TEMA 1 LA LENG LENGUA UA CO COMO MO CO COMU MUNI NICA CACI CIÓN ÓN:: LENG LENGUA UAJE JE OR ORAL AL Y LENG LENGUA UAJE JE ESCRITO. FACTORE ACTORES S QUE DEFINE DEFINEN N UNA SITUAC SITUACIÓN IÓN COMUNI COMUNICA CATIV TIVA: A: EMISOR EMISOR,, RECEPTOR FUNCIONALIDAD Y CONTEXTO. 0. INTRO TRODUCT DUCTIION ON.. 1. LANGU LANGUAGE AGE AS COMMU COMMUNIC NICA ATION. TION. 1.1.
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(. SPOEN SPOEN AND /RITTE /RITTEN N LANGU LANGUAGE AGE.. (.1.
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/2$%%!n angag!.
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*. COMMUN COMMUNICA ICATI TION ON T3EO T3EOR RY. *.1.
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4. 9I9L 9I9LIO IOGR GRAP AP3Y 3Y..
0. INTRODUCTION. Traditional foreign language teaching concentrated on getting students consciously to learn items of language in insolation. These bits of information would be mainly used to read texts and only occasionally for oral communication. The focus was not on communication but on a piece of language. Following Krashen’s distinction between acquisition and learning we can say that people got to know about the language (learning) but could not use it in a real context (acquisition). The ritish applied linguist !llwright tried to bridge this dichotomy when he theorised that if de language teacher’s management acti"ities were directed exclusi"ely at in"ol"ing the learners in sol"ing communication problems in the target language# then language learning wil take care of itlself. $e may or may not agree with this extreme rendering of the %ommunicati"e approach# but we all agree nowadays on the importance of letting ous pupils use &nglish for real communication during at least# the production stage. 'n this unit we are going to study language and its functions to see that communication is one of thes functions. $e wil then posit that learning a language is not only a grammatical and lexical process but also a social process. $e also analye the differences between writing and speech and finally we will discuss the most important communication theory models# defining their key factors.
1.
LANGUAGE AS COMMUNICATION.
1.1. Langag! D!#$n$%$&n'. The word language has prompted innumerable definitions. *ome focus on the general concept of language (what we call lengua or lenguaje) and some focus on the more specific notion of a language (what we call lengua or idioma). *!+', (-/-) said that 0language is a purely human non1instincti"e method of communicating ideas# emotions and desires by means of "oluntarily produced symbols2. 3!44 (-56) defined language as 0the institution whereby humans communicate and interact whith each other by means of habitually used oral1auditory arbitrary symbols2. !s we can see in these two definitions it is diffi cult to make a precise and comprehensi"e statement about formal adn functional uni"ersal properties of language so some linguists ha"e trien to indentify the "arious properties that are thought to be its essential defining characteristics. The most widely acknowledged comparati"e approach has been the one proposed by %harles 37%K&TT. 3is set of -8 design features of communication using spoken language were as follows9
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A"$%&28&)a )7ann! 9 sound is used between mouth and ear.
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92&a")a'% %2an'+$''$&n an" "$2!)%$&na 2!)!-%$&n 9 a signal can be heard by any auditory system within earshot# and the source can be located using the ears’ direction1 finding ability.
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Ra-$" #a"$ng9 auditory signals are transitory.
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In%!2)7ang!a5$$%8 9 speakers of a language can reproduce any linguistic message they can understand.
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T&%a #!!"5a) 9 speakers hear and can reflect upon e"erything that they say.
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S-!)$%a$;a%$&n9 the sound wa"es of speech ha"e no other function than to signal meaning.
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S!+an%$)$%89 the elemens of the signal con"ey meaning through their stable association with real1world situations.
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A25$%2a2$n!''9 there is no dependence of the element of the signal on the nature of the reality to which it refers.
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D$')2!%!n!'' 9 speech uses a small set of sound elements tha clearly contrast whith each other.
