Social Groupwork, Community Organization & Social Action - Notes

Working with Groups & Community

2012

FOURTH SEMESTER SW 4 B 05 - WORKING WITH GROUPS & COMMUNITY Social Group

A common conceptualization of the small group drawn from the social work literature is “...a social system consisting of two or more persons who stand in status and role relationships with one another and possessing a set of norms or values which regulate the attitudes and behaviours of the individual members in matters of consequence to the group. A group is a system of relationship among persons. Therefore, group as a social system has a structure and some degree of stability in interaction, reciprocity, interdependence and group bond. Open social systems do not exist in a vacuum; they are part of and transact with their surroundings”. Thus group is a collection of people who need each other in order to work on certain common tasks, and the social group work(er) provides a hospitable environment (agency setting) to achieve those tasks.” Definition

Conceiving of a group as a dynamic whole should include a definition of group that is based on interdependence of the members (or better, the subparts of the group). Kurt Lewin (1951: 146) A group is a collection of individuals who have relations to one another that make them interdependent to some significant degree. As so defined, the term group refers to a class of social social entitie entitiess having having in common common the propert property y of interde interdepend pendenc encee among among their their constit constituen uentt members. Dorwin Cartwright and Alvin Zander (1968: 46) Types of Groups

There There are vario various us ways ways of class classify ifying ing grou groups ps,, for for exam example ple in term termss of their their purp purpos osee or structure, but two sets of categories have retained their usefulness for both practitioners and researchers. They involve the distinctions between: 1. Primary and Secondary groups; and 2. Planned and Emergent groups.

Primary and and Secondary Groups Charle Charless Horton Horton Cooley Cooley (1909) (1909) establi establishe shed d the distinc distinction tion betwee between n 'primar 'primary y groups groups'' and 'nucleated groups' (now better known as secondary groups): Primary groups are clusters of people like families or close friendship circles where there is close, face-to-face and intimate interaction. There is also often a high level of interdependence interdependence between between members. Primary groups groups are also the key means of socialization in society, society, the main place where where attitudes, attitudes, values values and and orientations orientations are developed developed and and sustained. sustained. Characteristics:

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Mrs. Jinu Abraham, As Asst. Pr Professor, Social Wo Work Dept., LI LISSAH


2012

Physical proximity Small in size Stability Similar status Self interest towards group Mutual sharing between individuals Secondary groups are those in which members are rarely, if ever, all in direct contact. They are often large and usually formally organized. Trades unions and membership organizations such as the National Trust are examples of these. They are an important place for socialization, but secondary to primary groups. Characteristics: Large in size Formal and impersonal relationship Active & Inactive Indirect relationship Goal oriented State of individual This This distinct distinction ion remains remains helpful helpful – especia especially lly when when thinkin thinking g about about what what enviro environme nments nts are signific significant ant when when consid considerin ering g sociali socializatio zation n (the proces processs of learning learning about about how to become become members of society through internalizing social norms and values; and by learning through performing performing our different social roles). The distinction distinction helps to explain the limited impact of schooling in important areas of social life (teachers rarely work in direct way with primary groups) and of some of the potential of informal educators and social pedagogues (who tend to work with both secondary and primary groups - sometimes with families, often with close friendship circles). Planned and Emergent Emergent Groups Groups Alongside discussion of primary and secondary groups, came the recognition that groups tend to fall into one of two broad categories:

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Planned groups. Planned groups are specifically formed for some purpose – either by their members, or by some external individual, group or organization. Emergent groups. Emergent groups come into being relatively spontaneously where people find themselves themselves together in the same place, or where the same collection of people gradually gradually come to know each other through conversation and interaction over a period of time. (Cartwright and Zander 1968). As Forsyth (2006: 6) has put it ‘People found planned groups, but they often find emergent groups’. Sometimes writers use the terms 'formed' groups and 'natural groups' to describe the same broad distinction – but the term 'natural' is rather misleading. The development of natural groups might well involve some intention on the part of the actors. More recently the distinction between formed and emergent groups has been further developed by asking asking whether whether the group is formed formed by internal internal or external forces. forces. Thus, Thus, Arrow et. al (2000) (2000) have split planned groups into ‘concocted’ (planned by people and organizations outside the group) and ‘founded’ (planned by a person or people who are in the group). They also divided emergent groups into ‘circumstantial’ (unplanned and often temporary groups that develop when external forces bring people together e.g. people in a bus queue) and ‘self-organizing’ (where people gradually cooperate and engage with each other around some task or interest). Social Group Work

Social group work is a method of social work which develops the ability of individuals through group activities. It is a distinct way of helping individuals in groups based upon and growing out of the knowledge, knowledge, understanding understanding and skill that is general to all social work practice. Social group work is concerned with the social development of individuals. Practice of group work requires a deep knowledge about how humans interact in groups. Definition

“Social group work is a psycho-social process which is concerned no less than with developing leadership ability and cooperation than with building on the interests of the group for a social purpose.” purpose.” ( Hamilton Hamilton – 1949). “Social group work is a method method through which individuals in groups in social agency settings are helped by worker who guides their interaction in programme activities so that they may relate themselves to others and experience growth opportunities in accordance with their needs and capacities.” (Trecker (Trecker – – 1955). “As an educational process generally carried as an in leisure time with voluntary groups with the aid of a group leader under the auspice (support) of an agency for the satisfaction of the social needs of individuals and for the development of legitimate group goals.” ( Stroup – 1960) “Social group work is a method of social work, which helps individuals to enhance their social functioning through purposeful group experiences and to cope more effectively with their personal, personal, group group and community community problems problems.” .” ( Konopka) Konopka)

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Historical Developments in America

Social group work began as 'group work' with its own unique history and heroes. It was not part of the mainstream of professional social work, which in the early days was synonymous with casework, as far as the method was concerned. The ideological roots of social group work were in the self-help and informal recreational organisations, such as YMCA, YWCA settlement, scouting, Jewish Centres in U.S.A. and democratic ideals that all should share in the benefits of society society followi following ng the Industri Industrial al Revolu Revolutio tion. n. Social Social group group work work was also also influen influenced ced by progressive progressive education education as it developed developed in Europe Europe and stressed stressed the use modern and liberal techniques in group learning. The major thrust of early early groupgroup-ser serving ving agencies agencies was toward toward the normal normal rather rather than the maladjusted person who would seek service primarily during his 'leisure' hours. He came for recreation, education, enjoyment and the development of special skills and interests. Group work was then not geared towards individuals with particular problems. The person with severe problems problems who appeared in the group group was incorporated as much as possible possible with his peers or was referred for individual attention to a casework agency or psychiatric clinic. The first course in group work was offered by the Western Reserve University in the U.S.A. in the early 1930s. 1930s. There was then great preoccupation preoccupation and focus on the activity and programme programme of the group. This, unfortunately, in many ways held back the flowering of group work as a theoretically sound method within social work. In 1935 Grace Coyle, as the Chairman of the newly established section of social group work of the National Conference of Social Work, began to clarify that group work was a method within social work and that recreation and education were other fields (professions) which might include group work as a method. The The focu focuss then then gradu graduall ally y move moved d from from doing doing activ activiti ities es to talkin talking g activ activiti ities es whic which h was was unders understoo tood d at that that time as leading leading more more quickl quickly y towards towards self-un self-under dersta standin nding, g, insight insight and behavioural behavioural change. change. In the 1940s, with the efforts of persons such as Grace Coyle, Clara Kaiser, Wilber Newsetter, Gertrude Wilson and Helen Phillips, group work was more fully rooted within the profession of social work and began to be taught in many more schools in the USA. Soon the American Association of Group Workers was established, which brought out regular ly a professional publication publication called The Group. Several new text-books text-books had been published published that served to formalise the thinking of the day. By the early 1950s the method developed its own distinctiveness and was introduced in most schools of social work throughout the U.S.A., Great Britain, Canada and other parts of the world. Social group work now wrested itself from the field of social psychology and also distinguished its methodology from group psychotherapy. It moved into many 'specialized' settings previously reserved for the practice of casework to serve problem clients. It developed a refined and sophisticated set of techniques as the National Association of Social Workers and the Council of Social Work Education produced new documents and publications in group work. Gisella Konopka, William Schwartz and Dorothea Spellman were the new group work

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writers. They urged that group work cease following the path of casework development and move to identify and elaborate its own therapy and practice. Thus group work obtained a new depth and vision. Its competence is reserved neither for dysfunctioning individuals alone nor for the range of services to maximise potentials; it can be used for a range of services. In the late 1960s, Ruth Smalley's new text book "Theory for Social Work Practice" whose uniqueness rests in the fact that it is the first book to present a unified theory applicable to casework, group work work and and comm commun unity ity orga organis nisati ation on,, made made a brea breakth kthro roug ugh h in socia sociall work work educ educati ation on by emphas emphasizin izing g the common commonalit alities ies of the three three method methods. s. The sevent seventies ies and eightie eightiess saw the method method of group group work work being being utilise utilised d in new innovatio innovations ns such such as the laborat laboratory ory method method,, sensitivity training, encounter groups and many movements like trans-actional analysis, gestalt therapy and so forth. Other Influences that shaped Social Group Work Practice Historically, we can distinguish many significant thought systems developed in the western hemisphere, particularly in America and Europe, which have given direction and content to the conceptual framework of social group work from its inception till the present date. These are: 1. The ethical, social and theistic beliefs embodied in the Judeo-Christian religions; 2. The humanitarian thinking of the late nineteenth century which found expression in the social settlement movement in England and later in America; 3. The educational philosophy of John Dewey and his followers who formulated the theories of progressive progressive educatio education; n; 4. The theories of certain early sociologists, particularly Durkheim, Simmel, Cooley and Mead, who saw in the small group the key to studying the relation of the individual to society; 5. Recent basic research in small group theory by social scientists such as Kurt Lewin, Moreno, Elton, Mayo and Merton; 6. Contemporary developments such as the interaction theory which conceives of the group as a system of interacting individuals, the system theory which views the group as a system of orientat orientation, ion, interloc interlocking king positio positions ns and roles, roles, Commun Communicat ication ion and equilib equilibrati rating ng proces processes ses,, empiristic statistical orientation which maintains that the concept of group dynamics should be discovered from statistical procedures rather than pure theory, and makes considerable use of procedures procedures developed in the field of personality personality testing, and formal models orientation which attempts to construct these models with the aid of mathematics in order to deal vigorously with some -rather limited aspects of groups; 7. The democratic ethic not only as it applies to a political system, but as it permeates all forms of social relationships, and as expressed in the writings of authors such as Mary Follet and Edward C. Lindeman;

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8. General General psycho psycholog logy y orientat orientation ion wherein wherein the influence influence of each each of the major major theorie theoriess of motivation, learning and perception can be seen, important contributions to the study of groups having been made in this area by Asch, Festinger, Heider and Krech and Crutchfield; 9. The psychoanalytic school of psychiatry initiated by Freud resulting in a growing interest in group psychotherapy elaborated by writers such as Bion, Schiedlinger, Stock and Thelen; 10. The liberation theories especially those of Paulo Freire, and the culture of silence which have arisen in Latin America; 11. The school of liberation theology in the last decade (giving new interpretations to the Bible and Christian doctrine in the light of prevalent socio-economic structures) which has inspired and fostered activist movements amongst the Christian missionaries; 12. The values, principles and methods of social work as the profession within which social group work as a method has developed. Historical Developments in India

India has a long history of social work and social welfare. There is evidence of the group approach approach being being used used in charity charity,, impartin imparting g religio religious us educati education on throug through h the oral traditio tradition, n, mobilising the people for the freedom struggle against the British, social reform and, more recently recently,, in typical typically ly indige indigenou nouss welfare welfare strateg strategies ies such such as the Sarvod Sarvodaya aya and Bhooda Bhoodan n movements. However, the history of group work as a method of social work practice can be seen only in the context of social work education in India. Group work began with the founding of the first School School of Social Work in 1936, viz, the Sir Dorabji Dorabji Tata Graduate Graduate School of Social Work. In 1947-48 the second school school was established established in Delhi and, for the first time, as part of an already already establi establishe shed d Univer University sity.. This This is signific significant ant because because it meant meant recogni recognition tion of the academic academic status of social work education, and of group group work as one of its courses. courses. Within less than two years a third school was established as part of the University of Baroda, which had a fairly strong sequence in group work. It developed and published some of the first records of group work practice in India in 1960. The Associa Association tion of School Schoolss of Social Social Work Work in India, India, jointly jointly with with Techni Technical cal Cooper Cooperatio ation n Mission Mission (U.S. A) laid down minimum standards for group group work. Throughout Throughout India in schools schools of social work, group work found a place in all of them along casework and community organisation. There was no specialisation in the methods courses as in American social work education. The theoretical framework and its practice model was mainly American and until recently, few attempts were made to indigenize it. Group work which could have played a significant role in some of the major social development programmes launched in the earlier plans remained remained ineffective, ineffective, since the relationships relationships between between social work education education and these programmes programmes were at best peripheral peripheral and the points of contact and integration integration are only now being appreciated appreciated and to some extent taking place. Furthermore, Furthermore, because because of the location of schools schools of social work in urban areas, professional professional group group work practice remained, remained, until recent times, primarily urban.

