*uce an+ a ecei-e, using a signalling s(stem.
At t$% t)r! ' t$% +%!t)r#, t$% E!("i&$ "it%rar# +riti+ I*r Ar&tr!( Ri+$ard& ''%r%d !% ' t$% 'ir&t d%'i!iti!&, &a#i!( t$at communication takes place when one mind so acts upon its environment that another mind is influenced, and in that other mind an experience occurs which is like the experience in the first mind, and is caused in part by that experience.
T$% &t)d# ' $)a! +)!i+ati! i! a"" it& d%& i& 5!/! a& &%iti+&. T$%r% ar% &%*%ra" t#-%& ' +)!i+ati!, a!d a"t$)($ i! -ri!+i-"% a!# ' t$% 'i*% &%!&%& +a! 1% )&%d a& a %di) ' +)!i+ati!, i! -ra+ti+% !"# t$r%% 7 tactile, -isual a!d aual8 ar% i-"%%!t%d i! 1t$ acti)e3e*p$essi)e a!d passi)e3$ecepti)e /a#&.
9
Ta+ti"% +)!i+ati! i!*"*%& t)+$ 7%.(. &$a5i!( $a!d&, (ra&-i!( t$% ar8 a!d t$% a!i-)"ati! ' -$#&i+a" di&ta!+% a!d 1d# ri%!tati! i! rd%r t +)!i+at% i!di''%r%!+% r di&a(r%%%!t, a!d i& &t)di%d 1# -r6%i+&. Vi&)a" +)!i+ati! i!*"*%& t$% )&% ' 'a+ia" %6-r%&&i!& 7&i"i!(, /i!5i!(..., /$i+$ +)!i+at% a /id% ra!(% ' %ti!&8 a!d (%&t)r%& a!d 1d# -&t)r%& ' *ar#i!( "%*%"& ' 'ra"it# 75!%%"i!(, 1/i!(...8. Vi&)a" !!;*%r1a" +)!i+ati! i& &t)di%d 1# 5i!%&i+&. O't%!, *i&)a" a!d ta+ti"% %''%+t& i!t%ra+t +"&%"# /it$ *%r1a" +)!i+ati!, &%ti%& %*%! +!*%#i!( -arti+)"ar !)a!+%& ' %a!i!( !t %a&# t +)!i+at% i! &-%%+$ 7&)+$ a& t$% dra/i!( ' i!*%rt%d +a& i! t$% air t &i(!a" a &-%+ia" %a!i!(8, a!d &t ' t$% ti%& +)"t)ra""# r%"at%d. T$% +$i%' 1ra!+$ ' +)!i+ati! &t)di%& i!*"*%& t$% *al6aual m*+e, i! t$% 'r ' &-%%+$, a!d it& &#&t%ati+ *i&)a" r%'"%6 i! t$% 'r ' /riti!(. T$%&% ar% t$% -e)al as&ects ' +)!i+ati!, di&ti!()i&$%d 'r t$% !!;*%r1a" 75i!%&i+& a!d -r6%i+&8 a&-%+t&, 't%! --)"ar"# r%'%rr%d t a& body language . T$% t%r language, as /e un+estan+ it, is usuall( esticte+ t* s&eec' an+ /iting, 1%+a)&% t$%&% %di)& ' tra!&i&&i! di&-"a# a $i($"# &-$i&ti+at%d i!t%r!a" &tr)+t)r% a!d +r%ati*it#. N!;*%r1a" +)!i+ati!, 1# +!tra&t, i!*"*%& r%"ati*%"# "itt"% +r%ati*it#. I! "a!()a(%, it i& +!-"a+% t 'i!d !%/ /rd& 1%i!( +r%at%d, a!d &%!t%!+%& *ar#i!( i! -ra+ti+a""# i!'i!it% +-"%6it#. I! t$i& r%&-%+t, "a!()a(%& di''%r ar5%d"# 'r t$% *%r# "iit%d &%t ' 'a+ia" %6-r%&&i!&, (%&t)r%&, a!d 1d# *%%!t&. A++rdi!( t ar%r , t$% +$ara+t%ri&ti+& a--"# t %*%r# +)!i+ati*% &it)ati! i& t$at a &-%a5%r?