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D$'-a)!+!n%9 it is possible to talk about e"ents remote in space or time from the situation of the speaker.
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P2&")%$$%8 9 ther is an infinite capacity to express and understand meaning# by using old setence elements to produce new sentences.
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T2a"$%$&na %2an'+$''$
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Da$%8 &# -&%%!2$ng 9 the sound of language ha"e no intrinsic meaning# but combine in diferents ways to form elements# such as words# than do con"ey meaning.
!fter ha"ing studied th:e main properties of language (what is language?) we will now see its function (whats language for?).
1.(. Langag! Fn)%$&n'. The most usual answer to the question 0why do we use language;2 is 0to communicate our ideas2 and this ability to communicate or communicati"e competence is studied in the next part. ut it would be wrong to think of communicating our ideas as the only way in which we use language ( 2!#!2!n%$a, $"!a%$&na &2 -2&-&'$%$&na #n)%$&n ). *e"eral other functions may be indentified where the communication of ideas is a marginal or irrele"ant consideration.
7ne of the commonest uses of languages# the !=-2!''$! &2 !+&%$&na one# is a means of getting rid of our ner"ous energy when we are under stress. $e do not try to communicate ideas because we can use language in this way whether we are alone or not. *wear words and obscenities are problably the most usual signals to be used in this way# especially when we are angry. ut there are also many emoti"e utterances of positi"e kind# such as expressions of fear# affection# astonishment...
(-?661-6/) termed the third use of language we are studying >-7a%$) )&++n$)a%$&n? . 3e used it to refere to the social function of language# which arises out of the basic human need to signal friendship# or# at least# lack of enmity. 'f someone does not say hello to you when hi is supposed to# you may think hi is hostile. 'n these cases the sole function of language is to maintain a comfortable relationship between people# to pro"ide a means of a"oiding an embarrassing situation. +hatic communication# howe"er# is far from uni"ersal# some cultures prefer silence# eg# the !ritama of %olombia.
The fourth function we may find is based on -7&n!%$) -2&-!2%$!' . The rhythmical litanies of religious groups# the presuasi"e cadences of political speechmaking# the dialogue chants used by prisoner or soldiers ha"e only one apparent reason9 people take delight in them. They can only be explained by a uni"ersal desire to exploit the sonic potential of language.
The fith function is the -!2#&2+a%$! &n! . ! performati"e sentence ins an utterance that performs an act. This use occurs in the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony# or when a priest bapties a child. $e may also finde other functions such as9
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recording facts. 'nstrument of thought &xpression of regional# social# educational# sexual or occupational identity.
The ritish linguist 3!44'@!> grouped all these functions into three metafunctions# shich are the manifestation in the linguistic system of the two "eryu general purposes shich underlie all uses of language combine whith the rhird component (textual) shich brethes rele"ance into the other two. -.1 The $"!a%$&na #n)%$&n is to organie the speaker’s or writer’s experience of the real or imaginary world# i.e. language refers to real or imagined persons# things# actions# e"ents# states#etc. /.1 The $n%!2-!2'&na #n)%$&n is to indicate# establish or mantain social relationships between people. 't includes forms of address# speech function# modality ... 8.1 The third component is the %!=%a #n)%$&n which ser"es to create written or spoken texts which cohere within themsel"es and which fit the particular situation in which they are used.
1.*. C&++n$)a%$! )&+-!%!n)! %37<*K> (-AB) defined language as Ca set of sentences# each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. ! capable speaker has a subconscious knowledge of the grammar rules of his language which allows him to make sentences in that language’. 3owe"er# @ell 3><&* thought that %homsky had missed out some "ery important information9 the rules of the use. $hen a nati"e speaker speaks# he does not onlu utter grammatically correct forms# he also knows where and when to use these sentences and to whom. 3ymes# then# said that competence by itself is not enough to explain a nati"e speaker’s knowledge# and he replaced it with his own concept of communicative competence. 3><&* distinguishes 6 aspects of this competence9 1 systematic potential 1 appropriacy 1 occurrence - feasibility
S8'%!+a%$) -&%!n%$a means that the nati"e speaker possesses a system that has a potential for creating a lot of language. This is similar to %omsky’s competence.
