What is STS? Analyses Analyses of the past, present present and and future future of science science and technology in society Including Including nature, nature, scope, scope, role and function function Analyses Analyses of the social, social, cultural, cultural, political, political, economic economic and environmental factors affecting the development of science and technology with emphasis emphasis on the Philippine Philippine setting setting 21st century century is deeply influenced influenced by science science and technology and society is constructed as well as, constructs technology capstone capstone GE offering: offering: as an interdiscip interdisciplinar linary y field it brings the students to a full circle of exploring and appreciating, seeing diverse perspectives and being able to make connections, and critical thinking and ethical acting on the multidimensional ways science and technology shape values, culture, and institutions, and vice versa make good use of local and practical practical examples examples to dissect and illustrate the two-way influence of science and technology with society an interdisci interdisciplina plinary ry approach approach to understandin understanding g the role of science and technology in contemporary and historical societies STS practitione practitioners rs come from diverse diverse academic academic backgrounds: chemists, physicists, biologists, anthropologists, sociologists, philosophers, geologists, economists, historians Defining Science Etym Etymol olog ogy y Latin: Latin: scire, scire, scienti scientia a - to know know Middle Middle english english - science science - knowledge knowledge Both the act of seeking seeking knowledge knowledge and the body of knowledge itself Merr Merria iam m webs webster ter State State of knowin knowing: g: knowle knowledge dge as distinguished from ignorance or misunderstanding A department department of systematized systematized knowledge knowledge as an object of study e.g. science of theology Someth Something ing (like (like a sport sport or a technique) that may be learned like systematized knowledge e.g. have it down to a science Knowle Knowledge dge or a system system of knowle knowledge dge covering general truths or the operation of general laws especially as obtained and tested through scientific method Natural Natural science: science: such knowledge knowledge or such a system of knowledge
concerned with the physical world and its phenomena A system system or method reconciling reconciling practical practical ends with scientific laws
Defining Technology Root Root word word:: techne (greek), meaning tool Often perceives perceives as the visible visible manifestati manifestation on of science, in other words, the application of scientific research, but in fact this is not always the case Historicall Historically, y, technology technology preceded preceded scientific scientific inquiry inquiry Early pioneers pioneers in sciences sciences were also engineers and artists such as Archimedes, Leonardo Da Vinci, etc. Includes Includes the history history and meanings meanings of the objects objects and applications of science Ex. a knife knife is a technologi technological cal item but it also: Has a history history:: when when and where where was it made Why this this partic particula ularr shape? shape? Who are the users users of this this tool? tool? What What are the specia speciall meanin meanings gs embedded in this tool? Society, Culture Society Society is an interdepend interdependent ent group of people, people, interacting with each other more frequently definitions definitions of society society often include include people people living together in a defined geographical territory – but in today’s setting, territories can be virtual as well as physical Science as culture culture and cultural activity Defini Definitio tion n of cultur culture e Shared Shared and learne learned d behavi behavior or characteristic of a particular community in space and time Featu Feature re of cultu culture re Shared Shared – all cultural cultural behavior behavior is formed formed in a community Learned Learned – culture culture is non biologica biological, l, it is learned from others in a community Symbolic Symbolic – culture culture is based upon symbols, symbols, things that stand for other things Evolving Evolving – culture culture and cultural cultural behaviors behaviors change and evolve over time Contested Contested – the content content of culture culture and even the definition of culture itself can be contested by different parties. Science from multiple angles Scie Scienc nce e as: as: a body body of knowle knowledge dge derive derived d from from observation and experimentation
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an activity – what scientists do symbols – what meanings are evoked by objects and symbols associated with science cultural form; and a culture of science a political activity
Science as cultural and historical activity Science as: a shared body of knowledge a means of inquiry into the world a community a guide to living in the world shares all these features of culture It is symbolic, in that it is shaped by symbols, the meanings of which can be contested and can change over time Constantly evolving
Historical roots, multiple soils Science as an activity of inquiry into the world begins with the early philosophers from different seeking to understand the nature of the world Babylon, Greece, China, India, Arabia (encompassing most of the Arab-speaking world at the time), Persia history of science is not necessarily a straightforward linear movement or accumulation of knowledge scientific work is the product of scholars in many different cultures, across different time frames beginnings of science can be framed this way: Science begins when inquiry into the universe becomes necessary for various reasons, many of which had to do with the survival of communities Thus, you have the inductive approac h – beginning from observations, discerning or inferring patterns and coming to a conclusion; and the deductive approach – creating a hypothesis and testing it In contemporary times, via experimentation or else field research; in the case of the Greek philosophers, using the power of reasoning The uses of science in ancient times in many cases, these were utilized in either the service of the state (warfare for example); for agriculture and other production activities; for personal use such as computing inheritances; trade; and even entertainment