/rit%r /a!t& t +)!i+at%, $a& a +)!i+ati*% -)r-&%, a!d &%"%+t& "a!()a(%, a!d a "i&t%!%r?r%ad%r /a!t& t "i&t%! t &%t$i!(, i& i!t%r%&t%d i! a +)!i+ati*% -)r-&%, a!d -r+%&& a *ari%t# ' "a!()a(%. Md%"& I! rd%r t &t)d# t$% -r+%&& ' +)!i+ati! &%*%ra" d%"& $a*% 1%%! ''%r%d@ 'ra(%!tati! a!d -r1"%& ' i!t%rdi&+i-"i!ar# )t"5 $a*% (%!%rat%d a /id% ra!(% ' di&+)&&i! +!+%r!i!( t$% /a#& i! /$i+$ +)!i+ati! ++)r&. M&t +)!i+ati! t$%ri&t& adit t$at t$%ir ai! ta&5 i& t a!&/%r t$% 0)%&ti! Who says what to whom with what effect? T$% &t i-rta!t d%"& ar%: U&%d t d%&+ri1% +(!iti*%, %ti!a" a!d arti&ti+ a&-%+t& ' t$% di''%r%!t d%& 7!arrati*%, -i+tria", draati+...8 ' +)!i+ati! a& t$%# ++)r i! &+i+)"t)ra" +!t%6t& i! t$%ir *ari)& a!!%r& a!d t a!d 'r di''%r%!t &rt& ' -%-"%. Fr t$&% )&i!( t$i& d%", t$% &ta1i"it# a!d ')!+ti! ' t$% +$a!!%" ar% r% *aria1"% a!d "%&& %+$a!i+a""# r%"at%d t t$% -r+%&& t$a! t$% "i!%ar d%"&. D(namic
Pr-&%d 1# S$a!!! a!d 4%a*%r , t$)($ *%r# at$%ati+a", it& &i-"i+it#, +"arit# a!d &)r'a+% (%!%ra"it# -r*%d *%r# attra+ti*%. Ori(i!a""# i!t%!d%d 'r %"%+tr!i+ %&&a(%&, it /a& t$%! a--"i%d t a"" &rt& ' +)!i+ati!. I! it& +!+%-ti! it +!tai!%d 'i*% %"%%!t& arra!(%d i! "i!%ar rd%r: in"o$mation sou$ce, t$ansmitte$, channel, $ecei)e$, destination. T$%!, t$% 'i*% %"%%!t& /%r% r%!a%d & a& t &-%+i'# +-!%!t& 'r t$%r t#-%& ' +)!i+ati!, a!d t$% in"o$mation sou$ce /a& &-"it i!t it& +-!%!t& t -r*id% a /id%r ra!(% ' a--"i+a1i"it#: source, encoder, message, channel, Linea
decoder, receiver.
10
;e( act*s
I! t$%r#, +)!i+ati! i& &aid t $a*% ta5%! -"a+% i' t$% i!'rati! r%+%i*%d i& t$% &a% a& t$at &%!t. I! -ra+ti+%, /% $a*% t a""/ 'r a"" 5i!d& ' i!t%r'%ri!( 'a+tr&, &)+$ a& ent*&( 7!i&% di&tr&i!8 /$i+$ +a! 1% +)!t%ra+t%d 1# negati-e ent*&( 7r%+%i*%r& a1i"it# t +"%ar 1")rr%d %&&a(%&8, 1# e+un+anc( 7)&%d 1# t$% %!+d%r8, r 1# ee+)ac0 7t$% &%!d%r +a"+)"at%& a!d /%i($t& t$% %''%+t& ! t$% r%+%i*%r a!d a+t& a++rdi!("#8@ a!d t$%! /% $a*% t$% c*ntet, /$i+$ +*%r& t$% r%'%r%!+%& t t$% "i!()i&ti+ a&-%+t& ' t$% %&&a(% r en+*&'*a 7anapho$a a!d catapho$a8 a!d t$% %6t%r!a" a&-%+t& ' &it)ati! r e*&'*a 7&)+$ a& t$% "ield , r tta" %*%!t a!d -)r-&% ' t$% +)!i+ati!, t$% mode , r ')!+ti! ' t$% t%6t i! t$% %*%!t, i!+")di!( +$a!!%" a!d (%!r%, a!d t$% teno$ , /$i+$ r%'%r& t t$% -arti+i-a!t& a!d t$%ir r%"ati!&$i-&8.
<.