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Objectives of Group Work

Group work helps to achieve the overall objectives of social work through its own specific objectives which are: to assist individuals in their maturation; provide provide supplement supplemental al emotional emotional and social nourish nourishment; ment; promote promote democratic democratic participation participation and citizenship citizenship;; and reme remedy dy indiv individu idual al and and socia sociall diso disorg rgani anisa satio tion n or malad maladjus justm tmen entt throu through gh grou group p intervention strategies. Purpose of Social Work with Groups

In 1964 the Committee on Practice of the Group Work Section of the National Association of Social Workers proposed that group work was applicable for the following purposes: corrective/treatment; prevention; prevention; normal social growth and development; personal personal enhancement; enhancement; and and citizenship indoctrination. Common needs addressed by social work groups include: coping with major life transitions; the need to acquire information or skills; the need to improve social relationships; the need to cope with illness; the need to cope with feelings of loss or loneliness. Principles of Social Group Work

While group work shares with other methods of social work, generic principles such as respect for the individual, non-judgemental attitude and objectivity, out of its own philosophy and skill evolve basic principles specific to this method which guide the worker. Change is brought about through the establishment establishment of purposeful purposeful growth-producing growth-producing relationships relationships between the

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worker and group members and among the members themselves. Sometimes this may require an approp appropriat riatee modifica modification tion of the group group interact interactiona ionall proces processs and its compon component entss (such (such as bond, bond, leadership, leadership, isolation, isolation, scapegoating, scapegoating, sub-groups sub-groups,, conflict, hostility hostility and contagion) contagion) to create create a conduc conducive ive atmosp atmospher here. e. The group group worker worker encoura encourages ges each each member member to particip participate ate according to the stage of his capacity thus enabling him to become more capable and confident in the process of problem solving. The worker also makes judicious use of limitations to direct and control the behaviour of members to obtain the optimum interaction. Most important is the different differential ial and purpos purposefu efull use of a program programme me accordin according g to the diagnos diagnostic tic evaluat evaluation ion of individual individual members, the group purpose and appropriate social goals. Well-chosen Well-chosen programme programme medi mediaa prov provid idee oppo opport rtun unit itie iess for for a new new and and diff differ erin ing g expe experi rien ence ce in rela relati tion onsh ship ipss and and accomplishments. Group work demands an ongoing evaluation of the progress made by each individual and the group and, finally and most important of all, a warm and disciplined use of self on the part of the worker. Trecker’s 10 Principles of Social Group Work 1. The Princip Principle le of Planne Planned d Group Group Format Formation ion Group is the basic unit through which the service is provided to the individual, consequently, the agency and the worker responsible responsible for the formation formation of group group or the acceptance into the agency of already formed groups must be aware of the factors inherent in the group situation that make the given given group group a positiv positivee potenti potential al for individ individual ual growth growth and for meeting meeting recognizable needs 2. The Princip Principle le of Specific Specific Object Objectives ives Specific Specific objecti objectives ves for individ individual ual as well well as group group develo developme pment nt must must be conscio consciousl usly y formulated formulated by the worker worker in harmony with group wishes wishes and capacities and in keeping with agency function 3. The Princi Principle ple of Purpos Purposefu efull Worker Worker Group Relat Relations ionship hip A consciously purposeful relationship must be established between the worker and the group members based on the worker‘s acceptance of the group members as they are and upon the groups willingness to accept help from the worker because of the confidence the members have in him and in the agency 4. The Princ Principle iple of of Continu Continuous ous Indiv Individu idualiz alizatio ation n In group work it is recognized that groups are different and that individuals utilize group experie experience nce in a variety variety of ways ways to meet meet their their differin differing g needs; needs; conseq consequen uently tly,, continu continuous ous individualization must be practised by the worker. Groups and individuals in the group must be understoo understood d as developin developing g and changing. changing. 5. The Princip Principle le of Guided Guided Group Group Inte Interacti raction on In group work the primary source of energy which propels the group and influences the individuals to change are the interaction and reciprocal responses of the members. The group

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worker influence this interaction by the type and the quality of participation 6. The Princi Principle ple of Democ Democratic ratic Group Group Self Self Determ Determinat ination ion In group work the group must be helped to make its own decisions and determine its own activities, taking the maximum amount of responsibility in line with the capacity and ability. The primary source of control over the group is the group itself 7. The Princ Principle iple of of Flexibl Flexiblee Functio Functional nal Organ Organizat ization ion In group work, the group worker guides the group by setting up an organization to meet the group needs. The organization thus established should be understood by the group members, should be flexible and encouraged only if it meets the felt need of the members. The organization should be adaptive and should change as the group changes. 8. The Princi Principle ple of Progre Progressiv ssivee Program Programme me Experie Experiences nces In social group work, the program experiences in which the group engages should begin at the level of the member interest, need, experience and competence and should progress in relation to the developing capacity of the group. 9. The Princip Principle le of of Reso Resource urce Utilizat Utilization ion In social group work, the total environment of the agency and the community possess resources resources which should be utilized to enrich the content of group experience for individuals and for the group as a whole. 10. The Principle Principle of of Evaluation Evaluation In socia sociall grou group p work, work, conti continu nuou ouss evalu evaluati ation on of proc proces esss and and prog program ramme mess in term termss of outcomes is essential. Worker, group and agency share in this procedure as a means of guaranteeing this greatest possible self fulfilment Social Group Work Process

I. In-take (The (The Planning Phase) Pre group planning - Here the worker has to focus his thinking on the individual member i.e., consider their motivations and expectations for joining the group. This phase is subdivided into the following activities: Recru Recruiti iting ng Memb Member erss - Thro Throug ugh h the agen agency cy,, conta contacti cting ng memb member erss direc directl tly, y, acceptin accepting g referrals referrals,, throug through h mass mass media, media, meeting meeting people at church church or hall, hall, contacting other social service agencies, etc. Composing the Group - Planned group formation, considering the homogeneity and heterogeneity of the members. Orienting the Members - By means of interviews and discussions, clarifying the client’s expectations; allowing members to ask questions during the orientation

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process; process; familiarizing familiarizing the members members with the the group group procedure. procedure. Preparing the Environment - Three aspects should be considered here: 

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Physica Physicall Setting Setting - Room Room size, size, seating seating arrange arrangemen ments, ts, furnitu furniture, re, carpet, carpet, lamps, work tables etc. These physical arrangements convey the agency’s recognition of its clients’ or agency’s regard for its members. Financial Support - Expenses incurred for the arrangement of meetings or programmes, programmes, rooms and other physical physical arrangements, arrangements, etc. In case of group therapy we can collect fees from the members. Special Arrangements - Minimizing the barriers which prevent members’ attenda attendance, nce, for example example,, meeting meeting place, place, transpo transportat rtation ion,, safety safety of the meeting place, comfortable seating etc.

II. Study & Diagnosis Diagnosis (The Beginning Beginning Phase) Phase) This phase is most important because an impression gets created in this phase. The first meeting stimulates the members’ and they all have their own expectations based on their previous previous group group experience experience.. The tasks tasks involved involved in this stage are: are: Introduction of Members The introduction should not be artificial. It should make the members comfortable and it should be in a creative manner, so as to leave behind a lingering interest for its members. Common expectations may form through this introduction. Stating the purpose and functions of the group It shou should ld incl includ ude, e, pres presen enti ting ng a posi positi tive ve and and hope hopefu full imag imagee of what what can can be accomplished in the group; narration of successful experience and thus stating the purpose purpose of the group; group; giving information information about the agency; linking the agency’s functions, workers’ function etc. and if possible make a mention about the limitations of the group. Creating a climate or opportunity for members feed back Praise the member’s feelings and thoughts. Consider them seriously. Give values for their word attitudes etc. Make it clear that group is meant to serve their needs. Facilitating member’s motivation Even while stating the purpose of the group, the motivation would have taken place; narrating successful events will facilitate this motivation.

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Mrs. Ji Jinu Ab Abraham, As Asst. Pr Professor, So Social Wo Work De Dept., LI LISSAH


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Setting goals Set common goals and individual goals and if the group is a matured one then the goals can be discussed with them. III. Treatment Treatment (Middle Phase) The actual social work process takes place in this phase, it involves: a) Leading the group Preparing for group meetings - Providing the agenda and deciding the programme. Structuring the group’s work - It implies beginning and ending meetings in time. Making use of the end of the meeting for summarizing. Not including any new agenda at the end. However, However, too much emphasis on structure may decrease member member commitment and initiative. Helping members to achieve goals - Create awareness of goals or agency’s purpose. The group worker has to analyze or check or identify member’s obstacles to their development. Monitoring and evaluating the group’s progress - This implies concurrent evaluation. It requires feedback to the worker and is useful in developing and changing treatment plans. b) Intervention Intervention Intervention may be at intra-personal level, or inter-personal level or environmental level. Intra–p Intra–pers ersonal onal level: level: Here Here interve interventio ntions ns are focuse focused d on member members’ s’ values, values, beliefs, beliefs, thoughts, emotions etc. Inter-personal level: Here the focus is on members’ relationship with others. Environ Environmen mental tal level: level: Helping Helping with with material material resour resources ces or provid providing ing some some aids. aids. Sometimes referring them to some other persons. Behavior modification on the part of the family members. c) Problem-solving approach Minimizing irrational beliefs about problematic situations Creating a willingness to work on the problem Wiping out inhibiting tendencies

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Using members perceptions and experiences on the problem Brain storming and freewheeling and avoid criticism-quality emphasis. Re-arranging and improvement of ideas for deciding the treatment. IV. Ending Ending Phase It includes termination and evaluation stages. a) Termination Termination may be of two types: Planned termination and Unplanned termination. Conditions for termination: End the group when objectives are fulfilled When mutual aid and trust are strong among the member (cohesiveness) Termination can take place when member’s independent functioning is promoted to certain level. Termination may result in making referrals. b) Evaluation Evaluation (The ending ending Phase) Phase) According to Trecker, “Evaluation is that part of social group work in which the worker attempts attempts to measure measure the quality quality of group’s group’s experienc experiencee in relation relation to the objective objectivess and function of the agency”. Evaluation may be centered upon: 1. Indi Indivi vidu dual al gro growt wth, h, 2. Program content, or on 3. Worker’s performance.

Purpose of Evaluation: Evaluation is essential because it enables the worker to discover to what extent group has achieved its objectives. Evaluation enables the group to see both strengths and weaknesses and it helps to discover points at which group members need to alter their procedures. Evaluation helps to formulate new objectives and to renew unsuited objectives. Evaluation helps the group worker to adjust and modernize his methods of working

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with group. Evaluation can be stimulation to greater professional growth. Evaluation can be an extension of the learning process because its very nature is scientific and its aim is educational. Group Formation

There are a number of stages or phases in formation of a social work group. Ken Heap (1985) discussed these as group formation and planning, the first meetings, the working phase; phase; use of activities and action; and the termination termination of the Group. According According to Douglas Douglas (1979) (1979) there there are five stages stages viz; concep conceptual tualizat ization ion,, creation creation,, operati operation, on, terminat termination ion and evalution. He has discussed these as the functions of leader while Toseland and Rivas (1984) discussed the stages under planning phase, beginning phase, middle phase and ending phase. Reasons for for Group Group Formation Formation 1. Locality/Geogr Locality/Geography aphy - You may join a group group based on the fact that it is in the local area. 2. Gender – You may join a group according to whether you are a male or female based on social etiquette. 3. Shared Interest/Common Goal – These groups may form because group members have a particular interest such as a hobby, artistic or sporting talent and or a common goal. 4. Security – Being part of a group provides us with a sense of security. They may be formed in order for members to gain a feeling of security such as neighborhood watch groups. They also share a common interest.