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Except for the development and continuous sophistication of scientific knowledge and the application to technology, there is very little that distinguishes these from the uses of science in contemporary times
Seeing the history, philosophy and culture of science You have science itself, the body of knowledge built upon empirical understanding of the world, using techniques and methods that interface with the natural world Then there is the social construction of science – the meanings scientists attribute to their work, the meanings non-scientists attribute to science, the material objects of science and what they stand for Science before science Inquiry into the nature of the universe beginning with empirical observations and systematizing these into data that could be archived Ex. astronomy Most astronomical work was in support of the needs of the state and of the community In agriculture – irrigation, harvest In conducting warfare Mathematics has its roots in several cultures across time, such as Mesopotamia, Egypt, Arabia, China, India, Greece, Mesoamerica and Europe algebra and other mathematical methods developed in different ways across the various cultures Most forms of mathematics were based on the local languages, with some using what is known as prose mathematics, in which problems are written out for solution instead of using notations zero deserves special mention developed in India, it traveled across Asia to Arabia use of the zero in math was at one time forbidden in Europe, since it symbolized nothingness and therefore was the work of the devil Astronomy and cosmology Cultural communities everywhere engaged with the world through astronomy, the observation and classification of stars, planets and other heavenly phenomena What these were for: Navigation: think Moana Agricultural and fishing activities Indigenous astronomy for creating and maintaining calendars; different names for
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constellations , stars and planets: Jocano (1968), Ambrosio (2010) Maintaining cosmological unities Affirmation of indigenous identities Written astronomies in textual form on different media such as clay tablets, papyri, parchments, paper Babylon, Egypt, China, Greece, Europe (medieval period onwards) Monumental astronomies physical re-presentation of the universe in buildings and compounds Babylon, Egypt, China, Europe, Mesoamerica Oral traditions Philippine indigenous communities Differing names for familiar constellations The belief in cosmic forces manifested as animal forms
Comparative cosmologies
Plasma
Mesopotamia: Babylonia
Plasma and bigbang
India: Hindu
Alternating universe big bang, plasma
India: Jainist
Steady state
Oceania: Maiana
Big bag, inflationary
Oceania: Tahiti
Plasma
Oceania: Mangaia
Big bang, inflationary
Mayan Mesoamerica
Alternating universes, many worlds hypothesis
Mesopotamia: Sumer
universe split from primal waters of mother goddess
Mesopotamia: Babylonia
universe formed from corpse of mother goddess, killed by grandson universes dreamed in (and out) of existence universe hatched from golden egg
India: Jainist
universe bursts from swelling on god's head
Oceania: Tahiti
universe formed from shells
Oceania: Mangaia
universe grows from coconut root
Mayan Mesoamerica
gods take four tries to create the universe
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Big bang: start from a finite point Plasma: from primordial chaos Steady state: universe without beginning or end Alternating universes: cycles of creation and destruction
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Primal earth or water mother who creates the universe from her body; The sole male progenitor commanding the universe into existence; The world egg from which all of creation is hatched, closely parallel to the contemporary big bang model The world tree which gives forth creation
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Mesopotamia: Sumer
India: Hindu
Oceania: Maiana
universe always existed
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Cosmology and the natural world What does our cosmology do for us? Discussions of cosmology may seem remote from our daily lives, but in fact how we see the world shapes the way we live in it and interact with it. Consider the Batak of Palawan James Eder documented the deculturalization of this indigenous group, as they lost their traditional domains to outsiders, most notably large scale commercial loggers The result has been, since that time a loss of meaning in life for many Batak land provided a spatial orientation to the universe, one filled with meanings that were alive to them Without these, the Batak fell into anomie, that state of meaningless existence; and from there frustration and anger expressed themselves in internal violence Cosmology’s consequences A culture’s cosmology often shapes other areas of cultural activity, such as matter and its states (physics), the nature of the earth (geology), transformation of physical and metaphysical substances (alchemy and chemistry) and the application of knowledge through material means (technology)
The context of orthodoxy Ludwik Fleck - the concept of a thought collective Ideas and models of the world are never formed in a vacuum but are often best seen in a context how is information interpreted and who does the interpreting? Thought collectives and thought styles Thought collectives Communities of persons mutually exchanging ideas or maintaining intellectual interaction Minimum: 2 All of us can belong to several thought collectives at once Thought styles Special carrier for the historical development of any field thought, as well as for the given stock of knowledge and level of culture By implication, we can do several thought styles Thought collectives Thought style as characteristic of a thought collective - a community of thought Thought style as a readiness for directed perception of what has been thought collectives can Accept Resist In this context, truth is: In historical perspective, an event in the history of thought In contemporary perspective, stylized thought constraints -