#ACTORS AND #UNCTIONS COMMUNICATI5E SITUATION
O#
A
T$% &t )&)a" a!&/%r t t$% 0)%&ti! 8why do we use language?9 i& =t +)!i+at% )r id%a&>. 9)t it /)"d 1% /r!( t t$i!5 t$at +)!i+ati!( )r id%a& i& t$% !"# -)r-&% 'r /$i+$ /% )&% "a!()a(%. S%*%ra" t$%r ')!+ti!& a# 1% id%!ti'i%d /$%r% t$% +)!i+ati! ' id%a& i& ar(i!a" r irr%"%*a!t. 4% $ard"# 'i!d *%r1a" %&&a(%& t$at /)"d ')"'i" !"# !% ')!+ti! , a"t$)($ t'e -e)al stuctue * a message +e&en+s &imail( *n t'e &e+*minant uncti*n=
F""/i!( >a0*)s*n, /% a(r%% t$at "a!()a(% )&t 1% i!*%&ti(at%d i! a"" t$% *ari%t# ' it& ')!+ti!&, 1)t a! )t"i!% ' t$%&% ')!+ti!& d%a!d& a +!+i&% &)r*%# ' t$% +!&tit)ti*% 'a+tr& i! a!# a+t ' *%r1a" +)!i+ati!: t$% ADDRESSER &%!d& a MESSAGE t t$% ADDRESSEE t$at t 1% -%rati*% r%0)ir%& a CONTEXT r%'%rr%d t a!d t 1% (ra&-%d 1# t$% addr%&&%% 7%it$%r *%r1a" a!d &it)ati!a", a CODE, ')""# r -artia""# +! t t$% addr%&&%r a!d addr%&&%%, a!d a CONTACT, a -$#&i+a" +$a!!%" a!d -&#+$"(i+a" +!!%+ti! %!a1"i!( t$% t %!t%r a!d &ta# i! +)!i+ati! I' t$% ai! -)r-&% ' )r )&% ' "a!()a(% i& t +)!i+at% )r id%a&, +!+%!trati!( ! t$% +!t%6t t /$i+$ t$%&% id%a& r%'%r t, t$%! /% ar% d%a"i!( /it$ t$% eeential * i+eati*nal uncti*n. I' t$%r% i& a dir%+t %6-r%&&i! ' t$% addr%&&%r& attit)d% t/ard /$at i& 1%i!( +)!i+at%d, t%!di!( t -rd)+% a! i-r%&&i! ' a +%rtai! %ti!, t$at i& t$% em*ti-e * e&essi-e uncti*n 7a"& *%r# +!8, /$i+$ di''%r& 'r t$% r%'%r%!tia" !% i! t$% &)!d -att%r!, a!d it '"a*)r& t &% %6t%!d a"" )r )tt%ra!+%&. I' /% ri%!tat% )r %&&a(% t/ard& t$% addr%&&%% 1%+a)&% /% /a!t a +%rtai! r%a+ti!, /% ar% d%a"i!( /it$ t$% c*nati-e uncti*n, &#!ta+ti+a""# a!d 't%! -$!%ti+a""# d%*iat% 'r t$%r ')!+ti!& 7*+ati*%& a!d i-%rati*%&8. 4% ta"5 a1)t t$% &'atic uncti*n /$%! t$% "a!()a(% /% )&% i& 'r t$% -)r-&% ' %&ta1"i&$i!( r ai!tai!i!( &+ia" r%"ati!&$i-&, t +$%+5 i' t$% +$a!!%" r +!ta+t /r5&, t attra+t r +!'ir t$% att%!ti! ' t$% i!t%r"+)tr r t di&+!ti!)% +)!i+ati!, rat$%r t$a! t +)!i+at% id%a&, a!d i& !ra""# di&-"a#%d 1# rit)a"i&%d 'r)"a& 74%""..., / d #) dH8. 11
I' /% )&% t$% "a!()a(% t ta"5 a1)t t$% "a!()a(%, &)+$ a& /$%! +$%+5i!( i' addr%&&%% i& )&i!( t$% &a% +d% a& t$% addr%&&%r 7D #) '""/ %H D #) 5!/ /$at I %a!H8, /% ta"5 ' t$% metalingual uncti*n. I', ! t$% +!trar#, t$% '+)& i& ! t$% -$!%ti+ -r-%rti%& ' t$% %&&a(%, a"t$($ !t 1%i!( t$% &"% ')!+ti! ' t$% %&&a(%, /% &a# t$at /% ar% )&i!( t$% &*etic uncti*n ' "a!()a(%. T %!d )-, /% /i"" &a# t$at a""ida# (r)-%d a"" t$% ')!+ti!& i!t t'ee inteelate+ metauncti*ns4 i+eati*nal, t %6-r%&& id%a& r %6-%ri%!+%&, t$% inte&es*nal t i!di+at%, %&ta1"i&$ r ai!tai! &+ia" r%"ati!&$i-&, a!d t$% tetual, t +r%at% /ritt%! r &-5%! t%6t& t$at 'it i! t$% -arti+)"ar &it)ati! i! /$i+$ t$%# ar% )&%d.