5. Sexuali Sexuality ty – Groups Groups may be formed formed on a person’s person’s sexual sexuality. ity. For For example example gay and lesbian groups. 6. Specific Specific Needs Needs – This type type of group group forms forms in response responsess to a particular particular need, need, it may be temporary temporary and and the group disbands disbands when when the need need is met. met. 7. Social Social Interacti Interaction on – Groups Groups may be formed formed with a primary primary goal goal of social intera interaction ction including a gathering at a party, work social club or a mothers group. 8. Culture Culture – The group group may form from from a particular particular culture to to enjoy commu communicating nicating in a native native languag language, e, eating eating traditio traditional nal food food and experie experience nce activiti activities es familiar familiar to this culture. Stages of Group Development

The The Form Formin ing g – Stor Stormi ming ng – Norm Normin ing g – Perf Perfor ormi ming ng - Adjo Adjour urni ning ng mode modell of grou group p

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development was first proposed by Bruce Tuckman in 1965, who maintained that these phases phases are all necessary necessary and inevitable inevitable in order for the team to grow, to face up to challenges, to tackle problems, to find solutions, to plan work, and to deliver results. This model has become the basis for subsequent models. Stage 1 - Forming "Trying to find my place." Group begins to experience: Feelings of excitement, anticipation, and optimism; also feelings of suspicion, fear, and anxiety about the job ahead Identification of its reason for existence Self-orientation Identification of the task to be accomplished Exploration and discovery of how to interact with one another as a group As the group forms and matures, natural leaders will emerge. The members in these roles will change several times during this phase of group development. Tasks for a group worker: Establish base level expectations Identify similarities Agreeing on common goals Stage 2 – Storming "Hey! I've got something to say here!" Some group behaviors and attitudes: Negativity Negativity Dissatisfaction Hostility Crisis mode

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Adjustment anxiety Differences and suppressed tension begin to surface Members further define the energy level they dedicate to the task or project at hand. Tasks for a group worker: Identifying power and control issues Gaining skills in communication Identifying resources Stage 3 – Norming "We're all in this together!" Some group behaviors: Cohesion around shared goals Resolution of conflict More acceptance of diversity in the group Reconciliation; show of affection Re-evaluation Members have seen the coming together (forming), the semi-separation (storming), and now they have reconciled themselves to working together (norming) despite their differences with a new definition of purpose. Tasks for a group worker: Members agree about roles and processes for problem solving. Stage 4 – Performing "Getting Things Done" Some group behaviors: Cohesiveness Teamwork Leadership

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Performance The group is starting to utilize its newly found "norms of trust," and can begin focusing on the service to be done; there should be enough enough drive, creativity, and cohesiveness cohesiveness to take on most tasks. Tasks for a group worker: Achieve effective and satisfying results Members find solutions to problems using appropriate controls Stage 5 – Adjourning Adjourning "Now What?" Possible group feelings or reactions: Negativity Negativity Dissatisfaction Hostility Purging Crisis The group is realizing the end of service is near; it has been a year of sharing and growing with each other and now members are going to separate. For many, the group has been a safety net and truly has become their community.

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Group Dynamics

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The forces that result from the interactions of group members are often referred to as group dynamics. Because group dynamics influence the behaviour of both individual group members and the group as a whole, they have been of considerable interest to group workers for many years (Coyle, 1930, 1937; Elliott, 1928). It was at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology that the Research Centre for the group dynamics dynamics was founded in 1945 and later in 1948 was moved to the University University of Michigan. Michigan. It was founded by Kurt Lewin to study group decision, group productivity, group interaction, group cohesiveness and group communication. The underlying assumption was that the laws of the group behavior can be established independently of the goals or specific activities of group irrespective of the structure of the group. A variety of experiments later on by Herbert Spenser, Allport , Georg Simmel , put forward the concept of group dynamics as a technique of fostering the conciliation between individuals and groups with an idea to formulate principles which underlie group behavior , and devise principles of group decisions and actions. Features of Group Dynamics: Group dynamics is concerned with group .Wherever a group exists the individuals interact and members are continuously changing and adjusting relationship with respect to each other. The members of the group may interact , may be in state of tension , may be attracted or repelled to each other , may seek the resolution resolution of these tensions tensions and return to equilibrium after the resolution. Changes go on occurring like introduction of the new members, changes in leadership, presence presence of old and new members members and the rate of change change – fast or slow. The groups groups may dissolve dissolve if the members are not enthusiastic enthusiastic about the goals; they have no faith in the ideology ideology and do not identif identify y themse themselve lvess with with the group. group. This This means means that that the cohesiveness in the group has decreased. There may be rigidity or flexibility (cohesiveness or conflict) that influence a group dynamics. If the members get along well there is smooth sailing for the group and if there there is confl conflict ict it lead leadss to probl problem ems. s. A rigid rigid grou group p may may not not chang changee and and lacks lacks adapt adaptab abili ility ty to chan change ge.. But But the the memb members ers if are able able to solv solves es the prob problem lems, s, the the equilibrium can be maintained. The conflict and tension if increases within the group, this can cause an open flare up and strong measures are urgently. The The grou group p orga organi niza zati tion on is esse essent ntia ial. l. It lead leadss to grea greate terr grou group p effe effect ctiv iven enes ess, s, participation, participation, cooperatio cooperation n and a construct constructive ive morale. morale. The leader leader will be effective effective only only if the group is organized and stable. Some degree of organization is essential for effective functio functioning ning of the group group and depends depends on the proportio proportion n of the well-de well-define fined d roles roles members have in the group. The organized group is one with every member having specific roles and acting towards other members in the prescribed manner. Dyna Dynamic mic grou group p alway alwayss is in cont continu inuou ouss proce process ss of restr restruc uctu turin ring, g, adju adjusti sting ng and and read readjus justin ting g memb members ers to one anot another her for for the purp purpos osee of redu reducin cing g the tensi tension ons, s,

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eliminating the conflicts and solving the problems which its members have in common. The changes may take within a group and it is interesting to study the way the change do occur. The frequent changes indicate the capacity of the group to change and adapt. One of the worker’s most important tasks is to help groups develop dynamics that promote the satisfaction of members’ socio-emotional needs while facilitating the accomplishment of group tasks. Four dimensions of group dynamics are of particular importance to group workers in understanding and working effectively with all types of task and treatment groups: 1. Commun Communicat ication ion and interact interaction ion patte patterns rns 2. Cohesion 3. Socia Sociall integr integrati ation on and and influ influen ence ce 4. Grou roup cult cultur uree Communication According to Northen (1969), “Social interaction is a term for the dynamic interplay of forces in which contact between persons results in a modification of the behaviour and attitudes of the participants”. participants”. Verbal and nonverbal nonverbal communications communications are the components components of social interaction. Communication is the process by which people convey meanings to each other by using symbols. Communication entails: 1. the encoding of a person’s perceptions, thoughts, and feelings into language and other symbols, 2. the transmission of these symbols or language, and

3. the decod decoding ing of of the transm transmiss ission ion by another another pers person. on.

As member memberss of a group group commun communicat icatee to one another, another, a reciproc reciprocal al pattern pattern of interact interaction ion emerges. The interaction patterns that develop can be beneficial or harmful to the group. A group group worker worker who is knowle knowledge dgeable able about about helpful helpful commu communica nication tionss and interacti interactions ons can

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intervene in the patterns that are established to help the group achieve desired goals and to ensure the socio-emotional satisfaction of members. Communication can be verbal, nonverbal, or writt written en.. Where Whereas as memb member erss of face-t face-to-f o-face ace grou groups ps expe experie rience nce verb verbal al and nonv nonver erba ball communications, members of telephone groups experience only verbal communications, and members of computer groups experience only written messages. Communication can also be synchronous, that is, back and forth in real time, or asynchronous, that is, not within the same time frame. Asynchronous communications occur in computer groups where members may respond to messages after they are posted on bulletin boards or in chat rooms. Communication as a Process The first step in understanding and intervening in interaction patterns is for the worker to be aware that, whenever people are together in face-to-face groups, they are communicating. Even if they are not communicating verbally, their nonverbal behaviours communicate intended and unintend unintended ed messag messages. es. all commu communica nicatio tions ns are intende intended d to convey convey a messag message. e. Silence Silence,, for example, can communicate sorrow, thoughtfulness, anger, or lack of interest. In addition, every group member communicates not only to transmit information but also for many other reasons. Kiesler (1978) has suggested that people communicate with such interpersonal concerns as 1. unde unders rstan tandin ding g othe otherr people people,, 2. finding out where they stand in relation to other people,

3. pers persua uadi ding ng othe others rs,, 4. gaining or maintaining power, 5. defending themselves,

provoking a reaction from others, others, 6. provoking 7. maki making ng an imp impre ress ssion ion on on other others, s, 8. gaining or maintaining relationships, and

9. presenti presenting ng a unified unified image image to to the the grou group. p. Many other important reasons for communication could be added to this list. For example, Barker and colleagues colleagues (2000) highlight the importance importance of relational relational aspects of communication communication such as cooperation, connection, autonomy, similarity, flexibility, harmony, and stigmatization. In addition to meanings meanings transmitted in every communication, communication, the worker should also be aware that messages are often received selectively. Selective perception refers to the screening of messages so they are congruent with one’s belief system. Individual group members have a unique understanding of communications on the basis of their selective perception. Selected screening sometimes results in the blocking of messages so that they are not decoded and received. Napier and Gershenfeld (1993) suggest that the perception of a communication can be influenced by:

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1. life positions positions that result from experiences experiences in early childho childhood, od, 2. ster stereo eoty type pes, s, 3. the status and position of the communicator,

previous experiences experiences,, and 4. previous 5. assu assump mptio tions ns and and valu values es.. Thus, Thus, what might appear to a naive observer observer as a simple, straightforward, straightforward, and objective social interaction might have considerable hidden meaning for both the sender and the receiver. Group workers are in a much better position to intervene in the group when they have a full understanding of the meanings of the messages being communicated and received by each member. It is particularly important for the worker to pay attention to the nonverbal messages that are commun communicat icated ed by member members. s. Body Body languag language, e, gestur gestures, es, and facial facial expres expressio sions ns can provide provide important clues about how members are reacting to verbal communications. Members may not want to verbalize negative feelings, or they may just not know how to express their feelings. When workers workers are attuned to nonverbal nonverbal messages, messages, they can verbalize the feelings feelings conveyed in them. This, in turn, may encourage members to talk about issues that they were previously only able to express nonverbally. Communications can also be distorted in transmission. Distortion is represented as interference. Among the most common transmission problems are language barriers. To prevent distortions in commu communica nicatio tions ns from causing causing misunders misunderstand tanding ingss and conflict conflict,, it is also import important ant that that members receive feedback about their communications. Feedback is a way of checking that the meanings of the communicated messages are understood correctly. For feedback to be used appropriately it should: 1. describe the content of the communication or the behavior as it is perceived by the group member,

given to the the member member who sent the the message message as soon soon as the message message is received, received, and 2. be given 3. be expressed expressed in a tentative tentative manner manner so that those those who send send message messagess understand understand that the the feedback is designed to check for distortions rather than to confront or attack them. Interaction Patterns Patterns Patterns of Group Interaction Maypole—when the leader is the central figure and communication occurs from the leader to the member and from the member to the leader Round robin—when members take turns talking

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Hot Hot seat—wh seat—when en there there is an extend extended ed back-and back-and-for -forth th betwee between n the leader leader and one member as the other members watch Free floating—when all members take responsibility for communicating, taking into consideration their ability to contribute meaningfully to the particular topic The first three patterns are leader centered because the leader structures them. The fourth pattern is group centered because because it emerges emerges from the initiative initiative of group group member members. s. In most situations, workers should strive to facilitate the development of group-centered rather than leader-centered interaction patterns. In group-centered patterns, members freely interact with each other. Communication Communication channels channels between members of the group are open. In leadercentered patterns, communications are directed from members to the worker or from the worker to group members, thereby reducing members’ opportunities to communicate freely with each other. GroupGroup-cen centere tered d commun communicat ication ion patterns patterns tend tend to increas increasee social social interact interaction, ion, group group morale, morale, members’ commitment to group goals, and innovative decision making (Carletta, Garrod, & Fraser-Krauss, 1998). However, such patterns can be less efficient than leader centered patterns because communication communication may may be superflu superfluous ous or extraneous extraneous to group group tasks tasks (Shaw, (Shaw, 1964). 1964). Sorting Sorting out useful communications can take a tremendous amount of group time. Therefore, in task groups that are making routine decisions, when time constraints are important and when there is little need for creative problem solving, the worker may deliberately choose to encourage leader-centered rather than group-centered interaction patterns. To establish and maintain appropriate interaction patterns, the worker should be familiar with the factors that can change communication patterns, such as: Cues and the reinforcement that members receive for specific interactional exchanges The emotional bonds that develop between group members The subgroups that develop in the group The size and physical arrangements of the group The power and status relationships in the group Cues and Reinforces Cues such as words or gestures can act as signals to group members to talk more or less frequently to one another or to the worker. Workers and members can also use selective attention and other reinforces to encourage beneficial interactions. For example, praise and other other suppor supportive tive commen comments, ts, eye contact contact,, and smiles smiles tend to elicit elicit more more commun communicat ication, ion, whereas inattention tends to elicit less communication. So that all members may have a chance

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to participate fully in the life of a group, workers may want to reduce communication from particularly particularly talkative talkative members members or encourage encourage reserved reserved members members to to talk more. more. Emotional Bonds Positive emotional bonds such as interpersonal liking and attraction increase interpersonal interaction, and negative emotional bonds reduce solidarity between members and result in decreased decreased interpersonal interpersonal interaction. Attraction and interpersonal liking between between two members may occur because they share common interests, similar values and ideologies, complementary personality personality characteristics characteristics,, or similar similar demographic demographic characteristics characteristics (Hare (Hare et al., 1995). 1995). Hartford (1971) calls alignments based on emotional bonds interest alliances. For example, two members of a planning council might vote the same way on certain issues and they may communicate similar thoughts and feelings to other members of the council on the basis of their common interests in the needs of the business community. Sub Groups Subgro Subgroups ups form from from the emotio emotional nal bonds bonds and interes interestt alliance alliancess among among subset subsetss of group group members. They occur naturally in all groups. They help make the group attractive to its memb member erss becau because se indiv individ idua uals ls look look forwa forward rd to inter interact acting ing with with thos thosee to whom whom they they are particularly particularly close. The practitioner practitioner should should not view subgrou subgroups ps as a threat to the integrity of the group unless the attraction of members within a subgroup becomes greater than their attraction to the group as a whole. There are a variety of subgroup types, including the dyad, triad, and clique. Also, there are isolates, who do not interact with the group, and scapegoats, who receive negative attention and criticism from the group. Subgroups occur naturally because not everyone in a group interacts with equal valence. The formation of intense subgroup attraction, however, can be a problem. 1. Subgroup members may challenge the worker’s authority. 2. They may substitute their own goals and methods of attaining them for the goals of the larger group. 3. They can disrupt the group by communicating among themselves while others are speaking.