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Facts are In line with the interests of the thought collective Resistance to free, arbitrary thinking must be effective within the thought collective; it must b brought home to each member as a constraint and as a form to be directly experienced Expressed in the style of the thought collective Cognition ascertaining those results which must follow given certain preconditions Three elements The individual The collective Objective reality - what is to be known
All three and their relationships to each other can be investigated
Science as science: origins and approaches The influence of plato and aristotle Plato Conceived of the world as reflections of ideal essences or Forms Reflected in his Theatetus and in The Republic Aristotle Insisted on understanding the world through its immediate reality here and now Reflected in his works on biology, physics, meteorology, optics Metaphysics, ethics, politics Plato’s position that that the world was a reflection of ideal essences spurred what we call idealism; this world is not real, only a reflection of what is Real In contrast, Aristotle’s insistence on studying phenomena as they actually happened, was a guiding force in the development of science as we know it today Of doctrines Platonic and aristotelian philosophy had a major impact on European thought, as filtered through Arabic thinkers In particular, Aristotle’s method of classification; the creation of categories; and the perfection of all natural phenomena, especially the heavens Aristotle’s work on the heavens and on physical phenomena became standard, so much so that the contrary were viewed with suspicion as being fraudulent -
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Aristotelian classification was integrated into the doctrinal teachings of the Roman Catholic Church: This was the result of a long process by which the rediscovered writings of the ancient Greek philosophers, including Plato and especially Aristotle were gradually assimilated and Christianized so to speak as part of the received wisdom and traditions of the Catholic church. Example: Thomas Aquinas Notable examples: Copernicus’ heliocentric model of the solar system, in which he proposed that the sun was at the center of the solar system and that the earth and other planets moved around it; in contrast to the prevailing
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geocentric view , which held that the earth was at the center. Galileo’s insistence on experimentation and empirical observation as the means to understand the natural world as well as the use of mathematics to describe the observed phenomena, as contrasted to the prevailing qualitative descriptions in the standard texts of the time. The recording of his observations of the planets and of the moon cast doubt on the predominant Aristotelian view of the perfection of the heavens, and this together with his advocacy of the Copernican view of the universe led to charges of heresy as well as fraud.
What does it take to revolutionize thinking? Copernicus’s work brings us to the nature of scientific revolutions, as modeled by Thomas Kuhn Stages of a scientific revolution Idea or work accepted as standard doctrine Articulation of model to address new problems Dissatisfaction with present model when it proves unable to meet current needs Creation of new model – which in turn becomes standard
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Impact: displacement from central position in biological kingdom. By readjusting perception to see humans as biological organisms, the way was paved for contemporary research into human populations, medicine, etc. Evolution acquired a new definition as a result of Darwin’s insight into its mechanism Third Revolution: Freudian revolution Prior to Freud, the prevailing concept of consciousness was Cartesian in nature: following Descartes’ dictum “I think therefore I am,” it was held that we are capable of full self conscious reflection, i.e., rationality. Freud showed that much of what we do is unconscious and we construct narratives to justify our actions afterwards; and that our minds also create defense mechanisms to protect ourselves from threats The fourth revolution: the infosphere (Florini 2014) Historically, in all human cultures, information flow and management has been a constant, from the time of the first paintings all the way through to the age of the Internet key difference in the time of the Infosphere is that much of this information flow and management is now mediated by devices of increasing complexity These devices (computers) replicate several thought processes such as logical and fuzzy reasoning, complex calculations, etc. autonomously
Copernicus and Galileo as subversives Copernicus’ and Galileo’s work brings us to the third and fourth stages of Kuhn’s scientific revolutions: Dissatisfaction with current models Creating new ones, which in turn become current standards No new idea is promoted in a vacuum: new ideas are often contested and in some cases suppressed, though not successfully
Historical note on the computer Early definition of the computer: a person who performs calculations (late 19th century until early 20th century US Civil Service exam for position of computer (1890) included the following: orthography, penmanship, copying, letter writing, algebra, geometry, logarithms, and trigonometry Contemporary computer: a device that can perform complex calculations and other tasks autonomously (except for self-consciousness)