A--2&-2$a)8 means that the nati"e speaker knows what language is appropriate in a gi"en situation. 3is choice is based on the following "ariables# among others9 *etting +articipants +urpose %hannel Topic O))22!n)! means that the nati"e speaker knows how often something is said in the language and acts accordingly.
F!a'$5$$%8 means that the nati"e speaker knows whether something is possible in the language. &"en if there is no grammatical rule to ban /D1ad:ecti"e prehead construction# we know that these constructions are not possible in the language. These 6 categories ha"e been adapted for teaching purposes. Thus# the ,oyal @ecree -DD5E-- of -6 une (7& /A une)# which establishes the teaching requirements for +rimary &ducation nationwide# sees communicati"e competence as comprising fi"e subcompetences9
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G2a++a2 )&+-!%!n)! (competencia gramatical# o capacidad de poner en prGctica las
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unidades y reglas de funcionamiento del sistema de la lengua). D$')&2'! )&+-!%!n)! (competencia discursi"a o capacidad de utiliar diferentes tipos de discurso y organiarlos en funciHn de la situaciHn comunicati"a y de los inetrlocutores).
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S&)$&$ng$'%$) )&+-!%!n)! ( competencia sociolingIJstica o capacidad de adecuar los enunciados a un contexto concreto# atendiendo a los usos aceptados en una comunidad lingIJstica determinada).
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S%2a%!g$) )&+-!%!n)! ( competencia estratgica o capacidad para definir# corregir# matiar o en general# realiar a:ustes en el curso de la situaciHn comunicati"a).
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S&)$&)%2a )&+-!%!n)! ( competencia sociocultural# entendida como un cierto grado de familiaridad con el contexto social y cultural en el que se utilia una determinada lengua).
The terms grammar# sociolinguistic and sociocultural competence are quite self explanatory so we will only analye discourse and strategic competence.
CANALE (-?D) defined discourse competence as an aspect of communicati"e competence which describes the ability to produce unified written or spoken discourse that shows coherence and cohesion and which conforms to the norms of different genres. 7ur pupils must be able to produce discourse in which successi"e utterances are linked through ruoles of discourse competence. *trategic competence may be defined as an aspect of communicati"e competence which describes the ability of speakers to use "erbal and non1"erbal communication strategies to compensate for breakdowns in communication or to impro"e the effecti"eness of communication.
(. SPOEN AND /RITTEN LANGUAGE 't is traditionl in language study to distinguish between spoken and written language. efore summariing their main differences we will outline their main features independently.
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S-&!n Langag!
The most ob"ious aspect of language is speech. *peech is not essential to the definition of an infinitely producti"e communication system# such as it is constituted by language. ut# in fact# speech is the uni"ersal material of human language.
a2%$)a%&28 -7&n!%$)' .The mo"ement of the articulators produces disturbances in the air pressure called sound wa"es# which are physical manifestations. This is the acoustic stage of the chain# during which the sound wa"es tra"el towards the listener’s ear1drum. The study of speech sound wa"es correspons to a)&'%$) -7&n!%$)' . The hearing process is the domain of a"$%&28 -7&n!%$)' . This can be seen in the following table9
SPEEC3 C3AIN !cti"ity stage
+honetics
9RAIN
psychological linguistic
SPEEC3 MEC3ANISM physiological production
articulatory phonetics
SOUND /AVES
EAR
9RAIN
physical physiological psychologicals transmission perception linguistic
acoustic phonetics
auditory phonetics
'n this table we can see how phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds. This is not the most important task for linguist# howe"er. ! linguist must study the way in which a language’s speakers systematically use a selection of theses sounds in order to express meaning. 'n this acti"ity he is helped by phonology. +honology is continually loking beneath th surface of speech to determine its underlying regularities. 't is not interested in sounds but in phonemes# ie. *mallest contrasti"e phonological units which can produce a difference in meaning. The study of speech is therefore# the field of both +honetics and +honology.