4. Subgroup Subgroup members members may may fail to listen listen to members members who who are not a part of the subgroup. subgroup. Ultimately, intense and consistent subgroup formation can negatively affect the performance of the group as a whole (Gebhardt & Meyers, 1995). Size and Physical Arrangements

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As the the size size of the grou group p incre increase ases, s, the the poss possib ibili ilitie tiess for for pote potenti ntial al relati relation onsh ship ipss incre increase ase dramatically. With increased group size there are also fewer opportunities and less time for members to communicate. a reduced chance to participate leads to dissatisfaction and a lack of commitm commitment ent to decisio decisions ns made made by the group. group. Increased Increased group size also also tends tends to lead lead to subgroup formation as members strive to get to know those seated near them. The physical arrangement of group members also influences interaction patterns. Members who sit across from each other, for example, have an easier time communicating than do members on the same side of a circle who are separated by one or two members. Power and Status Two other factors affecting communication communication and interaction interaction patterns are the relative power and status of the group group members. Initially, members members are accorded accorded power and status on the basis of their position and prestige in the community, community, their physical attributes, attributes, and their position in the agency agency sponso sponsoring ring the group. group. As a group group develo develops, ps, member members’ s’ status status and power change, change, depending on how important a member is in helping the group accomplish its tasks or in helping other members meet their socio-emotional needs. When members carry out roles that are important to the group, their power and status increase. When a member enjoys high status and power, other members are likely to direct their communications to that member (Napier & Gershenfeld, 1993). Group Cohesion Group cohesion is the result of all forces acting on members to remain in a group (Festinger, 1950). Cohesion is a multifaceted concept that, depending on the context, can be viewed along many dimensions: 1. task and social cohesion, 2. vertical and horizontal cohesion, 3. personal personal and social attraction, attraction,

4. belo belong ngin ing gness ness,, and and 5. mora morale le (Di (Dion on,, 2000 2000). ). People are attracted to groups for a variety of reasons. According to Cartwright (1968), the following interacting sets of variables determine a member’s attraction to a group. Reasons for Members’ Attraction to the Group: The need for affiliation, recognition, and security The resources and prestige available through group participation Expectations of the beneficial and detrimental consequences of the group

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The comparison of the group with other group experiences Cohesion can affect the functioning of individual members and the group as a whole in many ways. Research and clinical observations have documented that cohesion tends to increase many beneficial dynamics. Effects of Cohesion Expression of positive and negative feelings (Pepitone & Reichling, 1955; Yalom, 1995) Willingness to listen (Yalom, 1995) Effective use of other members’ feedback and evaluations (Yalom, 1995) Members’ influence over each other (Cartwright, 1968) Feelings Feelings of self-confidence self-confidence and self-esteem, self-esteem, and personal adjustment (Seashore, 1954; Yalom, 1995) Satisfaction with the group experience (Widmeyer & Williams, 1991) Perseverance toward goals (Cartwright, 1968; Spink & Carron, 1994) Willing Willingnes nesss to take take respon responsib sibilit ility y for group group functio functioning ning (Dion, Miller, Miller, & Magnan, Magnan, 1970) Goal attainment, individual and group performance, and organizational commitment (Evans & Dion, 1991; Gully, Devine, & Whitney, 1995; Mullen & Cooper, 1994; Wech, Mossholder, Steel, & Bennett, 1998) Attenda Attendance, nce, member membership ship maintena maintenance, nce, and length length of particip participatio ation n (Prapav (Prapavess essis is & Carron, 1997) It also should be pointed out that cohesion can have some negative effects on the functioning of a group. Cohesion is a necessary, albeit not sufficient, ingredient in the development of “group think.” According to Janis (1972) group think is “a mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in group, when the members’ strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action”. In addition to encouraging pathological conformity, cohesion can lead to dependence on the group. This can be a particularly vexing problem in intensive therapy groups with members who started the group experience with severe problems and poor self-images. Social Integration and Influence

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Social integration refers to how members fit together and are accepted in a group. Groups are not able to function effectively unless there is a fairly high level of social integration among members. Social order and stability are prerequisites for the formation and maintenance of a cohesive group. Social integration builds unanimity about the purposes and goals of the group, helping members members to move forward in an orderly and efficient manner to accomplish accomplish work and achieve goals. Norms, Norms, roles, and status hierarchies hierarchies promote promote social integration integration by influencing influencing how members members behave in relationship relationship to each other other and by by delineating delineating members’ members’ places places within within the group. group. They They lend order and familiarity familiarity to group processes, helping to make members’ members’ individual behaviors predictable predictable and comfortable comfortable for all. Norms, Norms, roles, and status dynamics dynamics help groups groups to avoid unpredictability and excessive conflict that, in turn, could lead to chaos and the disintegration of the group. group. Too much conformity conformity and compliance compliance resulting from overly rigid and restrictive norms, norms, roles, roles, and status status hierarch hierarchies ies can lead to the suppre suppressi ssion on of individ individual ual member members’ s’ initiative, creativity, and intellectual contributions. At the same time, a certain amount of predictability, predictability, conformity, conformity, and compliance compliance is necessary to enable members members to work together together to achieve group goals. Therefore, it is important for workers to guide the development of norms, roles, and status hierarchies that achieve a balance between too little and too much conformity. Norms Norms are shared expectations expectations and beliefs about appropriate appropriate ways to act in a social situation such as a group. They refer to specific member behaviours and to the overall pattern of behaviour behaviour that is acceptable in a group. group. Norms stabilize and regulate behaviour behaviour in groups. groups. By providing providing guidelines guidelines for acceptable acceptable and appropriate appropriate behaviour, behaviour, norms increase predictability, predictability, stability, stability, and security for members members and help to encourage encourage organized and coordinated action to reach goals. Norms result from what is valued, preferred, preferred, and accepted accepted behaviour behaviour in the group. group. Norms develop as the group develops. Norms develop directly as members observe one another’s behavior behavior in the group and vicariously vicariously as members express their views and opinions opinions during the course of group interaction. As members express preferences, share views, and behave in certain ways, norms become clarified. Because norms are developed through the interactions of group members, they discourage the capricious use of power by the leader or by any one group member. They also reduce the need for excessive controls to be imposed on the group from external forces. Roles Roles are closely related to norms. Whereas norms are shared expectations held, to some exten extent, t, by ever everyo yone ne in the the grou group, p, role roless are share shared d expe expecta ctatio tions ns abou aboutt the the funct function ionss of individuals in the group. Unlike norms, which define behaviour in a wide range of situations, roles define behaviour in relation to a specific function or task that the group member is expected to perform.

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Roles continue to emerge and evolve as the work of the group changes over time (Salazar, 1996). Roles are important for groups because they allow for division of labour and appropriate use use of powe power. r. They They ensu ensure re that that some someon onee will will be desig designat nated ed to take take care care of vital vital grou group p functions. Roles provide social control in groups by prescribing how members should behave in certain situations. Performing in a certain role not only prescribes prescribes certain behaviour behaviour but also limits members’ freedom to deviate from the expected behaviour of someone who performs that role. Status Status refers to an evaluation and ranking of each member’s position in the group relative to all other members. members. A person’s person’s status within a group is partially determined determined by his or her prestige, position, position, and recognized recognized expertise expertise outside outside the group. group. To some extent, extent, however, however, status is also dependent dependent on the situation. situation. In one group, status may be determined by a member’s member’s position in the agency sponsoring the group. In another group, status may be determined by how well a memb member er is liked liked by othe otherr grou group p memb member ers, s, how how much much the grou group p relie reliess on the memb member er’s ’s expertise or how much responsibility the member has in the group. It is also determined by how a person acts once he or she becomes a member of a group. Because status is defined relative to other group members, a person’s status in a group is also affected by the other members who comprise the group. Group Culture Group culture refers to values, beliefs, customs, and traditions held in common by group members (Olmsted, 1959). According to Levi (2001), culture can be viewed as having three levels. At the surface, symbols and rituals display the culture of the group. For example, in Alcoholics Anonymous groups, members usually begin an interaction by saying their first name and by stating that they are an alcoholic. At a deeper level, culture is displayed in the way members interact with one another. For example, the way conflict is handled in a group says much about its culture. The deepest level of culture includes the core beliefs, ideologies, and values held in common by members. When When the memb member ershi ship p of a grou group p is divers diverse, e, grou group p cultu culture re emerg emerges es slow slowly ly.. Memb Member erss contribute contribute unique sets of values that originate originate from their past experiences as well as from their ethnic, cultural, and racial heritages. These values are blended blended through through group communication communicationss and interactions. In early meetings, members explore each other’s unique value systems and attempt to find a common ground on which they can relate to each other. By later meetings, members members have had a chance to share and understand understand each other’s value systems. As a result, a common common set of values values develo develops, ps, which which become becomess the group’s group’s culture. culture. The group’s group’s culture culture continues to evolve throughout the life of the group. Group Morale

Morale refers to the level of group functioning functioning as well as the unity and solidarity of the group. It stands for team spirit, loyalty among its members devotion to the ideals of the group and a desire to perform at the highest pith of Endeavour. There is determination on the pair of the

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individual member of line per and if need to be die for the group. He shows the capacity to bear hardships for the sake of the common cause without gambling. Morale is not a summation of affects from different sources and whole group that get integrated; integrated; the group which which has a high morale is held together by internal cohesion, rather than external force the least amount of quarrels and jealousies are found among its members. It is also characterized by adaptability of its members to changing circumstances and successful adjustments to them. Similarity of goals among the members log ally to the groups leads the also quite common and positive desire among the members to which for and work for the well being of the group is an apparent feature. In healthy and vigorous group life morale plays a very important role. Tendency to breaking into several antagonists sub groups, tendency to indulge unhealthy, victims, tendency to create conflict between between the ideals of the individual individual members and those of the group as a whole etc… are signs of law morale. Positive goals, a sense of advancement towards the God, satisfaction of felt needs, needs, an unders understand tanding ing of the relation relationshi ship p betwee between n present present activiti activities es of the goal, goal, feeding of security as well as capable leadership may be said to be developments of morale. Definition “The mental and emotional condition condition of an individual or group with regard to the functions or tasks at hand”. “A sense of common purpose with respect to a group”. “The level of individual psychological well being based on such factors as a sense of purpose and confidence in the future”. Meaning of of Group Morale The quality of the unit and solidarity in the group, the co-operation which exists among its members, the way in which the group as a whole reacts to particular situations and so on. The person who is most concerned concerned with the morale morale of the the group group is the leader of that group. group. Importance Importance of Group Group Morale Morale Morale is the state of mind or attitude of an individual or group towards the work and envir environ onme ment nt i.e., i.e., towa towards rds the the supe superio rior, r, fello fellow w memb member erss of the grou group p and and goals goals of the the organization as well as the task assigned. A favourable attitude is an indication of high morale, while an unfavourable attitude indicators low morale. Further high morale leads people to attach greater importance to group goals as compared with their personal goals. On the other hand, low morale leads to inefficiency, waste, low productivity, unrest and indiscipline among employees. Factors Determining Determining Morale 1.

Objectives of of th the or organization

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2.

Leadership

3.

Group members

4.

Job satisfaction

5.

Structure of of or organization

6.

Compensation

7.

Advance ncement and and prom romotio tional op opportu rtunit nity

8.

Living conditions and health

9.

Working environment

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The group morale is the most important important characteristic of any social group for the survival of a group; group; the group morale morale is one of the most important important necessities. necessities. It is not very easy to define group morale. Determinants Determinants of Group Group Morale Morale 1.