Summary of the three revolutions First Revolution: the Copernican revolution take note of the Galileo documentary and the lecture on the shift from geocentrism to heliocentrism Copernicus’ work – De Revolutionibus Orbium Celestium (On The Revolutions of Celestial Bodies) Impact: displacement of the Earth from the center of European cosmology. This forced a rethinking of the place of humanity in the cosmos, a revision of cosmology as it were Second Revolution: Darwinian revolution
Impact of the fourth revolution Shift in perception of humanity in addition to biological organism, an informational organism or inforg mutually connected in an informational environment (the infosphere) Delegation of several tasks to digital agents, including memories Awareness of living our lives digitally; transitions from offline to online lives (note the impact internet outage has had on operations in the University)
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De-individualized – becoming a kind of Re-identified – a crossing point of many kinds of Personalization and customization: look at your social media pages Revision of privacy Physical privacy –freedom from intrusion and interference Mental privacy – freedom from psychological intrusion and interference Decisional privacy – freedom from procedural interference and intrusion Informational privacy – freedom from interference and intrusion From privacy to transparency: how much information is given away, willingly and unwillingly Privacy is a function of informational friction: the forces that oppose the flow of information: the greater the friction the more privacy to be had Change in concept of anonymity (the unavailability of certain kinds of information) Empowerment Inclusivity? Improvement in quality and quantity of choices Our cultures here in the Philippines put a premium on interpersonal relationships (Tagalog: makatao, pakikipagkapwa) How has the infosphere reshaped or modified the kinds of relationships that have been traditionally passed on through face-to-face interaction? Consider that starting from the 90s onwards, the cellphone is one of the most ubiquitous features of daily Filipino life: and that in terms of volume of texting, Philippines is next to Malaysia
Science and its symbols Science is both a thing in itself (a method of inquiry) and a cultural activity As a cultural activity, science is laden with symbols that mean different things to different people. The picture of the flasks, beakers and other containers are associated with laboratory work, itself a popular symbol of scientific activity. These items themselves evoke a sense of mystery and wonder: what are these substances and what do they do? Power and fear One of the popular associations with science is that of power over life and death. Dr. Victor Frankenstein and his assistant Igor Based upon the novel Frankenstein, the story revolves around the themes of fear, power and arrogance and the cost to the human soul
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Dr. Frankenstein dared to play the role of God as Creator Science as a discipline seeks to make known what is unknown; and yet, this very quality is not fully understood on the general level This mysterious quality is rendered fearsome in some genres of popular culture, such as dystopian and horror movies and literature
Good and evil It is scientists that bring the questions of good and evil into the act of doing science not all of the so-called evil or mad scientists were actually that way in the beginning Superboy and Lex Luthor Superman is himself depicted as a scientist, maintaining and working in a laboratory in his Fortress of Solitude Science becomes a tool for his mission of protecting the weak and bringing down the evil Kal-El (Superman’s Kryptonian identity) preserved what his father had sent with him of Kryptonian science and technology and uses this in his ongoing mission to protect his foster home Between beast and man ambivalent attitude towards science is (respect for its products, fear of the dangers) is captured in two classic fictional characters, Mr. Hyde (The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde by Robert Louis Stevenson) and The Incredible Hulk (Marvel Comics) Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde Dr. Jekyll drinks a potion that transforms him into Mr. Hyde, a beastly character capable of great destruction The Incredible Hulk Dr. Bruce Banner is saturated with gamma radiation when saving the life of a teenager during the test of a prototype nuclear weapon Hulk, a brutish oversized humanoid figure characterized by incredible strength and agility but having little of Bruce Banner’s personality residing within. Banner transforms into the Hulk during periods of emotional stress similar themes – beast and man, good and evil, risk and responsibility At their heart is the power of science and scientific knowledge to transform from one to the other The Laboratory iconic representation of science at work is the laboratory
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place where strange and wonderful things happen arena where the battle against ignorance and the struggle to push forward against the unknown are played out
The (slightly) mad scientists reboot of Ghostbusters remakes the theme of the mad/eccentric scientist, also known as the nutty professor feature science and scientists as saviors of the world The evil (and capitalistic) scientist Despicable Me evil scientist trope is further accentuated by the barely competent sidekicks, as in the case of the Minions depicts the evil scientist as having a heart of gold Real scientists and movie scientists Real science is more mundane and pedestrian, although not without its more dramatic moments