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/2$%%!n angag!.
'deograms or ideographs ha"e an abstract or con"entional meaning# no longer displaying a clear pictorial link whith external reality. The cuneiform method of writing dates from the 6 th.
+honological systems do show a clear relationship between the symbols and the sounds of language. $e can distinguish syllabic and alphabetic systems. 'n a system of syllabic writing# each grapheme corresponds to a spoken syllable# usually a consonant1"owel pair. This system can be seen in apanese Kataka. !lphabetic writing establishes a direct correspondence between graphemes and morphemes. This makes it the most economic and adaptable of all the writing systems. 'n a perfectly regular sustem there is one grapheme for each morpheme. 3owe"er# most alphabets in present day use fail to meet this criterion. !t one extreme we find such languages as *panish# which has a "ery regular system at the other# we find such cases as &nglish and Naelic# where there is a marked tendency to irregularity.
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3$'%&2$)a a%%$%"!'.
3istorically speaking# written language was considered tobe superior to spoken language for many centuries. 't was the medium of literature# and literature was considered a source of standards of linguistic excellence. $itten records pro"ide language with permanence and authority and so the rules of grammar were illustrated exclusi"ely from written texts. 7n the other hand# spoken language was ignored as an ob:ect unworthy of study. *poken language demostrates such a lack of care and organiation that cannot be studied scientifically it was said to ha"e no rules# and speakers ha"e thought that# in order to speak properly# it was necessary to follow the correct norm. !s this norm was based on written standards# it is clear that the prescripti"e tradition rested supremacy of writing o"er speech. This "iewpiont became widely criticied at the turn of our century. 4eonard loomfield insisted that Owriting is not language but merely a way of recording language by means of "isible marksO. This approach pointed out se"eral factors# some of which we ha"e already mentioned9
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*peech is many centuries older than writing 't de"elopes naturally in children $riting systems are mostly deri"ati"e# ie# they are based on the sounds of speech.
'f speech is the primary medium of communication# it was also argued that it should be the main ob:ect of linguistic study. !ctually# the ma:ority of the worldPs culturesP languages ha"e ne"er been written down and this has nothing to do with their e"olutionary degree. 't is a fallacy to suppose that the languages of illiterate or so1called primiti"e peoples are less structured# less rich in "ocabulary# and less efficient than the languages of literate ci"iliation. &. *apir was one of the first linguistics to attack the myth that primiti"e peoples spoke primiti"e languages. 'n one study he compared the grammatical equi"alents of the sentence Ohe will gi"e it to youO in six !merindian languages. !mong many fascinating features of these complex grammatical forms# note the le"el of abstraction introduced by the following example9 *outhern +aiute
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D$##!2!n)!' 5!%6!!n 62$%$ng an" '-!!)7
,esearch has begun to in"estigate the nature and extent of the differences between them.
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*pecch uses phonic substance typically in the form of air1pressure mo"ements $riting uses graphic substance typically in the form of marks on a surface.
@ifferences of structure and use are the product of radically different communicati"e situations. %rystal (-?B) pointed that Cspeech is tme1bound# dynamic# transient# part of an interaction in which# typically# both participants are present# and the speaker has a specific addressee in mindR. $riting is space1bound# static# permanent# the result of a situation in which# typically# the producer is distant from the recipient and# often# may not e"en know
who the recipient is. !s writing can only occasionally be thought of as an interaction it is :ust normal that we can establish the following points of contrast9 -.1 The permanence of writing allows repeated reading and close analysis. The spontaneity and rapidity of speech minimies the chance of complex preplanning# and promotes features that assist to think standing up. /.1 The participants in written interaction cannot usually see each other# and they thus cannot rely on the context to help make clear what they mean as they would when speaking. !s a consequence# deictic expressions are normally a"oided. 7n the other hand# feedback is a"ailable in most speech interactions. 8.1 The ma:ority of graphic features present a system of contrast that has no speech equi"alent.