Structure of the group

2.

Functions of the group

3.

Positive goals

4.

Sense of advance towards goal

5.

Time perspective

6.

Equal qualit ity y of sacr sacrif ific icee or gain ain wit within hin the the group roup

7.

Feeling of solidity

8.

Feeli eeling ng of id identif ntific icaatio tion an and in involvement

9.

Group values

10.

Economic conditions

11.

Negative det determinants

12.

Satis atisfa fact ctio ion n of of acce accesssory ne needs

13. 13.

Leve Levell of of asp aspir irat atio ion n and and leve levell of of ach achie ieve veme ment nt

14.

Enco ncourag uragin ing g gro grou up ide ident ntif ific icat atio ion. n.

Group Worker

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Group worker worker is constantly constantly operating at two levels — the client as an individual individual and the group as a social system, whose influence can be utilized to develop client abilities, modify selfimages and perspectives, resolve conflicts and inculcate new patterns of behaviour. These changes must be stabilized beyond the duration of the group experience if they are to gain significance. The results of group work intervention are to be assessed, then, in terms of improved performance in these social role areas in the client's life and not merely in terms of changed behaviour within the group. Role of of Group Worker Worker In social group work, the group worker enables a group to function in such a manner so as to achieve the aims of social progress. From this point of view, the social worker has to discharge many functions, main among them are as follows: To provide opportunity opportunity for progress progress to each individual individual in accordance to his ability and achievement. To assimilate individuals with their group. To encourage individual towards his progress To make individuals conscious about their rights and duties. To enable the group with regard to the determination of aim and the course of progress To encourage good will and friendship between various groups. To encourage the development of democratic principles. To make adjustment between individual needs and social resources. To give proper attention on individual progress. The conduct the above roles, the following skills are essential for a group worker: 1. Establish Establishing ing Purpose Purposeful ful Relation Relationship ship The group worker must be skilful in gaining the acceptance of the group and in relating himself/herself to the group on a positive professional basis. Helping individuals to accept one another and join with the group is the common aim. 2. Skill Skill in Analyzin Analyzing g the the Group Group Situation Situationss Analyzing Analyzing or judging judging the developmental developmental level of the group group and needs has to be done. done. The worker should help the group to express ideas, workout objectives, clarify immediate goals and see both the potentialities and limitations of the group. In short, thinking clearly about group problems, problems, findings, findings, causes and and working working for a solution. solution.

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3. Skill Skill in Part Partici icipat pation ion with with the the Group Group The group worker must be skilful in determining, interpreting, assuming and modifying his own roles with with the group. group. The worker worker should should also help participat participating ing members members to locate locate leadership and take responsibilities for their own activities. 4. Skill in Dealing with Group Feeling

The group worker should adjust group procedures and plans to meet the feelings and desires of its members. Here the worker must be able to control his own feelings about the group and the watch the group with objectivity. The worker should also be skilful enough in helping the group release their own positive and negative feelings. 5. Skill Skill in Pro Progr gram amme me Deve Develop lopme ment nt The group worker must guide the group to reveal and understand the group’s interest and needs. Also the worker must be skilled enough to develop programmes for the participation of the group. 6. Skill Skill in Using Using Agenc Agencyy and Communi Community ty Resour Resources ces The worker must be helpful in locating and providing all the help required to the members of the group, available within the agency and also refer the members to specialized services in community. 7. Skil Skilll in Eval Evalua uati tion on The worker must have skill in recording the development process of the group and also use these records in helping the group to review its experiences as a means of improvement. Community

Community is a contributor of resources and allies and provider of pitfalls and opponents. Community is a place, where, the need for change, the effort to make that change and the resistance to change co-exists. Types of Communities 1. Interest Interest Commun Community: ity: Commu Communitie nitiess we need need to know/ know/ the people people who are involved involved in our particular action. 2. Need or Benefit Benefit Community Community:: Consists Consists of people people who currently currently experien experience ce the problem problem or could benefit from its resolution. 3. Action Action Commun Community ity:: Consis Consists ts of people who recogn recognize ize or could easily easily recognize recognize that a problem problem exists exists and are are willing to work work to resolve resolve it.(change it.(change agent) agent) 4. Targ Target et or Resp Respon onse se Comm Commun unit ity: y: Cons Consis ists ts of peop people le whos whosee poli polici cies es,, acti action onss or inaction’s somehow perpetuate the problem.

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5. Peripheral Community: The wider community

Community Organization

Community organization refers to: structure or stage of development as in the ‘organized’ and ‘unorganized’ community, field of practice such as “Planning Social Welfare Services, ‘Federated fund raising’ etc., as a method -‘A way of working on as orderly and conscious basis to effect defined and desired objectives and goals. Definition

“Community organization is the process of dealing with individuals and groups, who are or may may beco become me conce concerne rned d with with socia sociall welfa welfare re serv service icess or obje objecti ctive ves, s, for the the purpo purpose se of influencing the volume of such services, improving the quality or distribution or furthering the attainment of such objectives” – National National Conference Conference on Community Community Organization, Organization, USA. USA. “Community Organization means a process by which community identify its need or objectives finds the resources (Internal & / or External) to deal with these needs or objectives, takes action in respect to them, and in so doing extends and develops cooperative and collaborative attitudes and practices in the community” - Murray - Murray G Ross. “Com “Commu muni nity ty orga organiz nizati ation on is desc describ ribed ed as the the orde orderly rly appl applica icatio tion n of a relev relevant ant body body of knowle knowledge dge,, employ employing ing practice practice–wis –wisdom dom and learned learned behavio behaviour ur throug through h characte characterist ristic, ic, disti distinct nctive ive and and desc describ ribab able le proce procedu dure ress to help help the the comm commun unity ity to enga engage ge in a desir desirabl ablee procedure procedure to achieve planned planned change change towards towards community community improvement improvement”” – National Association Association of Social Social Workers Workers.. History of Community Organization

In a broad sense we can say wherever people have lived together; some form of organisations has emerged. These informal associations of people always tried to do good to the people in need and protect the rights of the society. On the contrary the history talks about the formal orga organiz nizat atio ions ns which which were were set set up for the the welfa welfare re of the comm commun unit ity. y. The The first first effor efforts ts at community organization for social welfare were initiated in England to overcome the acute problem problem of poverty, poverty, which led led to beggary beggary.. The first effort of its kind was the Elizabethan poor law (1601) in England, which was set up to provide provide services to the needy. needy. Another Another important important landmark landmark in the history of community community organization is the formation of London Society of organizing charitable relief and repressing mendicancy and the Origin of the settlement house Movement in England during 1880. Historical Historical Developments Developments in USA USA

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In fact, these movements had a major impact in the United States of America. In 1880 the Charities organization was set up to put rational order in the area of charity and relief. The major community organization activities in the United States could be classified in to three periods: periods: Phase I: The Charity organization period (1870-1917) This This era era is the the begi beginni nning ngss in socia sociall welfa welfare re in USA. USA. The The first first cityw citywide ide (COS (COS)) Chari Charity ty organization Society was established in the Buffalo in 1877 in USA. This movement was started with the influence of London Charity organization established in 1869. In USA, Rev. S. H. Gurteen, an English priest who had an association with London Charity association and had moved to Baffalo in 1873 gave the leadership to this movement an English priest who had an association with London Charity association and had moved to Baffalo in 1873. Within a short span of six years the COS had reached to more than 25 American cities. Charity organization was concerned about two things: Providing adequate personal services to families and individuals in need Take steps to address the issues/problems in social welfare. Apart from this services the COS also took initiatives in promoting co-operation among the various welfare agencies. From this movement of charity organization emerged many other such service oriented organisations i.e. Social service exchange, Community welfare councils, councils of social agencies Phase II: The rise of Federation (1917 to 1935) It is period where we can see the growth and development of chests and councils. It started with the rise of war chests in 1917 and ended with the enactment of social security act, which set the stage for development of the public welfare programs in 1935. A large number of chests and and coun counci cils ls came came up afte afterr worl world d war war 1.Th 1.Thee Amer Americ ican an Assoc ssocia iati tion on for for Comm Commun unit ity y Organization Organization was organized in 1918 as the national agency for chests and councils councils and it later became known known as community community chests and councils councils of (CCC) (CCC) America. America. The Cincinnati Cincinnati Public Public Health Federation, established in 1917 was the first independent health council in American City. It is in this period that the American Association of social workers organized in 1921, the first general professional organisations, set up its training for the social workers and others who specialized in community organization. A community chest is a voluntary welfare agency, co-operative organization of citizens and welfare agencies, which is the powerful local force for community welfare origination that handles large funds. It has two functions. It raises funds through a community -wide appeal and distributes them according to a systematic budget procedure. Secondly it promotes co-operative planning, planning, co-ordinat co-ordination ion and administration administration of the communities’ communities’ social social welfare. welfare. Phase III: Period of Expansion and professional Development (1935 to present time)

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It is in this period that we see the greater use of the community organization process in the field of public welfare. A marked significance of this era is the establishment of Federal Security Agency where we see the maximized involvement of the Govt. in welfare programs. In 1946 the agency was strengthened and re-organized following which in 1953 Department of Health, education and Welfare was established. Another important factor of the period is about the professional development that took place. Some of the important professional developments are: The National Conference of Social work in 1938-39 undertook a study on community orga organiz nizati ation on,, which which later later publ publici icize zed d the the natur naturee of "Gen "Gener eric ic Comm Commun unity ity welfa welfare re organization". Based on this another study took place in 1940, but due to America involvement in World War II an active program could not take off. In 1946, at the National conference of social work in Buffalo, the Association of the study of community organization (ASCO) was organized. The main objective was to improve the professional practice of organization for social welfare. In 1955, ASCO merged with six other professional organisations to form the National Association of social workers. Community organization has been recognized as integral and important aspect of social work education in the American Association of Schools of social work education. education. At present there is an active committee of Council Council on social work education involved in the production of teaching materials in community organization. The first first contemp contemporar orary y textboo textbook k on commu community nity organiz organizatio ation n titled titled "Commu "Community nity Orga Organiz nizati ation on for socia sociall welfa welfare re " publ publis ished hed in 1945 1945 has has been been writt written en by Wa Wayne yne McMilen's . Another development in the history of community development is seen in the wake of World War II. Wartime needs were very special and crucial. During this time many councils and community war services came to the forefront. Among them (USO) united service organization is of prime importance as it was the union of many forces that served the needs of the military personnel and defence communities. The other striking characteristics of the period is the immense increase in the volunteer service i.e. defence coun council cil,, Amer America ican n Red Red Cros Crosss and and USO USO which which co-or co-ordin dinat ated ed and and recru recruite ited d the the volunteers. Another development that took place at the wartime is the growth of closer relationship between between labour and social work, which is considered considered as great significance significance to community origination. The other developments that took place after the World War II are as follows that are very specific to community organization area as follows: The rehabilitation of the physically and mentally challenged

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Mental health planning, problems of the aging Prevention and treatment of juvenile delinquency. In orde orderr to addr addres esss thes thesee issu issues es sepa separa rate te bodi bodies es were were set set up and and we see see the the entr entry y of inter internat nation ional al agen agencie ciess in the field field of comm commun unity ity orig origina inatio tion. n. The The pres presen entt situ situat ation ion in commun community ity organiz organizatio ation n is the emerge emergence nce of the new commun community ity develo developme pment nt progra programs, ms, which aims at providing, services to the less developed areas in the international social welfare. Therefore the present agenda is on working with the whole community and a greater emphasis on self -help. Historical Historical Developments Developments in the UK Baldock (1974) has summed up the historical development in U.K. by diving it in to four phases. phases. The First Phase: (1880-1920) during this period the community work was mainly seen as a method of social work. It was considered as a process of helping the individuals to enhance their social adjustments. It acted as major player to co-ordinate the work of voluntary agencies. The Second Phase: (1920-1950) this period saw the emergence of new ways of dealing with social issues and problems. The community organization was closely associated with central and state Govt.'s program for urban development. The important development in this period was its association with community association movement. The Third Phase: (1950 onwards) it emerged as a reaction to the neighbourhood idea, which provided provided an ideological ideological phase for the second phase. It was period we see the professional professional devel develop opme ment nt of socia sociall work. work. Most Most of the the educ educato ators rs and and planne planners rs tried tried to analy analyze ze the shortcomings in the existing system. It was also a period where the social workers sought for a professional professional identity. identity. The Fourth Phase: It is a period that has marked the involvement of the community action. It questioned the very relationship of the community work and social work. It was thus seen as period of radical radical social movement movement and we could could see the conflicts of of community community with authority. authority. The association of social workers and the community were de-professionalised during this period. Thus it was during this period the conflictual conflictual strategies strategies that were introduced introduced in the community work, although even now there is no consensus on this issue (Baldock 1974). Historical Historical Developments Developments in India India A historical account of the community community organization organization is not available available in India, as there has been only a rare documentation on social work literature in general and community organization in particular. particular. Community organization has its roots in the Charity organizations in the United States. They realized the need of the people and tied to organize the people to coordinate their work. The main activities were social welfare, raising funds, seeking enactment for the social legislation