Introduction introduces the cultural definitions of anatomy (aka folk anatomy), body image and physiology to demonstrate how concepts of the body and its functioning are actually based on cultural ways of knowing, as contrasted with medical knowledge Fundamental premise The body is not solely a biological artifact It is also mediated by culture: we interpret our bodies through culture What is culture? set of beliefs, rules of behavior and customary behaviors maintained, practiced and transmitted in a given society Different cultures may be found in a society as a whole or in its segments – for example, in its ethnic groups or social classes a set of guidelines (both explicit and implicit) that individuals inherit as members of a particular society, and that tell them how to view the world, how to experience it emotionally, and how to behave in it in relation to other people, to supernatural forces or gods, and to the natural environment
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also provides them with a way of transmitting these guidelines to the next generation by the use of symbols, language, art and ritual culture can be seen as an inherited “lens” through which the individual perceives and understands the world that he inhabits and learns how to live within it In general, culture accounts for meanings: the interpretation of personal experiences through cultural lenses. includes how people see and feel about the body within their cultural frameworks
Philippine cultural themes Personalistic Familistic Paternalistic The relevance of cultural knowledge In biology and in related disciplines such as medicine, there is a tendency to see the human body from the perspective of technology, as machine or mechanism In reality, this view is one among various cultural models of the body that will be explored Folk anatomy refers to the local knowledge and understanding of the body, its parts and the general functioning of the body, including an ideology or belief system about what the body is and what it does includes the local definitions of optimal shapes, sizes, surfaces, limb proportion, body boundaries and clothing, the body’s inner structure and how the body functions These definitions communicate information about the individual’s age, gender, social status and even economic capability Helman’s model Beliefs about the optimal shape and size of the body, including clothing and decoration of its surface Beliefs about the boundaries of the body Beliefs about the body’s inner structure Beliefs about how the body functions Images of the body based on a relationship between the individual body (the body-self) and the social body that provides the framework for interpretation and control of all aspects of the individual body Individual body
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individual body (katawan) is what we all have: our sense of being corporeal; what we identify immediately with our sense of physical self
Social body On an individual level, the socially interpreted body: the associated images, symbols and meanings intimately linked both with our image of the body and with its various parts. (Mary Douglas) Examples of body images To be “malusog” is to be healthy. “Malusog” can mean able-bodied (“malusog ang katawan”), in good condition (“mabuti ang katawan”) or being sound physically, emotionally and mentally (“matipuno ang katawan”). But malusog can also be a slang term for being fat or obese. Limb proportions shape and proportion of the limbs not only indicate a person’s general condition but also aesthetic appreciation of the body and its appearance Mahaba ang kamay (thief); maikli ang kamay; walang kamay; Daliring hubog-kandila; Binting dalaga; binting dalag; binting tikling; binting puro diyes; sakang; piki Magpantay ang paa (carried out dead); paang luya; bapor ang paa. Clothing and the body forms a part of the local beliefs about health, illness and the body has multiple meanings: on one hand, it can serve as an indicator of social status, and on the other hand, it plays a role in the belief system Ex. wet clothing (from the rain or from perspiration) can cause colds Altering the body body alteration have social functions: they can indicate membership in a social class, transition in life stages, conformity or rejection, and so on Filing and carving of teeth (Mindanao) Tattooing (Cordillera, urban areas) Male and female circumcision Diet and exercise (Urban areas) The body beautiful Cultural standards of beauty vary greatly among cultures Western countries: for females – slim, hourglass-shaped body, oval face; for males, V-shaped body, slim hips, high cheekbones has spread to many non-Western countries, including the Philippines
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In Pilipino, the root word of beauty is ganda. To be beautiful is to be maganda. Maganda for women involves long hair, clear and fair skin, well-proportioned limbs and face. Magandang lalaki connotes muscularity, being well-proportioned, dynamism, strength, vitality, as also captured in the terms matipuno, makisig, matikas
Philippine mythology and the body beautiful full of imagery depicting this very idealized form of the human body Women have extraordinarily long hair, reaching to their ankles; men have hair up to their shoulders. Women have fair skin while men are supposed to be darker Ex. Mariang Makiling The body beautiful Standards of beauty reflect different criteria placed upon the worth of people. A slim body according to Western categories may be based on ideas of desire and sexuality; a plump body is considered desirable in other countries as this is a sign of wealth and affluence Consequences Particular cultural models of the body can lead to practices that in the long run are viewed by many in the medical profession as dangerous: anorexia and bulimia on the one hand, and obesity on the other Skin(s) defines the body’s boundaries; it is a casing for the flesh, bones and blood; and the canvas on which society writes its rules symbolic in that it defines the boundaries we set for each other can be modified by choice or circumstances – emotional states, diseases, surgery, treatments, etc. Local skin(s) – a sampler Skin colors: nog-nog, kulay tutong, kaligatan (coffee), morena, kape’t gatas, maputi, anak ng engkanto, anak ng araw Social skins – balat sibuyas, balat kalabaw Skin blemishes – nunal, bungang araw, taghiyawat, kulugo, buni, an-an, pigsa, galis, beke, tigdas, bulutong tubig Skins and boundaries Some skins can be invisible; that is, they are symbolic in that they are indicators of social identity, such as personal spaces and distances