*. COMMUNICATION T3EORY. *.1. D!#$n$%$&n %ommunication# the exchange of meanings between indi"iduals through a common system of symbols# concerned scholars since the time of ancient Nreece. 'n -/? the &nglish literary critic and author '"or !rmtrong ,ichards offered one of the first definitions of communication. *ince about -/D the growth and apparent influence of communication technology ha"e attracted the attention of many specialists who ha"e attempted to isolate communication as a specific facet of their particular interest. 'n the-5Ds#
y the late /D th century the main focus of interest in communication seemed to be drifting away from
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!n information source ! transmiter ! channel of transmission ! recei"er ! destination
This model was originally intended for electronic messages so# in time# the fi"e elements of the model were renamed so as to specify components for other types of communication transmitted in "arious manners. The information source was split into its components to pro"ide a wider range of applicability9
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a source an encoder a message a channel a decoder a recei"er
!nother concept# first called a Cnoise sourceR but later associated with the notion of entropy was imposed upon the communication model. &ntropy diminishes the integrity of the message and distorts the message for the recei"er. =egati"e entropy may also occur in instances where incomplete or blurred messages are ne"ertheless recei"ed intact# either because of the ability of the recei"er to fill in missing details or to recognie# despite distortion or paucity of information# both the intent and the content of the communication. ut not only negati"e entropy counteracts entropy. ,edundancy# the repetition of elements within a message that pre"ents the failure of communication of information# is the greatest antidote to entropy. ,edundancy is apparently in"ol"ed in most human acti"ities# and# because it helps to o"ercome the "arious forms of entropy that tends to turn intelligible messages into unintelligible ones# it is an indispensable element for effecti"e communication. $e can see that the model# despite the introduction of entropy and redundancy# is conceptually static. To correct this flaw# =orbert $iener# the father of cybernetics# added the principle of feedback# ie# sources tend to be responsi"e to their own beha"iour and to the context of communication. 'nteraction between human beings in con"ersation cannot function without the ability of the message sender to weigh and calculate the apparent effect of this words on his listener. $e will now analye each of these key factors.
*.*. !8 #a)%&2' This unit title mentions some of the key factors affecting any communicati"e interaction such as the sender and the recei"er. !fter putting them in the broader framework of the
The information source selects a desired message out of a possible set of messages. The transmitter changes the message into a signal which is sent o"er the communication channel where it is recei"ed by the recei"er and changed back into a message which is sent to the destination. 'n the process of transmission certain unwanted additions to the signal may occur which are not part of the message and these are referred to as noise or entropy negati"e entropy and redundancy counteract entropy. For somo communication systems the components are simple to specify as# for instance9
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information source9 a man on the telephone transmitter9 the mouthpiece message and signal9 the words the man speaks channel9 the electrical wires recei"er9 the earpiece destination9 the listener
'n face1to1face communication# the speaker can be both information source and transmitter# while the listener can be both recei"er and destination. 8.8.-. *peech acts. .4. !ustin (---1-5D) was the first to draw attention to the many functions performed by utterances as part of interpersonal communication. 3e distinguishes two main types of functional potential9
- performati"e - contati"e ! performati"e is an utterance that perform an act9 to say is to act# as we ha"e already seen when studying language functions. +erformati"es may be explicit and implicit performati"es# which do not contain a performati"e "erb. %onstati"es are utterances which assert something that is either true or false. 'n speech act analysis the effect of utterances on the beha"iour of speaker and hearer is studies using a threefold distinction9 ! locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood. For example# saying the sentence Cshoot the snakeR is a locutionary act if hearers understand the words CshootR# CtheRand CsnakeR and can identify the particular snake referred to. !n illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform a function. For example Cshoot the snakeRmay be intended as an order or a piece of ad"ice. ! perlocutionary act is the result or effect that is produced by means of saying something. For example# shooting the snake would be a perlocutionary act. !ustinRs three1part distinction is less frequently used than a two part distinction between the propositional content of a sentence and the illocutionary force or intended