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and co-ordination of welfare activities. The spirit behind all these activities was charity. In India, the very concept of charity is deep rooted in the religious philosophy. Even before the commencement of the social work education in India in 1937, the community work was in place. But in the first phase from 1937 t0 1952 1952 the community work was in a dormant dormant stage. stage. During this period the social work was in its infancy and not many were employed in the comm commun unity ity setti setting ngss becau because se.. There There were were hardl hardly y any any jobs jobs that that prov provid ided ed an open opening ing for for community organization. Professionals preferred to work in casework settings. It was in 1952 the community development project was launched in India and with this we find the the emer emerge genc ncee of a new new era era of comm commun unit ity y work work.. The basi basicc obje object ctiv ivee of comm commun unit ity y development in India was to awaken the rural people of their needs, instilling in them a sense of ambition for better life and making them aware of their right and power to find a solution for their problems. According to Mukerji (1961) Community development is a movement designed to promote better living for the whole community with the active participation and if possible with the initiative of community" According to him community development can be divided in to two process: 1. Exte Extens nsio ion n educ educat atio ion n 2. Comm Commun unity ity orga organiz nizat atio ion. n. Extension education was expected to improve the quality of human beings by improving his/her knowledge and skills. By community organization Mukerji had in mind the setting up of three institutions in the village: Village Panchayat, The village co-operative and The village school During this period the thrust of the community work remained rural where as social work remained urban in character. From 1970 onwards we could see a new trend in the community work practice. The social workers expanded their scope and operational area from their traditional approach of casework to other developments fields. For example people working with school children started working with the community. The Ngo's and voluntary organization adopted a community approach. This shift has in-fact led to the use of process of community work. By and large the community work has remained welfare -oriented. The current phase of community work in India is experiencing a growing dissatisfaction with its own practice or rather the outcome outcome of its practice. So efforts are on to create alternate ways of working with communities. In-spite of these, the professionals is involved in a variety of projects projects in both both rural and and urban urban areas areas to promote promote better better living for the commu community. nity. Another Another trend in the community work is the involvement involvement of the Business houses houses in promoting welfa welfare re in their their neig neighb hbou ourh rhoo ood. d. This This is comm common only ly know known n as CSR. CSR. (Corp (Corpor orate ate socia sociall respo respons nsib ibili ilitie ties) s) The The busin busines esss hous houses es i.e. i.e. Tats, Tats, Esco Escorts rts,, and and some some of the mult multina inatio tiona nall companies too have joined in this venture. This trend has attracted many professionals in this field

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The main objective of community development is to develop village communities by methods, which will stimulate, encourage and aid villagers themselves to do much of the work necessary to accompl accomplish ish the desired desired goals. goals. The change changess conceiv conceived ed and promoted promoted should should have the involvement of the people and should be acceptable to them and put in to practice by them. Objectives of Community Organization

1. Analyzi Analyzing ng resou resources rces – service servicess available available to meet meet needs. needs. 2. Gaining Gaining facts facts about about human human needs. needs. 3. Synthe Synthesis, sis, correlat correlation ion and and testin testing g of facts facts.. 4. Relating Relating facts facts about about needs needs to facts facts about about availab available le services services.. 5. Bringing Bringing into participation participation in all all phase of of the process, process, individu individuals als and representatives representatives of group concerned. 6. Fosteri Fostering ng interactio interaction n of attitude attitudess and represe representati ntative ve view points points with the objecti objective ve of reaching agreement through mutual understanding. 7. Stimu Stimulat lating ing citize citizen n inter interest est in socia sociall probl problem emss and and creat creating ing motiv motivat ation ion for for actio action n through participation and education. 8. Deter Determin mining ing prio priorit rities ies 9. Develo Developing ping and and improv improving ing stand standards ards of of service. service. 10. Identification Identification of gaps or duplication duplication of services. services. 11. Adjusting or eliminating eliminating existing services or developing new services to meet needs. 12. Enhancing community understanding through education. 13. Mobilizing Mobilizing support support – moral and financial. financial. Principles of Community Organization

In the literature of community organisation organisation we find various sets of principles. Dunham (1958) (1958) has presented a statement of 28 suggested principles of community organisation. He grouped them under seven headings: 1. Demo Democra cracy cy and and soci social al welf welfare are,, 2. Commun Community ity roots roots for for communi community ty progra programme mmes, s, 3. Citizen understanding, support, and participation and professional service,

4. Coope oopera rati tion on,, 5. Socia Sociall Welfa Welfare re Pro Progr gram amme mes, s,

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6. Adequacy, distribution, and organisation of social welfare services, and

7. Prev revention. ion. Ross Ross (1967) (1967) outline outlined d specific specific principl principles es – the element elementary ary or fundam fundamenta entall ideas ideas regardi regarding ng initiation and continuation of community organisation processes. These principles have been discu discuss ssed ed in terms terms of the the nature nature of the the orga organis nisat atio ion n or asso associa ciatio tion n and and the the role role of the professional professional worker. worker. The The twelve twelve principles principles identified identified by Ross are: 1. Disc Discon onte tent nt with with exist existing ing cond conditi ition onss in the the comm commun unity ity must must initia initiate te and/ and/or or nour nourish ish development of the association. 2. Discont Discontent ent must be focussed focussed and channelled channelled into organisa organisatio tion, n, planning planning,, and action action in respect to specific problems. 3. Discontent Discontent which which initiates initiates or sustains sustains communit community y organisation organisation must be be widely shared in the community. 4. The associa association tion must must involve involve leaders leaders (both (both formal and informa informal) l) identified identified with, with, and accepted by, major sub-groups in the community. 5. The association association must must have have goals and and methods methods and procedures procedures of high high acceptability. acceptability. 6. The progra programme mmess of the associat association ion should should include include some some activities activities with an emotiona emotionall content. 7. The associa associatio tion n should should seek to utilize the manifes manifestt and latent goodwi goodwill ll which exists exists in the community. 8. The associa association tion must must develop develop active active and effective effective lines of communi communicati cation on both both within the association and between the association and the community. 9. The associa associatio tion n should should seek to suppor supportt and strengthen strengthen groups groups which which it brings brings togethe together r in cooperative work. 10. The association association should should develop a pace of work in line with existing conditions conditions in the community. 11. The association association should should seek to develop effective leaders. leaders. 12. The association association must develop strength, strength, stability and prestige in the community. Keeping in mind the actual practice situations in India Siddiqui (1997) has worked out a set of 8 principles. 1. The Princip Principle le of Specific Specific Object Objectives ives 2. The The Pri Princi ncipl plee of of Plan Planni ning ng 3. The Princip Principle le of of Peop People’s le’s Particip Participatio ation n

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4. The Princip Principle le of of Inter-g Inter-grou roup p Appro Approach ach 5. The Princip Principle le of of Democ Democratic ratic Functi Functioni oning ng 6. The Princip Principle le of of Flexib Flexible le Orga Organisa nisatio tion n 7. The Principle Principle of Optimum Optimum Utilisation Utilisation of Indige Indigenous nous Resources Resources 8. The Princip Principle le of of Cult Cultural ural orientat orientation ion We are trying to interpret some of the principles from the available sets of principles for guiding our practice community organisation in Indian context. 1. Community Community Organisatio Organisation n is means and not an end: end: As discussed discussed earlier earlier the community community organisation is a process by which the capacity of the community to function as an integrated unit is being enhanced. In this sense it is a method or a means to enable people to live a happy and fully developed developed life. It refers to a method of intervention intervention whereby a community consisting of individuals, groups or organisations are helped to engage in planned collective action in order to deal with their needs and problems. 2. Comm Commun unity ity Organis Organisati ation on is to prom promote ote commun communit ity y solid solidari arity ty and and the practice practice of democracy: It should seek to overcome disruptive influences, which threaten the well being of the community community and the vitality of democratic democratic institutions. institutions. In community community organis organisatio ation n discrim discriminat ination ion and segrega segregation tion or exclus exclusion ion should should be avoided avoided and integration and mutual acceptance should be promoted. 3. The clear clear identifica identificatio tion n of the Communi Community: ty: Since Since the communi community ty is the client client of the community organisation worker, it must be clearly identified. It is likely that there are several communities with which he/she deals at the same time. Further it is important that once the community is identified the entire community must be the concern of the practitioner. practitioner. No programm programmee can be isolated isolated from the social social welfare needs needs and resource resourcess of the community as a whole. The welfare of the whole community is always more important than the interest or the well being of any one agency/group in the community. 4. Fact-finding Fact-finding and needs assessm assessment: ent: Community Community organis organisation ation programm programmes es should should have its roots in the community. Proper fact-finding and assessment of the community needs is the prere prerequ quisi isite te for for start starting ing any any prog program ramme me in the the comm commun unity ity.. It is gene general rally ly desirab desirable le for local local commun community ity service servicess to be indige indigenou nous, s, grass-r grass-root ootss develo developme pments nts rather than imported from outside. Whenever possible, then, community organisation should have its origin in a need felt by the community or by substantial number of persons persons in the community. community. There There should should be vital communit community y participation, participation, and essential essential community control, of its development. While facilitating the process of community organisation, the programmes should be initiated, developed, modified, and terminated on the basis of the needs of the community community and on the basis of the availability of other comparable services. When the particular need for a service is met, the programme should be modified or terminated.

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5. Iden Identif tifica icatio tion, n, mobil mobiliza izatio tion n and and utili utilizat zation ion of the the availa availabl blee reso resour urces ces:: The The fulles fullestt possible possible use should be made of existing social welfare resources, resources, before creating new resources or services. In the absence of resources/services the worker has to mobilize the resources from various sources such as community, government, non-government agencies, agencies, etc. While utilizing the indigenous resources resources it must be recognised that these resources may sometimes need extensive overhauling before they will meet certain needs. Apart from mobilizing physical resources, indigenous human resources should be put to optimum optimum use. use. 6. Participatory planning: The community organisation worker must accept the need for participatory participatory planning planning throughout throughout the process process of community community organisation. organisation. It is important that the practitioner prepares a blue print in the beginning of what he/she inten intends ds to do with with the comm commun unity ity.. This This is done done with with the the comm commun unity ity taking taking into into consideration the needs of the community, available resources, agency objectives, etc. Planning in community organisation is a continuous process as it follows the cycle of implementation and evaluation. The planning should be on the basis of ascertained facts, facts, rather rather than than an expres expressio sion n of guess guesswor work, k, “hunches “hunches,” ,” or mere trial and error methods. methods. In order to foster greater participation participation it is necessary to analyse the impeding impeding factors and take timely steps to remove them. Instead of forcing people to participate in all the issues, they should be encouraged to participate at a level, and about issues, in accordance with their capacities. It must be noted that the people will participate if they are convinced of the benefits of the programme.

Active and vital particip participatio ation: n: The concept concept of self-hel self-help p is the core of commun community ity 7. Active organis organisatio ation. n. The commu community nity member members’ s’ particip participatio ation n throug throughou houtt the proces processs of community organisation should be encouraged from the standpoint both of democratic principle principle and of feasibility— feasibility— that is, the direct involvement involvement in the programme programme of those who have the primary stake in it’s results. “Selfhelp” by citizen or clientele groups should be encouraged and fostered. 8. Community right of self determination should be respected: The Role of the community organisation organisation worker is to provide professional professional skill, assistance, assistance, and creative leadership in enabling people’s groups and organisations to achieve social welfare objectives. The community members should make basic decisions regarding programme and policy. While While the comm commun unity ity orga organi nisat sation ion worke workerr plays plays a varie variety ty of role roless in diffe differen rentt situations, he is basically concerned with enabling people’s expression and leadership to achieve community organisation goals, and not try to have control, domination, or manipulation. 9. Volu Volunta ntary ry coop cooper erat ation ion:: Comm Commun unity ity orga organis nisati ation on must must be base based d upon upon mutu mutual al understanding, voluntary acceptance, and mutual agreement. Community organisation, if it is to be in harmony with democratic principles, cannot be through regimentation. It should not be imposed from above or outside, but must be derived from the inner freedom and will to unite all those who practice it.