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Intimate distance – can be entered by those who have an intimate physical relationship with the individual Personal distance – less intimate, but still within the zone of personal space Social distance – the zone of impersonal business and casual social interactions Public distance – where no social or personal interaction takes place
The inner structure of the body Beliefs about the internal organs reflect local cosmology, especially the ways in which humans fit into the order of the universe internal organs also provide a rich source of metaphors for social relationships. The body as container: ethnographic evidence shows that in many local communities, there is an underlying image of the body as a container or house. spirit can leave the body, hence nawawala sa sarili. The body can be entered; hence, nasaniban, sinapian. Inner structure: body as fortress Western popular discourse, health is often framed using the discourse of war and conflict. Thus, the body is seen as a fortress and the immune system as the armed forces Anthropologist Emily Martin links these images to a particular historical situation in the mid-20th century: the Cold War period, a global polarization between the USA and its allies and the then Soviet Union Inevitably, this polarization began to create the framework on which images of health and illness were created Body as car engine Automotive metaphors have been used to describe the body and its functioning – the heart as the fuel pump, the carburetor as the lungs, the stomach as the fuel tank, and of course the exhaust pipe or tambutso as Seats of emotions In many cultures, the heart is the seat of emotions such as love, hatred and sadness. It also stands for power In many cultures in the SEA region, the liver fulfills a similar role. (ati – Malay: atay – Tagalog) Thus, in Tagalog, we have pighati and dalamhati for states of grief and sadness. Luwalhati signifies the expulsion of grief and sadness (luwal – expel)
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The heart gradually replaced the liver as one of the seats of emotions, especially for love and hate, probably as a result of the Spanish influence Ex. pusong mamon, pusong bato; magkapuso, pinupusuan; taos-puso; walang puso; The stomach and intestines are also associated with disgust and pleasure Ex. bumaliktad ang tiyan, di masikmura;
Circulatory system circulatory system (ugat), from a Western perspective is metaphorically conceived of as a road network, in resonance with the history of industrialism red blood cells (RBCs) are carriers, like trucks, that deliver the vital needs to all points. Again, note the industrial metaphor Seats of emotions head is linked to emotional states such as anger and embarrassment and to mental states such as rationality and irrationality Ex. mainit ang ulo; nanlilisik ang mata; namumula ang tenga; pumapalakpak ang tenga; wala sa isip; walang isip; maluwang ang turnilyo limbs are also associated with emotional states Ex. Freudian slip (when applied to dropping objects from the hands); pumapadyak (when crying or displaying extreme emotional stress) Internal organs outer expressions Nalamigan ang tiyan; mainit ang ulo; heat and cold in relation to the internal organs. Kumukulo ang tiyan; butas ang tiyan; metaphors for hunger or other felt conditions. Hindi masikmura; magkapuso; pusong mamon; taos-puso; bumaliktad ang bituka; dalamhati, pighati, luwalhati; metaphors for relationships and emotions The body as process Cultural views of the body also include ideas about how the body functions, the effect of outside influences such as diet and environment and the nature and disposal of the body’s byproducts Age -
Bodily appearance is linked to chronological age. Ex. mukhang bata, parang di tumatanda, kalabaw lang ang tumatanda, you don’t look your age!
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Ex. terms of address – manong, manang to people with white hair
Gender Biological sex is linked to gender in terms of correspondence; biological male equated to social male, biological female equated to social female. Gender however can also be contested: thus, babaeng maton, lalaking malambot. Gay/lesbian gender roles add another dimension to the linkage between biological sex and gender definitions Economic status Physical appearance is also linked to economic status: Physiologically, this may be explained by the fact that people with more economic resources have access to better diet and medical care. But physical appearance has also been linked to one’s place in society Ex. hindi naaarawan (fair skinned, never touched by the sun); kung mahirap ka, nognog, kung mayaman ka, tanned; kung mahirap ka, tabachingching, kung mayaman ka, plump; kung mahirap ka, payatot, kung mayaman ka, slim Moral meanings Folk anatomy also includes the moral meanings associated with various areas of the body discussion of particular body parts may evoke embarrassment, e.g., genitals (ari, kuwan, yung ano) and breasts [in the case of females] (suso, boobs, bumpers, dyoga) Local rules of privacy often center on which parts of the body have to remain hidden and to whom can they be safely exposed. This can be highlighted in the complete physical examination, wherein the entire body is subject to the physician’s gaze. Such a process can be uncomfortable for the patient, even if the doctor and patient are of the same sex. Rules of touch Because the body is also couched with various social and moral meanings, there are also safe areas for touching the body as well as modes of touch that are imbued with meaning. Examples: on the arms (safe area) Examples of modes of touch: hawak, kalabit Bodily processes (physiology)
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As a whole, bodily processes are described in metaphors having to do with harmony and balance. Init and lamig refer to the balance of forces within the body. For the body to function properly, the balance must be maintained at all times.