effects of speech acts. There are thousands of possible illocutionary acts# and se"eral attempts ha"e been made to classify them into a small number of types9
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representati"es directi"es commisi"es expressi"es declarations
'n declarati"es the speaker is committed in "arying degrees# to the truth of a proposition. 'n directi"es the speaker tries to get the hearer to do something. 'n commissi"es the speaker is committed# in "arying degrees# to a certain course of action. 'n expressi"es the speaker expresses an attitude about a state of affairs. 'n declarations the speaker alters the external status or conditions of an ob:ect or situation solely by making the utterance. !s we can infer from the examples there are some fuy areas and o"erlappings between different types of illocutionary force. ut an utterance may lose its illocutionary force if does not satisfy se"eral criteria# known as felicity conditions. For example the preparatory conditions ha"e to be right9 the person performing the speech act has to ha"e the authority to do so. 7rdinary people automatically accept these conditions when they communicate. 'f any of these conditions does not obtain# then a special interpretation of the speech act has to apply. oth normal and special interpretations of utterances ha"e much to do with the context in which they are made. 8.8./. %ontext. %ontext is defined by the %ollins &nglish @ictionary as9 -. The parts of a piece of writing# speech# etc# that precede and follow a word or passage and contribute to its full meaning. /. The conditions and circumstances that are rele"ant to an e"ent# fact# etc. The first definition co"ers what we may call linguistic context# but as we can infer from the second definition# linguistic context may not be enough to fully understand an utterance understood as a speech act. 'n fact# linguistic elements in a text may refer not only to other parts of the text but also to the outside world# to the context of situation. The concept of context of situation was formulated by
%7=T&VT 7F *'T!T'7=
-. /. 8. 6. A. 5. B. ?.
3><&* Form and content of text *etting +articipants &nds Key
3!44'@!> -. field /. mode 8. tenor
$e will now analye 3allidayRs more abstract interpretation as it practically subsumes 3ymesRs one. The field is the total e"ent# in which the text is functioning# together with the purpose acti"ity of the speaker or writer it thus includes the su:ect matter as one element in it. The mode is the function of the text in the e"ent# including therefore both the channel taken by the language# and its genre or rethorical mode# as narrati"e# didactic# persuasi"e and so on. The tenor refers to to the participants who are taking part in this communicati"e exchange# who they are and what kind of relationship thay ha"e to one another. 't is clear that role relationships# ie# the relationship which people ha"e to each other in a act of communication# influences the way they speak to each other. 7ne of the speakers may ha"e# for instance# a role which has a higher status than that of the other speaker or speakers.
6.
9I9LIOGRAP3Y .
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%ollins &nglish @ictionary. %ollins. Nlasgow# -/.
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%rystal# @. The %ambridge &ncyclopedia of 4anguage. %+. %ambridge# -?B.
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&ncyclopaedia ritannica. &nc. rit. 'nc. %hicago# -D.
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3alliday# <. !. K. *poken and written 4anguage. Neelong# Uic. @eakin ni"ersity +ress# -B5.
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3alliday# <. !. K. 4anguage as social semiotics. !rnold. 4ondon# -B?.
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3alliday# <. !. K. Functional grammar. !rnold. 4ondon# -?/.
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3alliday# <. !. K and 3asan# ,. %ohesion in &nglish. 4ongman. 4ondon# -B5.
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,ichards# . %# +latt# .# and +latt# 3. 4ongman @ictionary of 4anguage Teaching and !pplied 4inguistics. 4ongman. 4ondon# -/.
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*teinberg# @. @. +sycholinguistics. 4ongman. 4ondon.-?/
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