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10. The spirit of cooperation rather than competition, and the practice of coordination of effort: Community organisation practice should be based on the spirit of cooperation rather than competition. The community organisation practice has proved that the most effective advances are made through cooperative effort. It is by the coordinated and sustained programmes attacking major problems rather than through sporadic efforts by different groups. The emphasis on collaborative and cooperative attitudes and practices does not imply elimination of differences, of tension, or of conflict. In fact we have to recognize that these latter forces give life and vitality to a movement. It must be understood that such conflict can be disruptive and destructive, or it can be positive and creative creative.. What What is import important ant for the commun community ity organis organisatio ation n worker worker is that that he/she he/she identi identifie fiess such such force forcess and and appr approp opria riatel tely y modi modifie fiess them them to what what is bene benefic ficial ial to community as a whole. 11. Recognition and involvement of indigenous leadership: Community organisation as it has been described requires the participation of the people belonging to the community. However everyone in the community cannot be involved in face-to-face contact with all others in the community; therefore it is important to identify and recognize the leaders (bot (both h forma formall and and infor informa mal) l) accep accepte ted d by vario various us grou groups ps and and subg subgrou roups ps in the the community. Inclusion of the respected and accepted leaders with whom the major subgroups identify provides a major step in integrating the community. This further makes possible initiation of a process of communication which, if it becomes effective, will nourish and sustain the process of community organisation.

Limited d use of authori authority ty or compul compulsio sion: n: Invoki Invoking ng the applica applicatio tion n of authori authority ty or 12. Limite compulsion may sometimes be necessary in community organisation. But it should be used as little as possible, possible, for as short a time as possible possible and only as a last resort. When compulsion must be applied, it should be followed as soon as possible, by resumption of the cooperative process. 13. The dynamic and flexible nature of programmes and services: This principle is basic to sound sound commun community ity organis organisatio ation. n. Social Social welfare welfare agencie agenciess and progra programme mmess must must be resp respon onsi sive ve to the the chang changing ing cond conditi ition ons, s, prob proble lems ms,, and and needs needs of comm commun unity ity life. life. Community is a dynamic phenomenon, which constantly changes and thus the needs and problems also keep changing. Therefore it is necessary that the programmes and services are flexible enough. 14. Continuing participatory evaluation: As programmes are developed to meet community needs, some time must be set aside for evaluation of the process. Regular feedback from from the the comm commun unity ity is impo importa rtant nt.. Crite Criteria ria must must be set set up for for evalu evaluati ation on of the programmes, programmes, to see how how effective effective the action has has been been and what what has been accomplis accomplished. hed.

Phases in Community Organization

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Steps of Community Organization

Community organisation has a series of steps. By following these steps one would be able to apply the different principles, methods and models of community organisation. People/Community People/Community 1. Are Are they they in in a diffi difficu cult lt situ situati ation on?? 

If No - get out and go to other locality

2. Did Did the they y exp expre ress ss it? it? 

If Yes - make the people to realize it

3. Did they analyse the problem for its magnitude, symptoms and causes? 

If No - enable them to analyse it

4. What is their level of consciousness?

The above first four stages or steps are the basic steps to make the community to attain the requ require ired d capac capacity ity to identi identify, fy, analy analyse se and unde underst rstand and the the need needss and and prob proble lems ms of the the community. This could be otherwise called as Assessment Assessment of Needs and Problems Problems of the community. community. Community organiser has to know about the needs and problems. At the same time he has to enable the people to make an assessment of the needs and problems. In order to do this the community members have to come forward and express their views for further action individually individually or collectively. In this process process the people get empowered empowered by way of acquiring the skills of analysis and raising the levels of consciousness. 5. List the Problems Problems – All the identified needs and problems of the community are listed by the community community with the help of the community community organiser. This is a process process which makes makes the people people to unders understand tand their own situati situation. on. Realizatio Realization n of the needs needs and problems problems will bring awareness awareness about their own situation. situation. The involvement involvement of the community in identifying the various needs and problems will increase the participation of the the people people.. The The probl problem emss in diffe differe rent nt setti setting ngss are likel likely y to diffe differr and and hence hence accordingly the identified problems are listed.

Priorities – All the needs and problems cannot be considered together for further 6. Give Priorities action. Therefore all the needs and problems are analysed for its severity, magnitude, symptoms and causes based on which they are ordered and priority is given to the needs and problems. problems. The community after having identified the needs and problems, analyze them and give priority and the order in which they have to be taken up for further actions. urgent problem which needs to be taken 7. Select a Problem – From the priority list most urgent up immediately is selected. All the problems cannot be approached simultaneously

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therefore there is need for selecting any one problem to initiate further action. Based on the order of priority the first in the list is taken up for working out solutions. 8. Redefine the Problem – The selected problem is redefined for better understanding by the community. community. For better planning the problem has to be analysed and defined before taking any further step in addressing the problem. Many times one may look at a phenomeno phenomenon n as a problem by its appearance or at the peripheral level, instead it has to be further analysed analysed as to what what is the real problem. problem. Does Does it affect the normal normal functioning functioning of the community? How many people are being affected? How are they affected? If nothing is done towards this how it will disturb the community? These are some of the questions by which we can easily analyse and redefine the problem.

Formulate Achievable Objective – The redefined problem is converted into achievable achievable 9. Formulate objectives which will be considered for further action. At times the objectives have to be split into many parts so that they could be converted converted into programmes programmes and activities activities towards fulfilling the needs and solving problems. Let us assume that illiteracy is a problem problem in a communit community. y. It is further analyse analysed d that majority majority of of the people people of the locality locality have not gone to school in their childhood. One of the reasons for that was that there was no school in their locality. At present a school has been constructed and teachers are appointed. Now non availability of the school is not the reason for illiteracy. It is further analysed and found that the children are not sent to the school. Though there were many children in the school-going age, the parents do not send them to the school because because the teachers are not regular regular on the one hand, and on the other, when the teachers are present they do not teach the children. In this situation the general problem externally appears to be illiteracy but its root cause is the defective functioning of the school. 10. Work out the Alternatives – Based on the objectives objectives the different different ways and means means are to be found out by the community through brainstorming. One should not be content with a problem with one solution because it will limit the practice of community organisation. In order to solve the selected problem the community has to generate maximum number of alternatives to address the problem. There could be many such alternatives to pin-point attention on the problem and initiate direct action to solve the problems problems on a long-term long-term basis. basis. 11. Select an Appropriate Alternative – Among the proposed alternatives one of the best alternatives is selected for tackling the selected problem. To solve a problem there could be many ways but there may be one best and suitable way or method by which the problem could be easily solved. Such options should be selected. While selecting an alternative one has to start with softer approach and in a sequence. If the lower level approach fails apply the next one and even that one fails then select the next one and nothing works out finally we may resort to social action methods and may be at times we may have to resort to strong measures.

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12. Work out a Plan of Action – In order to realize the selected alternative an action plan is proposed proposed in which the responsibilitie responsibilitiess are assigned assigned and a tentative organisational organisational structure is prepared. The time frame, resources needed and personnel involved are decided at this stage.

Mobilization of Resources – To implement the plan of action the required resources are 13. Mobilization to be assessed, identified and mobilized. The resources may be in terms of time, money, manpo manpowe werr and and mate materia rial. l. An estim estimate ate is made made and and the the sour sources ces are ident identifi ified ed for for mobilization. Many times man power resources alone may help to arrive at a solution. Ther Therefo efore re the the comm commun unity ity has has to have have a thor thorou ough gh unde unders rstan tandin ding g of the the uses uses of manpower due to which people by themselves may come forward to offer themselves for further action. Apart from this any other resources have to be mobilized internally and if it is not possible, only then think about getting them from external sources. Implement the Plan of Action – After having made a plan of action along with the 14. Implement resources, the plan is implemented. The implementation takes care of the time and resources resources towards fulfilling the fixed goals. While implementing implementing the plan of action the involvement of the people and their active participation by accepting the responsibilities has to be ensured. The people have to be prepared and guided to become a partner in the problem solving process. Evaluate the Action – The implemented plan is evaluated to find out the success and 15. Evaluate deviation of the action against the objectives. Any shortfall or any undesired results are identified and the reasons for the deviancy are discussed. The positive and desirable results are to be appreciated. The evaluation can be made as an ongoing component of working with the community. It could be organised either at periodical level or at the end of the activity either within the organisation, organisation, by the organisational organisational personnel or by an outsider or an expert. The task is not complete unless the evaluation is completed. Modification – Based Based on the evaluat evaluation, ion, necess necessary ary modific modificatio ations ns are decide decided d and 16. Modification introduced. In order to bring about a permanent solution to the selected problem, it is to be tackled affectively affectively with the modifications modifications suggested. suggested. These modifications modifications are proposed proposed in order to find a permanen permanently tly solution solution to the given given problem. problem. 17. Continuation – The modified action plan is implemented and continued. 18. Select the Next Problem – Once the selected need is fulfilled the next problem is selected from the priority list.

Methods of Community Organization

Arthur Dunham’s Classification of CO Methods 1. Methods of Planning and Related Activities: 

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Fact Finding



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Analysis

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Evaluation

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Planning

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2. Methods Methods of Group Decision Decision Making Making and Co-operative Co-operative Action: Action: 

Meeting Practice

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Conference

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Committee Practice

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Negotiation Negotiation Organization including Mass Organization

3. Metho Methods ds of of Comm Commun unica icatio tion: n: 

Education

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Consultation

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Public Relations

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Formal Written Communication

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Formal Oral Communication

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The Interview

4. Method Methodss of Prom Promotio otion n and and Social Social Actio Action: n: 

Promotion

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Legislative Promotion

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Non Legislat Legislative ive Procedural Procedural Social Social Action Action

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Direct Action

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Exerting or Invoking Authoritative Action

5. Method Methodss of Fina Financin ncing g and and Fund Fund Raisi Raising: ng: 

Fund Procurement by Governmental Agencies

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Fund Raising by Voluntary Agencies

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Federated Financial Campaigning

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Joint Budgeting

6. Metho Methods ds of of Admi Admini nistr strati ation on:: 

Administrative Activities of Agencies concerned with Social Planning.

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Administration of Common Services or Community Organization

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Recording.

Fact Finding Finding Fact-fin Fact-findin ding g include includess activitie activitiess design designed ed to aid the discov discovery ery,, ascerta ascertainm inment, ent, assemb assembling ling,, compilation compilation and recording recording of facts. Most community problems problems are sustained sustained by a wide variety of factors, and some are more influential than others. The challenge is to locate the major facto factors rs that that have have an effec effectt on the probl problem em requ requiri iring ng corre correct ction ion.. To meet meet this this chall challen enge ge effectively, it is essential to gather relevant facts regarding the background of the problem. In gathering information on the problem, the Community Organizer may be faced with two difficulties: 

obtaining too much information that may prove to be irrelevant;

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identifying too little information from normal sources.

Good judgment must be used to distinguish noise (meaningless data) from information that helps in analyzing a problem. Similarly when information is not easily available, concerned individuals may be required to use ingenuity, functioning like good investigative reporter by checking out leads. With the advice of the knowledgeable researchers, special studies may need to be conducted as part of the fact-finding process. Following are the techniques normally adopted for fact finding: 1. Docum Documenta entation tion (Recor (Recording ding / Compila Compilation tion of informa information tion), ), 2. Formal Formal Hearing Hearing (to find out how represe representat ntative ive citizens citizens think on a particula particularr issue issue or proposal), proposal), 3. Action Research Research (Research (Research combined combined with some some other other type of of action programs), programs), 4. Demo Demons nstra tratio tion n proj project ectss (to find out wheth whether er a certa certain in prog program ram will will work work or how how effective a particular type of program) and 5. Keep Keeping ing abre abreast ast of new new deve develo lopme pments nts and and new new infor informa matio tion n in regard regard to certa certain in subjects.

The following facts can be collected in a community:

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Externall Condit Condition ionss and Factor Factorss (Level (Levelss of socio-e socio-econ conomi omicc develop developmen mentt and its 1. Externa relationship to the area, Location advantages, Govt policies & Programs) Charact cteri eristi stics cs of the the Area Area (Land (Land reso resourc urces es –Soi –Soill & Wa Wate terr Huma Human n Reso Resour urce ces, s, 2. Chara Quantitative---Age, Sex, Religion, Education, Literacy) Sociall & Inst Institu itutio tional nal Stru Structu cture re (Fam (Famili ilial al Corpo Corporat ratee Units Units (Famil (Familie ies-H s-Hou ouse se), ), 3. Socia Associational Corporate Units (Caste), Territorial Corporate Units (Panchayat Raj). Categoric Units (Religion)) 4. Delivery System For Social & Economic Services (Economic i.e. Extension, Credit, Marketing, Education, Health, Family Planning, Nutrition)

Infrastructure Facilities for Production Production and Marketing Marketing (Road, (Road, Electricity, Electricity, Irrigation, Irrigation, 5. Infrastructure Telecommunication) Analysis Analysis Analysis is the application of the six basic analytical questions i.e. what, whom, where, when, why and how? 

What is the problem?

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Where does it exist?

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Who is affected by it?

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When does it occur?

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What degree it is felt?