The body and environment Init/lamig is an example of how the body is perceived to interact with the environment. Diet: some foods are perceived to be mainit and therefore not good for sick people, while others are malamig and therefore should be eaten. Some activities are mainit – encoding; to wash hands immediately is to risk pasma. Pregnancy Pregnancy in the Philippine setting is couched within a wide set of beliefs and related practices concerning the body and its function In some communities, the mixture of blood of both parents is the reason why pregnancy occurs, and why in turn, discourses on pregnancy are tied to discourses on blood and ethnicity (lahi) Dietary and other restrictions are imposed on pregnant women in order to ensure the health of the child Waste products and their elimination Waste products are created as a byproduct of the ongoing processes. Biologically speaking, waste matter is neutral; culturally speaking, waste matter is encoded with symbols that evoke strong emotional reactions such as disgust. Ex. feces (tae, ebs, ebak, jebs), urine (ihi, weewee), sweat (pawis) – always someone else’s sweat, saliva (laway) Body and meaning The body reflects local cosmology, that is, a way of looking at the universe. Body parts are endowed with symbolic meanings as seen in folklore. The body is a map of illness: various parts of the body serve as indicators of illness. Sensations are also culturally interpreted and given particular significance Bodily cosmology In local mythologies, the body is the model of the universe. Ex: creation of the world; the origin of rice;
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Bodies also undergo changes with the changes in the seasons – and with these changes may come susceptibilities to sicknesses. Ex: masamang hangin or bad air: reference to association between seasons and the outbreak of sicknesses.
Bodily meanings in folklore Physical features may indicate special powers, such as being able to see spirits if one has small eyes. Physical features may also carry moral significance, e.g., nunal sa _____. Organs are defined in terms of folklore, such as nasa dugo (passing through the blood).
The body as a map of illness Various locations on the body serve as indicators of illness For example, the forehead and neck are often the first areas touched to see if there is fever present. Nalamigan ang sikmura may indicate _____ (for discussion). Certain forms of locally defined illnesses may be associated with various body parts. Ex: pasma – hands; natuyuan (TB) – lungs; kulebra (herpes) – skin; nahamugan – exposed to dew – chills; pilay – dislocation of the joints, something causing fever and minor ailments – internal organs; Sensations Sensations are culturally interpreted and given significance in different domains. Nangangati ang kamay Mainit ang ulo Uhaw (how many domains?) Nanghihina Concepts of health and illness The body is characterized as being malusog (healthy) or may sakit (ill). Kalusugan is the state of being well or free from sickness. Sakit is a general term that includes both the sensation of being sick, suffering and of pain. Kalusugan Lusog can also mean the full development of the body. It is also synonymous to lakas or strength. Other languages: kabaskog (Hiligaynon); mashud (Magindanaw); lusug (Kapampangan) Sakit Sakit is the general term for illness, suffering and pain. Karamdaman is a synonym for sakit as illness.