?. #UNCTIONALIT AND CONTE3T4 NEGOTIATION O# MEANING
THE
/%*%r, i' +)!i+ati! /%r% &i-"# a att%r ' a--"#i!( t$% ad%0)at% &+$%a, /% /)"d!t $a*% t /rr# a1)t t$% addr%&&%%& r%&-!&% t t$% +)!i+ati! -r+%&&. T$%r%'r%, /% !%%d -r+%d)r%& t i!t%(rat% t$%&% a1&tra+t &+$%ata i!t t$% +!+r%t% -r+%&& ' di&+)r&% it&%"'. All c*mmunicati*n +e&en+s *n t'e alignment an+ a+@ustment * eac' intel*cut* s sc'emata, an+ t'e &*ce+ues /e use ae t'e inteacti-e neg*tiating acti-ities t'at inte&et t'e +iecti*ns &*-i+e+ an+ ena)le us t* alte *u e&ectati*ns in t'e lig't * ne/ e-i+ence as t'e +isc*use &*cee+s , a!d t$i& -r+%d)ra" a1i"it# /$i+$ trad)+%& t$% &+$%ati+ 5!/"%d(% i!t +)!i+ati*% 1%$a*i)r i& +a""%d ca&acit( 7in"e$ence, p$actical $easoning, negotiation o" meaning, p$oblem sol)ing... 8.
T$i& +a-a+it# a--"# t t/ di''%r%!t di%!&i!&: !% r%'%rr%d t t$% 5i!d ' &+$%a t$at i& 1%i!( r%a"i&%d, a!d t$% t$%r t t$% 5i!d ' +)!i+ati*% &it)ati! t$at $a& t 1% !%(tiat%d, t$at i&, t t$% /a# i! /$i+$ t$% r%"ati!&$i- 1%t/%%! t$% &+$%ata ' t$% i!t%r"+)tr& i& t 1% a!a(%d. 4% 'i!d t$at t$%r% ar% ++a&i!& i! /$i+$ /% )&% -r+%d)r%& t +"%ar )- a!d a5% r% %6-"i+it a!d %*id%!t t$% ame * eeence, r )&% 'et*ical *utines t &-%+i'# r% a++)rat%"# )r ill*cuti*na( acts 7t$% i!t%!d%d %''%+t& ' )r )tt%ra!+%&8 r t$at "elicity conditions ar% !t &ati&'a+tr# & t$at /% )&t )&% t$&% -r+%d)r%&. Ot$%r -r+%d)r%&, t$i& ti% ! t$% -art ' t$% addr%&&%%, ar% inte&etati-e 7a& i! %38I ha)e two tickets "o$ the theat$e9 B3 8I4)e got an e*am tomo$$ow98. I! &% ++a&i!&, $/%*%r, !%(tiati! i& t "!(, t di''i+)"t r %*%! 'ai"& 7a& i! i!t%r%t$!i+ i!t%ra+ti!8 1%+a)&% t$% &+$%ata ar% *%r# di''%r%!t, & t$at i!t%r"+)tr& a# )&% t$%r &i(!a""i!( &#&t% 7%.(. -i+tria"8, r )&% 9e:6*mulati*n -r+%d)r%& 7 o what you say is... :ow let4s put it st$aight..
B. CONCLUSION
12
C)!i+ati! i& , t$%r%'r%, t$% ai! -)r-&% ' a "a!()a(%, a!d t$% )&% a!d ')!+ti! t$at ')"'i"& d%-%!d& (r%at"# ! t$% +$ara+t%ri&ti+& ' t$% i!'rati! r t$% 'r ' t$% %&&a(%. I! a!# +a&%, 'r a +)!i+ati! -r+%&& t 1% +-"%t%, it i& !%+%&&ar# t$at 1t$ addr%&&%r a!d addr%&&%% !%(tiat% t$% %a!i!( ' /$at i& 1%i!( tra!&itt%d, *%r+i!( a!# -&&i1"% 1&ta+"%& di''i+)"ti!( t$at -r+%&&.
. "I"LIOGRAPH
Halli+a(, M. A. ;.
%n Int$oduction to 'unctional $amma$
Tannen, D.
Con)e$sational tyle
MacAt'u, T. He+ge, T.
C$a-t%r K
C$a-t%r B
;he +*"o$d Companion to the /nglish Language OUP W$iting.
OUP. O6'rd.
13
O6'rd 2