Analys Analysis is lies midway between between fact finding finding and planning planning.. It involve involvess collect collection ion of data, data, exploring the content of the data, breaking up the content or problem, examining the inter relation relationship shipss betwee between n the constit constituen uencies cies.. The purpose purpose of analysis analysis is to gain gain insight insight,, and understanding. Planning can scarcely exist without analysis. A sound plan normally implies that the planner has the facts and that the facts and the problem have been analyzed as a basis for the formulation of the plan. In a nutshell, analyzing community problems is a way of thinking carefully about a problem or issue issue before before acting acting on a solutio solution. n. It first first involv involves es lookin looking g for possible possible reasons reasons behind behind a problem, problem, and checking checking out out whether whether those reasons reasons are true. true. Then (and only only then) then) does it involve involve identifying possible solutions, and implementing the best ones. The techniques for analyzing community problems are easy to state. They require simple logic, and sometimes the collection of evidence. Steps to Analyze a Community Problem 1. State the problem, in general terms

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2. Give specific examples of the problem 3. Think of reasons for the problem 4. Find the most probable reason

5. Iden Identi tify fy solu soluti tion onss 6. Choo Choose se the the bes bestt one one 7. Imple Impleme ment nt the the sol soluti ution on 8. Eval Evalua uate te the the sol solut utio ion n Community Survey Community Survey is a method by which quantitative facts are collected about the social aspect of a community’s position and activities. By survey method the Community Organizer can assess existing services and resources in an area of need as well as gaps in service. Surveying both service agencies and community community residents, residents, asking them how they perceive their unmet needs can identify potential demand for service. Steps in Community Survey: 

Planning the survey

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Executing the survey

Community Empowerment Empowerment

“Community Empowerment is the process of increasing the capacity of individual or groups to make choices and to transform those choices into desired actions and outcomes”. 

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Empowerme Empowerment nt is the process focused on the capacity building of the people to initiate; sustain and own the development of the people. It makes awareness on the potentialities and channelizes to use it and creates overall development. Empowerment = Giving strength and confidence.

Definition “Community Empowerment is the giving of confidence, skills and power to communities to shape and influence what public bodies do for or with them” “Community Empowerment is the method of giving strength and confidence to the community regarding their potentialities and capabilities for working their own”. Features of of Community Community Empowerm Empowerment ent

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Decision making power

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Having access to information and resources for taking proper decisions

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Ability to exercise assertiveness in collective decision making

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Ability to learn skills

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Positive thinking on the ability to make change

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Ability to change others perceptions by democratic means

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Increasing ones positive self image and overcoming stigma

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Process of of Community Community Empowerm Empowerment ent 

Intervention Action – Intervention being made

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Planning – On community needs, problems, ideas and discussions.

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Consciousness Raising – conscientisation – self evaluation done

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Social / collective Action – Working out the plans.

Areas of Community Community Empowerm Empowerment ent 1. Empo Empowe werm rmen entt of wome women n a. Indiv Individu idual al deve develo lopme pment nt of wom women en b. Increasing Increasing collective collective capacity capacity / capability capability of of women women c. Crea Creates tes col colle lecti ctive ve self self help help grou groups ps 2. Empow Empowerm erment ent of self self help help groups groups 3. Rura Rurall deve develo lopm pmen entt a. New New job job opp oppo ortun rtunit itie iess b. Housing Housing c. Decen Decentra traliz lizati ation on of powe power r 4. Empow Empowerm erment ent of Triba Tribal’s l’s – awaren awareness ess gene generatio ration n 5. Pove Povert rty y alle allevi viat atio ion n 6. Child Child and and Yout Youth h Wel Welfar faree 7. We Welfa lfare re of of the the weak weaker er sec sectio tion n

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Barriers to Community Community Empowerm Empowerment ent 1. Lack Lack of informa information tion and unders understand tanding ing 2. Lang Langua uage ge barr barrie iers rs 3. Lack Lack of of confi confide dence nce or skil skills ls 4. Lack Lack of of form formal al quali qualific ficati ation onss 5. Incre Increase ased d level level of accoun accounta tabil bility ity 6. Difficul Difficulties ties in the the recruitm recruitment ent and and retention retention of of voluntee volunteers rs 7. Time ime co consu nsuming ing 8. Lack Lack of comm commun unity ity space space 9. Lack Lack of account accountabil ability ity and and tran transpa sparenc rency y 10. Political involvement involvement 11. Lack Lack of time Benefits of of Community Community Empowerm Empowerment ent 

Delivering better, more efficient services

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Better democracy and accountability

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Strong, resilient and cohesive communities

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Improved partnership working

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Motivated staff

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Involving communities can be help make partnerships more accountable

The Role of the Community Organizer

The Community Organizer is a facilitator, animator, enabler and catalyst. As a Facilitator Facilitator , the CO "provides" a process which will help the community discuss their situation, identify and prioritize issues and problems, identify solutions and formulate and implement plans to resolve the key issues and problems. The facilitator’s responsibility is to ensure that members of the community communicate and are satisfied with and committed to the decisions taken. As an Animator Animator , the CO helps the community discover and use all its self-help potentials for creative and constructive team work. The animator stimulates people to think critically when

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identifying problems and finding new solutions. He/she motivates the people to share their concerns, information and opinions, set goals, make decisions and plan action. As an Enabler , the CO helps initiate a process of "liberation of initiatives." The enabler helps release the creative initiatives of the people and ensures that the development agenda evolves as part of the process process of change and is not imposed. imposed. She/he also ensures ensures that dependency dependency is reduced through cooperative action and social education. Finally, the CO is a Catalyst , who hastens the process of change. The catalyst is successful when when the organiz organizing ing process process has been fully fully internal internalized ized by the people people.. The community community organizer also serves as a model, not only in words but also in deeds. Skills of an Effective Community Organiser 

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Problem Analysis – One of the major tasks of the community organiser is to assist the people in arriving at a solution solution to the problem. The organiser is capable of identifying the problem and making the people also to identify, analyse, give priorities, select an appropriate priority, mobilize resources, make a plan of action, implement, monitor, evaluate, modify and continue. Resource Mobilization Mobilization – Any problem of the community while working out the solution requires resources. The resources may be in terms of manpower, money material and time. On the one hand the organiser is aware of the availability of the resources within the community or outside the community and on the other makes the people to identify the sources of resources and the way to tap such resources. Conflict Resolution Resolution – Problems of the community involves the people affected by the problem problem and the others who are the causes for the problem. problem. Therefore there could be a conflict between these two groups or between the people and the system. The organiser is equipped with the skill for identifying the conflicting situation and making the people to understand the conflict and then work out the ways and means to find solutions to the conflict. Organis Organising ing Meeting Meeting – Comm Commun unica icatio tion n with within in the comm commun unity ity and and betwe between en the the community and the organiser is most important. There needs to be transparency in the dealings for which formal and informal meetings have to be organised and information shared shared.. The sharing sharing of informat information ion enables enables sharing sharing of respon responsib sibility ility and decisio decision n making. Writing Reports – Documentation of the events for future reference and follow up is absolutely essential. Any communication or any written representation and the report of the dealings have to be recorded. This task is either done by the community organiser or delegated the task to someone else. Networking Networking – – In a community while working with the people the participation of the people strengthens strengthens or increases increases the power power of the people. people. At times support support from like

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minded people or organisation has to elicit so that a pressure is built against the oppressive force. This helps to create pressure and increase the bargaining power for which which networ networking king with other other people people and organis organisatio ations ns is done done by the commun community ity organiser. 

Training – Capacity building of the people and the personnel of an organisation is important while working with the community. In the process of capacity building the community community organiser organiser has to be a good trainer. The community organiser organiser has to use his training ability and skills in this regard.

Community Development

Accord According ing to United United Nation Nations, s, commun community ity develo developme pment nt deals deals with with total total develop developmen mentt of a developing country that is their economic, physical, and social aspects. For achieving total development community organisation is used. Some Important Aspects: Democratic Procedures - Democratic Democratic procedures deal with allowing all the community 1. Democratic members to participate in decision-making. It is possible to achieve this by community organisation. The selected or elected members or representatives are helped to take decisions. Democratic procedures help people to take part in achieving community development goals. Community organisation method permits democratic procedures for people’s people’s participation. participation. 2. Voluntary Cooperation – Voluntary cooperation means that the people volunteer for their participation. For this they are convinced. They should feel that they should involve themselves in the process of development without hesitation. This attitude is suppor supported ted by commun community ity organis organisatio ation n method method.. People’ People’ss emotio emotional nal involve involvemen mentt is necessary to make success of the community organisation method. If discontentment abou aboutt their their cond conditi ition onss is create created, d, then then peop people le will will volu volunt ntee eerr for for parti particip cipati ation on.. Community organisation emphasizes the discontentment aspect only to make them initiate people’s participation.

Self-Help - Self-help is the basis for community development development.. Self-help deals with the 3. Self-Help capacity of mobilizing internal resources. resources. Self-help is the basis for self-sufficiency self-sufficiency and susta sustaina inabl blee deve develo lopm pmen ent. t. In comm commun unity ity orga organis nisati ation on selfself-he help lp is empha emphasiz sized ed.. Comm Commun unity ity orga organis nisati ation on is relev relevant ant to comm commun unity ity deve develo lopm pmen entt beca because use both both emphasizes the self-help concepts. 4. Development of Leadership - Development of leadership is an important aspect in community development. Leadership deals with influencing and enabling people to achieve the goals. Community organisation also emphasizes leadership. With the help of leaders the people are motivated to participate in action. Community Community organisation organisation is a relevant method to develop and use leadership. This is applicable for community development also.

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5. Educational Aspects - Educational aspects in community development means helping people to know, know, learn, and accept concepts concepts of democracy, democracy, cooperation, cooperation, unity, unity, skill develo developme pment, nt, effectiv effectivee functio functioning ning etc. In commun community ity organis organisatio ation n also the above above menti mention oned ed aspec aspects ts are cons consid idere ered d very very impo importa rtant nt.. The The proce process ss of commu communit nity y organisation emphasizes education of the community. Thus both are emphasizing the educational aspects for the progress of the community.

Thus Thus commu community nity organis organisatio ation n and commun community ity develop developmen mentt are interrel interrelated ated and mutual mutually ly supportive. Community organisation and community development both emphasize democratic method and self-help principles. Thus they are relevant. So in all community development programmes programmes commu community nity organisatio organisation n method method is used used as implementing implementing method. method. Difference between Community Organisation and Community Development

There are many similarities between community organisation and community development. But But for for theor theoreti etical cal purp purpos osee it is poss possibl iblee to diffe differen rentia tiate te comm commun unity ity orga organis nisat atio ion n and and community development. 1. Commun Community ity organis organisatio ation n is a method method of social work but but communit community y developm development ent is a programme programme for a planned planned change. change. 2. Comm Commun unity ity orga organis nisati ation on emph emphas asize izess the the proce process sses es,, but but comm commun unity ity deve develo lopm pmen entt emphasizes the end or goals. 3. Comm Commun unity ity organis organiser erss are are most mostly ly socia sociall worke workers rs and and socia sociall chang changee agent agents, s, But But community development personnel can be from other professions including agricultural experts, veterinary experts, and other technical experts. 4. Community Community organisat organisation ion is not time bound. bound. It is achieved step by step according according to the pace of the people. people. But But community community developm development ent is time bound bound and time time is specified specified for achieving the development objectives. 5. In comm commun unity ity organ organisa isatio tion n peopl people’s e’s parti particip cipati ation on is impo import rtant ant.. But But in comm commun unity ity development people’s development is important. 6. In comm commun unity ity orga organis nisati ation on gove governm rnmen ents ts and and exter external nal agen agencie ciess assist assistan ance cess are not not import important ant or needed needed.. But in commu community nity develo developme pment nt externa externall assista assistance nce from the government or other agencies is considered important. 7. Commun Community ity organis organisatio ation n is a method method of social social work and and this method method is used in many many fields. But unlike community organisation community development is considered as process, process, method, method, program programme, me, and movement movement for planned planned change. change. 8. Commun Community ity organisa organisation tion is used in all the fields fields but community community develo developme pment nt is used used mostly in economic development and for the development of living standards of the people. people.

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9. In comm commun unit ity y organ rganis isat atio ion n plan planni ning ng is init initia iate ted d by the the peo people ple throu hroug gh their heir participation. participation. But in community community development development planning planning is carried out by an external external agency mostly by the government. 10. In comm commun unity ity orga organis nisati ation on peop people le are orga organi nise sed d to solv solvee their their prob proble lem. m. But But in community development goals have to be achieved and for that people are organised. 11. Community organisation is universal to all communities. But community development programmes programmes differ from people to people depending depending upon whether whether the area is rural, urban or tribal, and other characteristics of the area.

Even though there are differences, both are interrelated. The relationship is so close, so that community organisation process and principles are accepted fully. Both are like two sides of the same coin. The ideal community development takes places where community organisation method and its various steps and principles are effectively put into practice.

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Social Groupwork, Community Organization & Social Action - Notes

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