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Sakit can also have a very specific meaning, such as nausea or vomiting. It is also synonymous with suya (tired of) and lungkot (sadness). In other languages Suffering: dusa (Tagalog); rigrigat (Ilokano); irap (Kapampangan). Pain: sakit in Hiligaynon, Ilokano, Magindanaw, Tausug, etc. Commonly heard phrases in relation to Sakit Ethical/moral judgment – manakit; baka makasakit. Pain – kay sakit, nasaktan, masakit, di na masakit, wala nang sakit. Illnesses – sakit na nakakahawa, sakit na tuyo, sakit ng: dibdib, ngipin, mata, sikmura, ulo, tiyan; sakit sa: atay, baga, bato, bituka, puso. Emotions – sakit sa: loob, dibdib
The body in time Monochronic time – linear clock time imposed on the body and its processes Polychronic time – where personal relationships and interactions take place Calendrical time – based on the cycles of the natural world – days, weeks, months National time – specific to nation states Religious time – time cycle related to religious practices Bureaucratic time – institutional time, which can include mandatory retirement Social relationship time – specific dates in an individual’s personal social network which need to be commemorated and which in turn can cause reactions such as anxiety and depression i.e., on death anniversaries Disability / differently abled Impairment – lacking part or all of a limb or having a defective limb or other bodily mechanism Disability – social and other disadvantages imposed on people with physical impairments Disability is thus not simply a physical problem but a socially constructed one Disability and stigma Due to misconceptions and prejudices about the kind of disability Dependent on Type of impairment Socio-economic position of the person and family Types of rehabilitation or treatment available
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Technological and social organization of the society
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Positive aspects of disability Certain types of social roles are open to disabled persons. For some, a disability is a path to certain powers Blindness – and musical ability is an example
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Disability and its causes In many countries, supernatural forces are often seen as the cause for disability In many communities in the Philippines, an impersonal retribution is seen as the reason why certain disabilities are inflicted, i.e., gaba among the Bisaya Congenital conditions are often attributed to supernatural explanations. New bodies Composite bodies – with artificial replacements Cyborgs – fusions of humans and machines, i.e., artificial organs Virtual bodies – located in cyberspace, based on conceptualizing the body as information. This includes the new sense of body boundaries extended into cyberspace such as through chat, Skype, etc. If the machine at times serves as the model of the human body, the reverse is also true – the body can serve as the model of the machine. As a literary genre, science fiction explores the different implications of this mimicry of the human form, with various results. Brains and life Apart from the heartbeat, brain function is a commonly held indicator, culturally and medically, of life. Culturally speaking, this is rooted in a shared notion of the person. Defining brain death is at once a medical issue and at the same time a cultural one External wombs New advances in reproductive technology mean that it is now possible for ovulation, fertilization and pregnancy to take place in three different bodies. Artificial wombs are now being discussed, although several technological breakthroughs need to take place first. Transplants and the trade in human body parts
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The recent boom in organ transplants has resulted in the commodification of body parts for transplantation. Reasons include: Economic need (especially in the Philippines) The concept of spare organs, especially where these are in pairs, i.e., kidneys The concept of replaceable organs, i.e., teeth replaced with pustiso. The fear of death, especially on the part of the recipient. This is actually a powerful cultural force as well. Part of what makes the issue complex is that organs are never just simply packages of tissue – they are also powerful symbols of cultural norms and beliefs, hence either facilitating the transplant or else causing resistance
The role of language From the preceding sections, we can see that language plays a major role in how the body is defined and interpreted. Local terms have meanings, which in turn guide interpretations of the body and therefore how people act towards the body. Meanings may change over time, however, due to accumulation of experience. Cultural meanings Anthropologists in general recognize that meanings: Can be inferred from local people’s experiences (emic) Can be a lens with which to interpret other’s experiences (etic) Meanings can also be either Experience near: ...what a person...might himself naturally and effortlessly use to define what he or his fellows see, feel, think, imagine, and so on, and which he would readily understand when similarly applied by others, e.g., love Experience-distant: ...one that specialists of one sort or another...employ to forward their scientific, philosophical or practical aims, e.g., object cathexis The dark side.... Given all of these, what are we to make of a recent and disturbing phenomenon in cyberspace, namely the proliferation in social media of the Bible Study Ni Pastor Hokage (a general name with many variations)? This originated on FB as a closed/private group whose members (mostly male) upload pictures of
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young women, many without their consent, on group chats and on the page itself. Some of the women in these pictures are fully clothed; some are scantily clothed; and some are nude. Members upload pictures (called ambag or donation); the audience responds with often sexually suggestive remarks; and also commenting Amen! or Hymen! These activities were exposed and condemned online by groups such as Catcalled In The Philippines; as a result, page administrators began changing names and/or shutting down their pages and opening new ones in order to continue their activities On the one hand, advances in ICT have enabled the creation of widespread communities such as the BSOPH; On the other hand, the same ICT has also enabled their activities to be called out and denounced/ The internet has provided a new platform by which to contest the different images of the body, based on the moral, legal and ethical dimensions. Note: Hokage comes from the popular anime, Naruto; kage means shadow, and the term is applied to the ninja or the shadow warriors. A hokage is the highest ranking ninja, very skilled and experienced in ninjutsu (and also the oldest survivor). The link between ninja and sexual harassment is this: what was called tsansing (i.e., taking chances with touching a girl without her consent) is now known as ninja moves, i.e., the physical part of dumadamoves Note: Hokage as applied here is actually a violation of RA 7877, the Sexual Harassment Act. As of this time, investigations by law enforcement into the BSOPH and similar activities is ongoing.
